Circumstantial Evidence and the Burdon of Proof.docx

Circumstantial Evidence and the Burdon of Proof The Case Connecting Native Americans to Human Origins by Alvah M. Hicks fyi Please double-click on any link and wait for the ‘comments box to appear’, THEN click on the link again to get it to open. ABSTRACT Will Humanity be traced to those Native to the Americas? The Western Hemisphere offers a point of departure in rediscovering human origins that has yet to receive adequate academic consideration. whether pursued or dismissed. An American Wellspring will explore today’s relevance, and the scientific significance of prematurely removing an autochthonous origin heralded 110 years ago (see Alfred R. Wallace 1887, and Florentino Ameghino 1911, 1915). The renewal of one very significant Native American idea, “that they have inhabited the Americas from time immemorial,” is scientifically tested in the following pages. This hypothesis is currently outlined through my numerous insightful Discussions linked through https://alvahhicks.academia.edu/ . Prominent scholars now advocate an “open-minded” examination and have indicated a willingness to contribute to its evaluation. Written with a general audience in mind, this historical chronicle encompasses the growth of scientific knowledge and the development of perspectives leading to evolutionary theory. I am proud of the tone of discourse as it leads through time as a survey of significant elements essential to understanding our place in the dawning interpretation of an “Anthropocene.” The thesis encompassing An American Wellspring Volume I is 110,000-135,000 words, including an Introduction, Chapter Outline, Glossary, Text, Footnotes (or) Endnotes, Epilog, Index, resourceful References, and Bibliography. Issues of Indigenous Repatriation dovetail with an appreciation of the scholarly application of Native American worldviews, evolution, and cultural fundamentals, being scientific and mythological. Scholars of Anthropology have seldom pursued whether Native Americans are equally qualified to be ancestral to First Peoples; everywhere. History reveals where truly principled scientists formerly recognized that “there are those who advance reasons which in their judgment are equally adequate to prove that he was autochthonous in America, whence he spread to the Old World (W. H. Holmes, 1912).” However, Holmes dismissed further evaluation citing “that the testimony, if it is to stand, must have much additional support.” That an autochthonous Origin “must have much additional support’” embodies the relevant ideas directing this renewed effort 110 years later as the American Wellspring hypothesis. An American Wellspring is a historical narrative designed for a universal audience, the full scope pointing towards open-minded readers in a civilian petition to propel scientific scholars to evaluate this essential Native American wisdom objectively. As a reference to my work, archaeologist James Adovasio (Meadowcroft Rockshelter) found, “I carefully read your link and like Dr. Templeton, I am impressed by both your writing style and the manner in which you develop your argument!” The broader appeal is advocates of conservation supporting Anthropocene First Nations perspectives. Diana Wilson is a cultural anthropologist who visited the Chumash Tribe during the 1990s. She exhorts that my work does not belong to me but must be shared with Native Peoples and their advocates as an essential tool for scholars seeking a full appreciation of the scientific process. Repatriation drives beyond this shore into a discussion of native heritage for those of us that left our original homeland, Terra Patria, of the Americas to “people” the entire Eastern Hemisphere ~45,000 years past. Readers will become aware of why there is a Paper Titled; “Paradigm Crisis in Human Origins Research,” suggesting “that we are no closer to solving the question of human origins than we were a century ago (G. Clark 1995).” A resolve that accepts why we have a Human Origins debate in the first place, is manifest. Readers will retrace the parameters that both predict and absolve “gray areas” and reveal in Black and White a prismatic historical rendering that illuminates visibility. An American Wellspring brings what we don’t know to the front page and predicts directives that overcome many anthropological shortcomings in a clear and orderly fashion. For example, as for the genetic data emanate, geneticist Alan Templeton found; “Thank you for sending me your interesting work.  Even though I don’t agree with it all, it is very stimulating and thought-provoking, and indeed well argued.  Since I ascribe to a hypothesis-testing framework for science, I strongly believe that science does not prove hypotheses to be true, so even when I disagree over “truth” (not “Truth”), I recognize that it is important always to keep an open mind. With best regards, Alan” Professor Emeritus; Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri. (Personal email, 2022) The journals Human Biology and Mother Tongue (I was assistant editor for ASLIP, Association for the Study of Language in Pre-History 1999-2002), among others, have published my work, while details from my most recent compilation, an academia.edu “Discussion,” are offered. More importantly, for this Discussion, the LINK BELOW is the Main Body and should be opened in concert with this general overview. Readers wil also find 40+ years of Articles central to this long-misunderstood course. https://www.academia.edu/94664759/The_Irony_of_the_Emperor_III . An American Wellspring promises to bring a plausible resolve to interpreting humanity’s common past and a new perspective as we approach the growing demands we join in our immediate future. With a full appreciation of our journey and a positive grip on our common past, the need to place what we can and must do today can be projected as we move forward into a new awakening with the dawning Anthropocene Era of Planet Earth.  Alvah M. Hicks Website at academia.edu. https://islandnites.academia.edu/AlvahHicks alvahhicks@gmail.com (805) 930-5489 304 Brentwood Circle New Tazewell, TN 38725 Shifting the Burdon of Truth All Things Being Equal Alvah M. Hicks Points of Order: An American Wellspring and the question of Human Origins: Will Humanity be traced to those Native to the Americas Abstract: The Discussion continues with the Preamble conceptualized in a Third Theory of Human evolution, as seen from looking back into the Americas. A full appreciation of the concept can be found at https://www.academia.edu/94664759/The_Irony_of_the_Emperor_III (The Irony Emperor, TIE). References to this source are highlighted herein with Title Abbreviation & page numbers (example TIE pg. 3-4), directing readers/researchers to an elevated articulation of the issue at hand. Together this effort attempts to identify Gray Areas in a prediction as to why they exist and how to resolve many/most of the primary issues. A few prominent advocates of existing theories have read and personally responded to this work-in-progress, having contributed support through the primary fundamental scientific tenant and a willingness, as stated, “to keep an open mind.” I have chosen to keep some anonymous at my own discretion. 1. “Human Origins, we have a problem” an ironic understatement to resolve “Gray Areas” A. “Paradigm crisis in modern human origins research.” Journal of Human Evolution (1995 pg.489) Willamet, C. M., and G. A. Clark. B. “an interminable debate, now well into its second century, with no resolution in sight (ibid pg. 489).” C. and why “it is worth asking ourselves whether we are any closer to solving the question of our origins than we were a century ago. (ibid pg. 489)” 2. An American Wellspring, academic consideration whether pursued or dismissed. A. Original Scientific Prognosis; Holmes 1912 (see TIE pg. 14) “In view of these conditions, the theory of AN AUTOCHTHONOUS ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN RACE MAY BE SET ASIDE, and the problem of the arrival in the New World of racial elements originating in the Old World need ALONE receive consideration.” (1912) pp. 30-31 all EMPHASIS added AMH B. An Autochthonous American Origin; Wallace 1887, 1910; Ameghino 1915 and the “Peopling of the Eastern Hemisphere” Out of the Americas and Into the Eastern Hemisphere (TIE pg. 14). The Genetic data used to support this hypothesis has met an “open-minded” evaluation by some very prominent researchers. https://www.academia.edu/50683646/An_American_Wellspring_Chapter_18_Genetic_w_abstract_docx , It too is linked to my https://alvahhicks.academia.edu/ website where you will find “Articles” in four sets with quotes 1995-1999. Another link takes you to a presentation given in 1999 at the Conference sponsored by The Center for the Study of the First Americans at my website here… (https://www.academia.edu/10148438/AN_AMERICAN_WELLSPRING_AND_THE_PEOPLING_OF_THE_EASTERN_HEMISPHERE (also see TIE pg. 3). C. German Dziebel, a contemporary colleague with two doctoral degrees, Saint Petersburg and Stanford, is a specialist in a league of his own when it comes to Kinship Studies in his appeal for common sense. 3. The Main Models A. Multiregional Evolution, Perhaps the initial hypothesis to group our origins to preexisting fossil finds predating anatomically modern humans. Suggesting relative stability for Homo sapiens sapiens as a species can neutralize the elucidation of a procrustean change or punctuated equilibrium as the only model able to account for the replacement of Neandertals by Cro-Magnons. “In contrast, multiregional evolution can easily be disproved if it can be shown that all of the ancestors of living humans at some discrete-time in the Middle or Late Pleistocene lived in only one area of the world. If this were the case, then we should be able to trace the ancestry of every human genetic locus to a single population existing at some time in the past million years.” (Milford Wolpoff et al. pg.131 Multiregional, Not Multiple Origins, in AJPA 112:129-136 (2000) (emphasis added) Perhaps we have not anticipated the Americas as the “area” of our origin, isolated from archaic forms verified by paleontological discoveries of the first widespread hominids of the Old World. Evidence of Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH) should not require archaic hominid Old World forbearers. B. African Replacement Model, shifting the Burdon of Truth (TIE pgs. 18-28) In this discussion, I/we would like to scrutinize discrepancies accompanying the “African Replacement Model (ARM)” as the One-and-Only alternative to “Multiregional Human Evolution (MRE)”. Reservations and there are several outlined below, should be measured against the alternative being a “Peopling of the African” continent. The assessment by Mark Stoneking (see Stoneking M. in Crawford M. Editor 2021). that multiple migrations can/should/have been ruled out as several independent migrations Out of Africa would require several ‘dramatic founding effects’ as every subsequent migration would very unlikely leave behind all the earlier ancestral L lineages. Why can I suggest this alternative placement of African L lineages as recently derived? Because few, if any, of these proposed older(est) ancestral lineages did not accompany said African exodus, even once? Moreover, as suggested recently by the principal author(s), these lineages are virtually confined to Africa. This conundrum brings into question the proposed bottleneck required in the “Out of Africa Hypothesis” in the first place. Mark Stonking a principal author, has acknowledged that their data does not support multiple migrations out of Africa. C. Out of Americas with First Stop Asia (see TIE Dziebel Pg. 5) From his groundbreaking website http://anthropogenesis.kinshipstudies.org/ ; “HUMAN ORIGINS AS SEEN FROM THE AMERICAS At the time when both the old Out-of-Africa paradigm in human origins research and the Clovis-I paradigm in the study of the origin of American Indians (Native Americans, Amerindians) have failed to account for the rapidly growing body of data, this blog provides a unique and previously unrecognized solution to the puzzle of human origins and dispersals. Drawing on linguistics, kinship studies, ethnology, genetics, paleobiology and archaeology, it brings American Indian populations into the focus on modern human origins research, documents back-migrations of American Indians to the Old World and explores the possibility of modern human origins not in Africa but in America. Only scientific facts are used and only scientific method is employed to derive a theory radically different from mainstream academic and popular science.” My own foray was born long before Dr. Dziebel and I were introduced to each other through a mutual colleague, Tom Dillehay. This collective effort represents multiple excursions forwarding a common appeal born not only from a common theme but an ongoing plea for scientific objectivity that rests at the very heart of the matter. D. Out of Asia, see Shi Huang, (TIE pgs. 19, 20, 22) The theoretical “road not taken,” the “Out of Asia” hypothesis (see Johnson et al. 1983, Huang et al. 2017, Zhang and Huang 2019, Cabrera et al. 2018), where Out of the Americas holds Asia as the underlying eastern hemispherical ‘starting-point.’ “The first mtDNA phylogenetic tree was published in 1983 by Johnson et al including Wallace as coauthor (3). Figure 7 in that paper shows two possible roots of a mtDNA tree, one in Asia and one in Africa. The legend says that one has to assume the molecular clock in order to root the tree in Africa, and that if there is no molecular clock and if Africans have higher mutation rate, then the root would be placed in Asia. The paper in fact concluded that the root is in Asia.” Shi Huang 2017. What remains of the neutral mtDNA molecular clock if mtDNA haplotypes are functionally different? Letter to Editor (submitted preprint) JAMA Psychiatry and a response from Douglas Wallace 4. “A major problem confronting late 19th century human evolutionists was the incipient argument for the relative stability of the human form.” Frank Spencer 1984 pg. 7 (see TIE pg.7) A. On the paleontological place of our zoological seat of origins; “For a variety of historical reasons explored above, our species has contrived to elude satisfactory morphological definition. Tattersal and Schwartz 2008 “To systematists studying other groups of mammals, this situation would be untenable; it would indeed, effectively prevent them from plying their trade using currently fashionable approaches, but paleoanthropologists have remained fairly unperturbed because, after all, as human beings we “know who we are,” and do not really need to be told, which absolves us, of course, from having to find out.” (Ibid see TIE pg. 6) B. Stasis is the natural order of any species over time, while some unexplainable transformation akin to “procrustean evolution” is all the Old World evidence has to work with. “The Recent out of Africa OOAfrica II Model” requires a recent sudden evolutionary event in one geographic area alone, the less complicated version with proposed timeframes of 200,000 years accompanying so-called pre-sapient, early modern human, archaic Homo sapiens, or as Corruccini 1992 posits “whatever.” C. Anatomically Sapient Humans (ASH) have distinct morphological similarities with New World Primates, while Homo erectus has distinct morphological similarities with Old World Primates. https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=118955498176434&set=pob.100001859548254 D. Living Fossils vs. putting Humpy Dumpty back together again. The Fossil record of the Old World holds the broken splinters of framing Human Origins to these discoveries. Findings from the Western Hemisphere, and there are many, remain unresolved. But all are Anatomically Sapient Humans ASH complementing the prediction of “stasis” with greater antiquity inferred (see Wallace 1887). Thus, a global picture that they should look “archaic” is an unjustified preamble. Wallace warned us back in 1887 and 1911. http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S406.htm 5. Liberal or Conservative Systems: “punctuated evolution” or “stasis” A. I have given consideration that this may not be the most liberal evolutionary Theory in that it defies ‘punctuated evolution,” challenging the status quo hidden behind the curtain of the two prevailing Old World human evolutionary theories. B. Paradoxically, an American Wellspring may be a conservative offering as “stasis” is compatible with “deterministic gradualism” in compliance with an ancient autochthonous Native American origin (see Spencer 1984, reference to Wallace, Keith, and Kollman). A corresponding “recent arrival” into the Eastern Hemisphere follows with stasis in the human form isolated within the Western Hemisphere. Essentially, using modern in the nomenclature of Anatomically Modern Humans is a contradiction if stasis has its way. Researchers might choose instead, Anatomically sapient Humans. Why? Preceding the “sudden replacement” of Old World Hominids, our prevailing pre-existing “stasis morphology” may well have been sustained in isolation within the Americas. Homo erectus populations prove the common patois of “stasis” with their several million-year evolution in and beyond the African Continent. The “Mousterian Problem” and the archaeological stasis of erectus behaviors sustain this position. Steven Gould defines the issue as central to “deterministic gradualism” and the limited fossil record that currently sets our species apart (from one set of numerous quotes found in my collections (Articles 1997-1998). The relevance conforms with the queries posed. Stephen Jay Gould, In the Mind of the Beholder, Natural History, February/1994, pgs. 14-23 “But scientists who make the discovery rarely follow the optimal pathway of subsequent logical reconstruction. Scientists reach conclusions for the damnedest of reasons: intuitions, guesses, redirections after wild goose chases, all combined with a dollop of rigorous observation and logical reasoning to be sure–context of discovery (p. 14). (emphasis added AMH) In the most celebrated use in a social sense, T.S. Kuhn referred to the shared worldview of scientists as a paradigm (see his classic 1962 book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions). Such paradigms, in Kuhn's view, are so constraining, and so unbreakable in their own terms, that fundamentally new theories must be imported from elsewhere (insights of other disciplines, conscious radicalism of young rebels within a field) and must then triumph by rapid replacement (scientific revolution), rather than by incremental advance (p. 16). But in so disproving the original claim, correction only dictated agnosticism, not a contrary conclusion–that is, the new trees are consistent with origin in a single place, but Africa cannot be affirmed as the clearly preferred spot, although Africa remains as plausible as any other place by this criterion (p. 21). I can only suppose that we want to segregate humans off as something special. We wish to see our evolution, particularly the late expansion of our brain to current size, as an event of more than merely local significance. We do not wish to view our global triumph as so fortuitously dependent upon the contingent history of a small African population; we would rather conceive our exalted intellect as so generally advantageous that all populations, in all places, must move in adaptive unison toward the same desired state (p. 22). For truth is the daughter of time (p. 23). Maybe my horse is coming in. But maybe I am only riding a gelding named "fashion," a nag destined to stumble at the gate next season at Hialeah as the Seabiscuit or Secretariat of deterministic gradualism comes thundering down the homestretch” (p. 23) (emphasis added AMH). 6. New World Basal Signature and “Deterministic Gradualism” Old World Regional Expansions and Adaptive Evolution A. In group selection in Zebras, stripes alone do not make one invisible, but as a group very difficult for pray to track their movements. For example, group adaptation to protect a species “fit” within the niche is “natural selection” at its root. Not only does this protect the healthiest members of the tribe, but also acts as a culling tool as those that tail behind, the injured and the aged, present pray an easier choice. Group selection for Equidae classes in Africa complements evidence of an arriving species that emanates from the Americas dating to the onset of the Glacial Period 2.6M years ago. B. Beringian crossing (mammoths into and horses out of the Americas) coincides with the expansion of the Isthmus of Panama and the closing of the Pacific and Atlantic interface marking the onset of the Pleistocene Era. Consequently, the onset of glaciation closed the seaway of the Pacific into the Arctic Ocean, exasperating climate change when ocean currents are episodically blocked by the Bering Land Bridge. Thus, one geological event has a ripple effect. C. Geographic Isolation vs. Open Door. How does selection play out in the theoretical realm of foreign species entering new confines? Has the horse led the way in deciphering the crossing of hemispheres? Could an American Wellspring outduel the two competing theories by directing a hereto unknown source for selecting valid pathways to distinguish human gaps in rational thought? Time will tell, as Gould has warned us, for certain groups clasp the reins holding back a new-old course out of our evolutionary quandary. It is time to buck the system and ride off in search of “lost horizons” untethered uncorralled and no longer hobbled by misplaced signposts and ‘selections’ we ignored along the way! "It's very abstract and confused right now because there are a lot of different definitions about what group selection is," says Harvard University's Stephen Jay Gould. "But it is also vitally important to evolutionary theory; it will sort itself out." Perhaps a few rounds of selection among competing bands of evolutionary biologists will do the trick. May the best group win.” Virginia Morell Genes vs. Teams: Weighing Group Tactics in Evolution (Pg.740) What may have been in another parallel Earthly Universe is the dawning of the eventual winner of numerous equine species present in the northern hemisphere. The horse has had its contribution to conquests, over and over again, recognized by the sudden appearance of the species and later the Thundering Hoards emanating from the Eurasian Plains. That they made their way through Eurasia on their way to Africa could mirror that of later-day human dispersals. 7. Why do misanthropists pry a trade of invalidation to the existence of the Pleistocene occupation of the Americas? They see only one world and not the effects of one upon the other. A. Setting parameters of unreasonable expectations besets any attempts to verify the Human Pleistocene occupation of the Americas. Footprints, hearths, a Reduced Paleolithic, simple biface, manuports including bolo-stones, core tools, and reliance on bone tools represent a rudimentary basal simplicity that should herald the pre-Clovis Native American experience. “Straitjackets” placed on the shoulders of these unique discoveries have bound them to requirements subjugated by “Peopling Events” emanating from the so-called Old World. B. Mousterian and a Reduced Paleolithic. This coexisting but isolated archaeological definitions are contrasted against what should result from predetermined Homo erectus hominid stone industries that remained unchanged over time, the “Mousterian Problem.” The Arrival and encounters with Middle Paleolithic cultures coincide with the dawning of the Upper Paleolithic revolution of stone, bone, and ivory tools, innovations directing a recent Eastern Hemispherical phenomenon. It, too, would no longer be a “Problem” (as conservative archaeologist Lew Binford had personally conferred to me in numerous discussions). Reduced Paleolithic and basal behaviors are not equivalent (nor should they be) as a separate Wellspring of the Americas confers that they need-not-be derived from Middle Paleolithic species or their systems. This lack of relationship has long been cast to dismiss the more tremendous implications that should hold archaeological behaviors in a separate hemispheric light. Ongoing unchanging rudimentarily basal-like yet separated in space and time. C. Many researchers have adequately articulated Amerindian Holocene migration into Asia (TIE pg. 23). Boas 1905 1910; Ousley 1995; Hicks 1998; Dziebel 2007, Gomez 2023). The Holocene migration from the Americas into northern Eurasia, you have distinguished, demonstrates the power of mtDNA to differentiate subsequent arrival(s) from the initial and the admixture that followed 35,000 years of isolation. The original Peopling of the Eastern Hemisphere by ancestral Amerindians and the more recent mixing of Paleoamericans and Siberians, including northern Eurasians, can be distinguished by mtDNAs derived in isolation during the 35,000 years of separation. Amerindians independently derived later genetic markers mtDNA A, C, and D found in subsequent mtDNA mutations. The genetic diversity was carried TWICE into Siberia and northern Eurasia, creating one of the largest genetic fingerprints of human diversity as we all (including German Dziebel) perceive it independently. Boas could also be included as perceiving this Holocene admixture event “independently,” as did members of the Jesup Expedition, independently. The point is that the Beringian Standstill hypothetical has to dismiss earlier LGM occupations of the Americas 40,000 ybp mirroring limitations courting those of the Clovis First, (two dogmas crossing in the night” and “missing the light of Day” of an earlier Amerindian presence south of the northern North American Ice Sheets. D. The “baby has been thrown out with the bathwater” when interpreting the anatomical and behavioral forebears of Native Americas pre-Paleolithic Peoples who had yet to discover a new Old World, as proposed herein. Stasis of the sapient form and archaeological continuity of what came before later Paleolithic advancements had yet to be afflicted upon them. A theory has yet to emerge to decipher the embodiment of our once-shared hidden past and how very long we lived the simple life. The intransigence to return to the “drawing board” by the so-called “gatekeepers” of a “recent” Native American timeframe is an expose of pseudoscience. Historical dismissal of the underpinnings of an earlier pre-Clovis mid-Pleistocene stage continues unabated underscoring the momentous worldwide implications (Fagan 1990). “Smoke and mirrors” are used as a deceptive preamble that casts doubt on all finds that push back dates of human habitation of the Western Hemisphere. These unchallenged limitations ruined the careers of open-minded researchers who came across early “early Man” finds. The reflection should be turned towards these entrenched naysayers as they continue to grasp, as a last resort, irrefutable shreds of evidence as episodic cases of ‘colonists that went extinct.’ This is beyond comprehension and evidence of academic apartheid that continues unabated despite numerous appeals to cease and desist (Deloria 1995, Steeves 2021, Hicks herein, and numerous others). IN CONCLUSION: The Paper, the Main Body, and the following list identifies additional “evidence” that is more than just “circumstantial.” A generation of additional perspectives is being produced. The preamble should leave researchers with a greater appreciation of the need to rebuild upon the foundation left asunder by early anthropologists. A predetermination to dismiss those Native to the Americas from accumulating evidence was unconforming with the “sudden arrival” of a novel species into the Eastern Hemisphere. Correctly interpreting “fossil” substantiation awaits the adoption of cause and effect and the desire to “look-outside-the-box.” This search lies at the heart of the matter to seek a better answer to our collective origins that naturally removes many of the obstacles we genuinely have in front of us detailed in the ‘first pages’ of this presentation. Topics and Locations available in the Main Body (TIE) https://www.academia.edu/94664759/The_Irony_of_the_Emperor_III Geographic Isolation and the Pleistocene Ice age berries in the Yukon (TIE pg. 8 & 14) vs an Open Door pathway through the Levant (TIE pg. 21 & 23-25 & 35) Evolution of Upper Paleolithic (TIE pg. 7-8, 15, 23-25, 27, 35) & Clovis as Final Upper Paleolithic (Defused European Based Solutrean-Magdalenian progenitors) (TIE pg. 7, 8, 25, 33, 36) Founding Effect vs. Bottlenecks into Africa (TIE pg. 18-19, 27) Genetic Stasis in Native Paleoamerican ancestors (TIE pg. 9-10) Boas 1905 1910; Ousley 1995; Hicks 1998; Dziebel 2007, Gomez 2023) Have all adequately articulated Amerindian Holocene migration into Asia (TIE pg. 23). Paleoamerican Hearths vs. Few if any, Neandertal Hearths (TIE pg. 23) Sources Ameghino, Florentino 1893. New Discoveries of Fossil Mammalia of southern Patagonia. American Naturalist --------. 1911. "Une Noubelle Industrie Lithique." Anales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires, vol. 13, ser. 3, 189- 204. Buenos Aires.; --------. 1915. La Antiguedad de los Hombres en El Plata, Obras Completas Correspondencia de Florentino Amighino, vol. 3. La Plata. Binford, Lewis R. 1962. Archaeology as Anthropology. American Antiquity 28:217-225.; --------. 1972. "Contemporary model building: Paradigms and the current state of Paleolithic research," in Models in archaeology. Edited by David L. Clark, pp. 227-54. London: England; --------.1981."Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths." New York: Academic Press. 28:2:137-153.; --------.1983a. In Pursuit of the Past. Thames and Hudson, London and New York.; --------.1983b.Working at Archeology. Academic Press, Inc. --------.1984 Faunal Remains at Klasies River Mouth. New Tork: Academic Press Boas, F. 1905. The Jesup North Pacific Expedition. In Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Congress of Americanists. Easton, PA: Eschenback Printing, 91-100 Boas, F. 1910. Ethnological problems in Canada. J. R. Anthropol. Inst. Gr. Br. Ireland 40:529-539. Deloria 1995, Steeves 2021, Hicks Cann, R. L., Stoneking M., and Wilson, A. C. 1987. Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution. Nature 325:3136. Cann, Rebecca L. 1994. INVITED EDITORIAL mtDNA and Native Americans: a Southern Perspective. in Am. J. Hum. Genet. 55:7-11 Carter, George F. 1980. Earlier Than You Think: A Personal View of Man in America. Texas A and M Univ Press. Casas, Bartolomé De Las 1909. Apologética Historia de las Indias, in M. Serrano y Sanz, ed. Madrid: Bailliere. Chakrabority, Ranjit and Kenneyh M. Weiss 1991. Genetic Variation of the Mitochondrial DNA Genome in American Indians is at Mutation-Drift Equilibrium. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 86:497-506 Cinq-Mars, Jacques 1979. "Bluefish Cave 1: a Late Pleistocene Eastern Beringian Cave Deposit in the Northern Yukon," Canadian Journal of Archaeology, vol. 3, 1-32. Dincauze, Dena F. 1984. An Archaeo-Logical Evaluation of the Case for Pre-Clovis Occupations. in Advances in World Archaeology. edited by Fred Wendorf and Angela E. Close, Academic Press Dixon E. James, 1993. Quest for the Origins of the First Americans. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Dragoo, D.W. 1980. The Trimmed-Core Tradition in Asiatic-American Contacts in Early Native Americans, editor D. Browman, The Hague New York Mouton. Fagan, Brian M. 1987. The Great Journey: The Peopling of Ancient America. Thames and Hudson Ltd., London. --------. 1990. Tracking the First Americans. in Archaeology magazine (November/December) Goodyear, III, Albert C. (2016). "The Search for the Earliest Humans in the Land Recently Called South Carolina". Archaeology in South Carolina: Exploring the Hidden Heritage of the Palmetto State: 1– 13. doi:10.2307/j.ctv6sj9fz. ISBN 9781611176094. JSTOR j.ctv6sj9fz. Gould, Stephen Jay, 1994. In the Mind of the Beholder, Natural History, February/1994, pgs. 14-23 Gould, S.J., N. Eldredge 1977. Punctuated Equilibria: The Tempo and Mode of Evolution Reconsidered. Paleobiology 3:115-151. Harington, C.R., R. Bonnichsen, R.E. Morlan 1975. Bones Say Man Lived in Yukon 27,000 years Ago. Can Geographical J 91:42-48. Harpending, HC 1994. Signature of Ancient Population Growth in a Low-Resolution Mitochondrial DNA Mismatch Distribution. in Human Biology, August, v. 66, no. 4, pp. 591-600 Harpending, H.C., S.T. Sherry, A. R. Rogers et al. 1993. Genetic structure of ancient human populations. Curr. Anthropol. 34:483-496. Hershkovitz Philip 1977. Living New World Monkeys (platyrrhini), with an Introduction to the Primates. Vol. 1 Chicago: University of Chicago Press Hicks, Alvah M. 1992. "An Alternate Origin" Address to the Canadian Association for Physical Anthropology, 19th Annual Meeting, Hamilton Ontario Canada. in Bulletin of the Archaeological Survey Association of Southern California, Vol. XVII, No. 2 Spring 1992. Hicks, Alvah M. 1995. Amerindian Diffusion and Circumpolar Population Origins. General Session [70] Presentation, Society for American Archaeology 60th Annual Meeting --------. 1998. Alternative Explanation for Similarities between Native Americans and Siberians. Human Biology February Volume 70, Number 1 Hoffecker, J. F., W. R. Powers, and T. Goebel 1993. The Colonization of Beringia and the Peopling of the New World. Science 259:263-287 Holen Steven, Thomas A. Deméré, Daniel C. Fisher, Richard Fullagar, James B. Paces6, George T. Jefferson, Jared M. Beeton, Richard A. Cerutti, Adam N. Rountrey, Lawrence Vescera7 & Kathleen A. Holen A 2017 Macmillan Publishers Limited, part of Springer Nature. 130,000-year-old archaeological site in southern California, USA doi:10.1038/nature22065 © All rights reserved Holmes, William Henrey 1899. Auriferous Gravel Man. American Anthropologist, N.S. 1: 641-5 W.H. 1910 Bearing of Archeological Evidence on the Place of Origin and the Question of the Unity or Plurality of the American Race. Address Hrdlicka, Ales, 1912. Early Man in South America, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 52. Washington, D.C. Hrdlicka, Ales 1912b. Remains in Eastern Asia of the Race that Peopled America. Smithsonian Misc Coll No. 16, LX.; 1920. Shovel-shaped Teeth. Am J Phys Anthropol 3:429-465. --------. 1925. "The Origin and Antiquity of the American Indian." Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1923, 481-94. Washington, D.C. Irwin, H.T. and H. M. Wormington 1970. Paleo-indian Tool Types in the Great Plains. American Antiquity 35:24-33. Irwin-Williams, C. 1978. "Summary of Archaeological Evidence from the Valsequillo Region, Puebla, Mexico," in D.L. Browman (ed.), Cultural Continuity in Mesoamerica, Mouton, The Hague, 7-22. Isaac, G., and D. Crader eds. Irving, William N. 1987. New Dates from Old Bones: Twisted Fractures in Mammoth Bones and Some Flaked Bone Tools Suggest that Humans Occupied the Yukon More than 40,000 Years Ago. Natural History. 2/87 Johnson, M.J.; D.C. Wallace, S.D. Ferris, M.C. Rattazi, and L.L. Cavalli-Sforza 1983. Radiation of Human Mitochondrial DNA Types Analyzed by Restriction Endonuclease Cleavage Patterns, Journal Molecular Evolution 19:255-271. Jorde, L.B., M.J. Bamshad, W.S. Watkins, R. Zenger, A.E. Fraley, P.A. Krakowiak, K.D. Carpenter, H. Soodyall, T. Jenkins, and A.R. Rogers 1995. Origins and Affinities of Modern Humans: A Comparison of Mitochondrial and Nuclear Genetic Data. Am J. Hum. Genet. 57:523, 525, 528. Keith, Arthur Sir 1911. Ancient Types of Man. New York: Harper. --------. 1913. Problems Relating to the Teeth of the Earlier Forms of Prehistoric Man. Proc R Soc Exp Biol Med 6:103-104. Klein, Richard G. 1995. Anatomy, Behavior, and Modern Human Origins, Journal of World Prehistory, Vol. 9, No. 2, Kollman, J. 1895. [Remarks on Pithecanthropus] Ethnol 27:740-744. Kuhn, Thomas S. 1970. The Structure of Scientific Revolution. University of Chicago Press Laurent Excoffier and Andre Langaney 1989. Origin and Differentiation of Human Mitochondrial DNA Am. J. Hum. Genet. 44:73-85 Leakey, L.S.B., R.D. Simpson, and T. Clements 1968. Archaeological Excavations in the Calico Mountains, California, Science 160, 1022-3. Leonova Natalia B. 1994. The Upper Paleolithic of the Russian Steppe Zone. Journal of World Prehistory, Vol. 8, No. 2 Lightman, Alan and Owen Gingerich 1992. When do anomalies Begin? pp. 690-694 in Science Vol. 255 February 7 Long, J. C. 1993. Human molecular phylogenetics. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 22:251-272. MacFadden Bruce 1990. Chronology of Cenozoic primate localities in South America. in Journal of Human Evolution Vol. 19 pp. 7-20 Masterman, M. 1970. The Nature of a Paradigm. In Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, edited by I. Lakatos and A. Musgrave. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Merriwether, D. A. , A. G. Clark, S. W. Ballinger et al. 1991. The structure of human mitochondrial DNA variation. J. Molec. Evol. 33:543-555. Mirambell, L. 1978. Tlapacoya: A Late Pleistocene Site in Central Mexico. In A.L. Bryan ed.: "Early Man in America: From a Circum-Pacific Perspective." Occas Papers 1, Dept of Anthro, Univ of Alberta, pp 221- 230. Monsalve, M.V., H. Groot de Restrepo, A. Espinel, G. Correal, and D.V. Devine 1994. Evidence of mitochondrial DNA diversity in South American aboriginals. Ann. Hum. Genet., 58, 271. Morlan, Richard E. 1970. "Wedge-shaped Core Technology in Northern North America," Arctic Anthropology, vol. 7, 17-37. --------. 1980. Taphonomy and Archaeology in the Upper Pleistocene of the Northern Yukon Territory: A Glimpse of the Peopling of the New World. National Mus. of Canada, Mercury Series, Arch. Survey of Canada Paper 94. --------. 1983. "Pre-Clovis Occupation North of the Ice Sheets" in Early Man in the New World, edited by R. Shutler, Jr., pp. 47-63. Sage Publications, Beverly Hills. --------. 1987. The Pleistocene Archaeology of Beringia. In The Evolution of Human Hunting, Edited by M.H. Nitecki And D.V. Nitecki, pp.267-307. Plenum Press, New York. Muller-Beck, H. 1966. Paleohunters in America: Origins and Diffusion. Science 152:1191-1210. Neel, J.V. 1978. The Population Structure of an Amerind Tribe, the Yanomama. Annu Rev Genet 12:365-413. Neel, J.V., H.W. Morenweiser, E.D. Rothman, J.M. Naidu 1986. A Revised Indirect Estimate of Mutation Rates in Amerindians. Am. J Human Genetics 38:649-666 Neel,J.V. and R.H. Ward. 1970. Village and Tribal genetic Distances Among American Indians, and the possible implications for Human Evolution. Proceedings.National Acadamy of Science 65:323-330 Nichols, Johanna 1990. More on Human Phylogeny and Linguistic History. Current Anthropology 31: 313-4 O'Connell, J.F. 1977. Aspects of Variation in Central Australian Lithic Assemblages. In Stone Tools as Cultural Markers; Change, Evolution, and Complexity, edited by R.V.S. Wright. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. Pp. 269-281. Osborn, H.F. 1930. The Discovery of Tertiary Man. Science 71:1-7. Owen Roger, 1984. in the chapter "The Americas: The Case Against an Ice Age Human Population" in The Origins of Modern Humans: A World Survey of the Fossil Evidence, Fred H. Smith, and Frank Spencer, eds. New York: Alan R. Liss, Inc. Ousley, Stephen D. 1995. Relationships between Eskimos, Amerindians, and Aleuts: Old Data, New Perspectives, Human Biology, June, v. 67, no. 3, pp. 427-458. Parkington, John 1990. A Critique of the Consensus View on the Age of Howieson's Poort Assemblages in South Africa. in The Emergence of Modern Humans, An Archaeological Perspective. edited by Paul Mellars Cornell University Press, Iyhica, New York pp. 34-55 Peyrère, Issac de la 1655. A Theological System upon that Presupposition That Men were before Adam. London. Published first in Latin in 1655. This translation actually appeared in 1656 bound with La Peyrère, 1656. Pilbeam, David 1986. In Major Topics in Primate and Human Evolution. editors Wood, Martin, and Andrews, published by Cambridge {Cambridgeshire} New York. Pollie, R. 1983. Brother, Can You Paradigm. Science 83:4:6:76-77. Popper, K.R. 1972.Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Prescott, William H. 1843. History of the Conquest of Mexico. New York: Harper. Preston, Douglas, 1997. Natural History Magazine 2/97. Fossils & the Folsom Cowboy, pp. 16-22 Putnam, Frederic W. 1899. "A Problem in American Anthropology." Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, vol. 48, 1-17. Easton. Raemsch, B.E., Vernon, W.W. 1977. Some Paleolithic Tools from Northeast North America. Curr Anthropol. 18:1:97-99. Raemsch, Bruce E. 1990. Native American Antecedents (an Encyclical) Our Obligation to Test a Theory on Native American Antiquity-A Research Letter. unpublished material Reanier, Richard E. 1995. The Antiquity of Paleoindian Materials in Northern Alaska, Arctic Anthropology Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 31-50 Rogers, Alan R., and Lynn B. Jorde 1995. Genetic Evidence on Modern Human Origins. Human Biology, February v. 67, no. 1, pp. 1-36. Rogers, Richard A. 1985. Glacial Geography and Narive North American Languages, Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, Quarternary Research 23, 130-137 Rogers, Richard A. 1986. Language, Human Subspeciation, and Ice Age Barriers in Northern Siberia. Canadian Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 5, No. !, pp. 11 and 20. Sherry, Stephen T., Alan R. Rogers, Henry Harpending, Himla Soodyall, Trefor Jenkins, and Mark Stoneking 1994. Mismatch Distributions of mtDNA Reveal Recent Human Population Expansions. Human Biology, October v. 66, no. 5, pp. 761-775 Smith, Fred H., Spencer, Frank (eds) 1984. The Origins of Modern Humans: A World Survey of the Fossil Evidence. New York: Alan R. Liss, Inc. Spencer, F., Smith, F.H. 1981. The Significance of Ales Hrdlicka's "Neanderthal Phase of Man": A Historical and Current Assessment. Am J Phys Anthropol 56:435-459. Stoneking, M., S. Sherry, A. Redd et al. 1992. New approaches to dating suggest a recent age for the human mtDNA ancestor. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London 337:167-175. Stringer Christopher and Clive Gamble 1994. Review Feature The Neanderthal World: Flat Earth or New Horizons? Cambridge Archaeological Journal 4:1 95-119 Stringer, Christopher .B. 1978. Some Problems in Middle and Upper Pleistocene hominid Relationships. In Chivers DJ, Joysey KA (eds): Recent Advances in Primatology London: Academic Press, Vol 3, pp. 395-418.; MacNeish, R.S. 1992. The 1992 Excavations of Pendejo Caves near OroGrande, New Mexico. Andover Foundation for Archaeological Research, Annual Report Willamet, C. M., and G. A. Clark (1995). Paradigm crisis in modern human origins research Journal of Human Evolution. Huang, Shi 2017. JAMA Psychiatry and a response from Douglas Wallace Johnson et. al 1983, Huang et al. 2017, Zhang and Huang 2019, Cabrera et al. 2018 Schwartz Jeffrey H. and Ian Tattersall Page 118 of Fossil Evidence for the Origin of Homo sapiens YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 53:94–121 (2010) https://www.academia.edu/86905105/Fossil_evidence_for_the_origin_of_Homo_sapiens?email_work_card=title Schwartz, Jeffrey H. (2012). Hist. Phil. Life Sci., 34, 237-258 Molecular Anthropology and the Subversion of Paleoanthropology: an Example of “the Emperor’s Clothes” Effect? Schwartz, Jeffrey H., (2021). Evolution, systematics, and the unnatural history of mitochondrial DNA Jeffrey H. Schwartz To cite this article:: Part A, DOI: 10.1080/24701394.2021.1899165 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/24701394.2021.1899165 Stoneking M. 2021, in Crawford M. Editor Tattersall, Ian, Schwartz Jeffrey, 2008, pg. 52 in the “Conclusion” Evolution of the Genus Homo. doi: 10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100202 Copyright _c 2009 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved 0084-6597/09/0530-0067 Wikipedia 1. 2. 3. 4. Wolpoff, Milford et al. (2000). pg.131 Multiregional, Not Multiple Origins, in AJPA 112:129-136 March 14, 2023 14