The Sleeping Giant Awakens: Bio-energy in the UK

The Sleeping Giant Awakens:

Bio-Energy in the UK

Stewart T Boyle

Smashwords Edition

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Copyright © Stewart Boyle, 2013

The moral right of the author has been asserted

Permission to reprint figures is gratefully acknowledged from the following:

Dr Markus Schwarz (Bio-Energy 2020); Dr Annette Cowie (IEA Bio-energy Task Force); Climate Central; DECC; GCB Bioenergy; IPCC (Geneva); Dr Martin Junginger (University of Utrecht); Robert Matthews (Forest Research); Saxlund International

Smashwords Edition, License Notes

This ebook is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This ebook may not be re-sold or given away to other people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each recipient. If you’re reading this book and did not purchase it, or it was not purchased for your use only, then please return to Smashwords.com and purchase your own copy. Thank you for respecting the hard work of this author.

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Stewart Boyle (photo by David Vickers)

Stewart is a geographer who undertook post-graduate management training. He ran a local Friends of the Earth (FOE) group from 1979, and was on the national FOE staff in 1984 as energy campaigner during the Chernobyl disaster. He had stints with energy efficiency trade association ACE and then Greenpeace International before running an international energy efficiency charity in Eastern Europe and South Africa. Since then he has increasingly been engaged with the bio-energy consultancy and commercial sector, including stints with boiler installation and fuel companies. He currently runs the Consultancy arm of South East Wood Fuels (SEWF) as well as a bespoke green business film company – One Planet Media. He owns and manages 18 acres of woodland in East Sussex.

He is married with one daughter and a step-daughter, and a recent grand-daughter. For fun he manages and spends time in the woods, sings and also runs a Men’s Group.

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"To be truly radical is to make hope possible,

rather than despair convincing"

Raymond Williams

For my Mum, Ruby Walker Boyle (1926-2013)

You brought me into this life to make a

difference - thanks so much for the love

For my beautiful wife Marie-Helene, who has supported

and encouraged me throughout – thanks for the love. You are

owed more than a few wild nights out on the town!

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Acknowledgements

I have a lot of people to thank for this book. I’d like to start with my old friend Dr Robin Russell-Jones, who asked me to speak on bio-energy at a conference. What I learned in preparation for that short slot got my attention and in truth kicked off the project. Thanks Friend. I’d also like to thank Dr Geoff Hogan. Geoff believed in this project right from the start. While for a variety of reasons the original idea of co-writing did not happen, I really appreciate Geoff’s support as reviewer and technical back-stop. Thank you sir, you are one of a kind.

People who gave their time for interviews and reviewed chapters include: Max Ahmen, Max Aitken, James Beard, Dan Becker, Ewan Bent, Andrew Billingsley, John Bingham, Mairi Black, Neil Bond, Terence Brownhill, Nigel Burdett, Mark Candlish, Paul Clark, James Cooper, Robin Cotton, Annette Cowie, Richard Crowhurst, Simon Dicks, Toby Douch, Geraint Evans, Uwe Fritsche, Geoffrey Guest, Leslie Gornall, Gaynor Hartnell, Anja Hazebroek, Ben Heathcote-Amory, Greg Hilton, Graham Hilton, David Hooper, Lucy Hopwood, Gert Jan Jonker, Abby Jones, Julian Morgan Jones, Martin Junginger, Tony Juniper, Anne K Laleman, Charlie Lamb, Jim Lane, Andrew Lang, Benoit Lebot, Mark Lebus, Rob Leighton, Kevin Lindegaard, David Linsley-Hood, James Little, Richard Lowes, Steve Luker, Emiliano Maletti, Neville Martin, Gavin Maxwell, Des McGinnes, Chris Miles, Al Miller, Simon Mitchell, Mike Malina, Chris Moore, Paul Moran, Matthew Morris, Nigel Mortimer, Charlotte Morton, Lars Nilsson, Doug Parr, Mark Perkins, Mike Pitcher, Tom Powell, Eric Scherer, Markus Schwartz, Jonathan Scurlock, Richard Smith, John Strawson, Richard Taylor, Paul Thompson, Ian Tubby, David Vickers, Neil Wallis, Clare Wenner, Sam Whatmore, Matthew Woodcock and Owen Yeatman. Thanks for the time and the inspiration.

Thanks to Lesley Walker for proof-reading, Gail Davidson for formatting, Alba Lewis for advice and publishing support, Vera Waters and Howard Tonkin for big support, Liz Sleeper for encouragement and marketing support, and Esther Bertram for trusting her creative spirit with the great cover design.

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Testimonials on the Book

a pragmatic vision for how the UK could harness bio-energy to meet a fifth of our energy needs….a refreshing perspective on this largely neglected source of renewable energy in the UK.

Tony Juniper, Writer, Environmentalist, Advisor to Prince Charles

"This book is simply brilliant. Every investor, campaigner, politician and scientist should have to read this book before commenting on the debate or making policy decisions. It is the clearest and most thorough introduction to the subject

I have come across."

Richard Crowhurst, Editor, En-Agri (enagri.info)

"This is a timely, accessible and ultimately hopeful book bringing much-needed light on the debate surrounding biofuels and biopower. Stewart Boyle has a unique perspective on this valuable but controversial

range of energy technologies and fuels."

Dr Jonathan Scurlock, Renewable Energy Advisor to NFU

"Bio-energy is a vital option for the UK in its move to a low-carbon economy. It encompasses a wide range of technologies and applications, and is a subject which sparks much controversy. If you want to understand the technologies and also get to grips with some of the argument and analysis, read Stewart Boyle's comprehensive and timely book. He brings a cool head to the debate and a clear

Route-map to capturing bio-energy’s big potential"

Gaynor Hartnell, former CEO of Renewable Energy Association

"Stewart Boyle’s chapter is probably the best summary on

Anaerobic Digestion I have read to date. Well done"

Dr Les Gornall (Projen)

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Contents

Chapter 1 – The sleeping giant awakens

Chapter 2 - A Year in the world of bio-energy

Chapter 3 – Does using bio-energy really save carbon dioxide?

Chapter 4 – Bio-energy - it’s the fuel stupid!

Chapter 5 - Feel the heat with modern wood heating

Chapter 6 – Power from Bio-energy

Chapter 7 – Travelling on ‘Green Gold’ Biofuels

Chapter 8 – Anaerobic digestion and greening the UK gas supplies

Chapter 9 – Bio-energy – a short practical guide

Chapter 10 – Doing bio-energy right

Footnotes

Chapter 1 – The sleeping giant awakens

Bio-energy is one of the most versatile forms of low carbon and renewable energy as it can contribute towards energy generation across the energy spectrum of electricity, heat and transport, In all three sectors, biomass can provide a continuous and constant flow of energy

UK Bio-Energy Strategy, DECC, 2012

2030 Vision - the bio-energy future - Heating from woodfuels

It is April 3rd 2030, and more than 360,000 commercial, industrial and public sector building wood heating boilers are now in place in the UK – 40% of the total. These include 2,100 multi-megawatt heating systems in industry, hospitals, distribution centres and hotels. After a slow start, more than 850,000 domestic biomass boilers have been installed – 5% of the UK boiler stock - and are being installed at a current rate of 65,000 a year. Heating oil and LPG boilers are now significantly missing from many off-gas grid areas of rural UK.

To support wood heating systems with quality fuel, the 300th ‘Small Woodlands Fuel Hub’ was opened by Forestry Minister Greg Michaels in December 2029. The Minister congratulated local foresters and owners who had cooperated very closely to get management underway in long neglected local woodlands. The Woodland Trust, a partner in the new initiative, highlighted the added side-benefits of burgeoning butterfly numbers, bird numbers and wild flowers. The ‘Small Woodlands Hubs’ complement the 520 fully commercial wood fuel hubs across the country run by a mixture of multi-national fuel companies, producer groups and regional fuel companies.

Meanwhile, domestic wood pellet production plants totalling 1,300,000 tonnes a year were working flat out to support wood heating boilers through an extremely cold winter. Imports from Canada and Scandinavia made up the remaining 75% of commercial and domestic pellet demand. Recycled wood pellets from the UK and imports offered a further 4 million tonnes of capacity for the UK, used in both co-firing power plant and large industrial heating boiler systems.

Power from woodfuels and energy crops

It is June 5th 2030, and, according to the energy regulator OFLOWCARB, biopower in the UK is contributing close to 18% of total electricity supplies. The Government’s nominal 400MW biopower ‘cap’ was removed in 2014 after the ‘nuclear deal’ with EDF collapsed and the first strong public opposition to shale gas drilling emerged. Construction of a mixture of co-firing, pure biopower and CHP plant surged from 2014 to 2022, totalling 11,500MW of net capacity. Some of the older co-fired plant began to drop out of circulation from 2025 onwards. Along with 25GW of wind power, two major tidal power projects, and 5GW of solar PV, the combined annual renewable energy contribution has reached over 42% of power supplies.

After a package of measures to support district heating was put in place, including Green Investment Bank support for new heat mains in 8 major UK cities, £2.6 billion worth of projects had moved ahead by 2024. Mike Kingston, the District Heating Czar appointed in 2018, signed off his reign with a job well done – we don’t have to look at Denmark any more for exemplars, we can find them all over the UK.

The RHI tariff for large biomass plant was increased to 2p/kWh in 2014 after lobbying in Brussels and intervention by the then Prime Minister, David Cameron. All major industrial energy users were incentivised to adopt bio-energy heating and CHP as a condition of a competiveness support package in the tough 2015-16 Budget. The UK slowly climbed out of deep recession on the back of a major green economic push.

Energy crops such as SRC willow and miscanthus now cover 728,000 hectares (ha) of land. The crops have been largely subsidy-free since 2018 due to high energy prices across Europe. The third major tree planting initiative by Government’s, NGOs and local council’s was successfully completed in 2026, with a fourth effort well underway. A total of 500 million trees were planted in less than 10 years under the first two ‘Tree for Life’ programmes, covering 200,000ha. All new UK citizens have to plant 10 trees as part of the citizenship rules, a sign of the new wood culture built on the ‘Grown in Britain’ ethos which has become public policy. To coincide with the new tree planting initiative, the 25,000th new job in UK woodlands was highlighted at a ceremony for recently qualified forester Jane Smithfield in Edinburgh. She told reporters: I’m doing what I love and it’s great that I now can have a career with real prospects.

Liquid biofuels from energy crops

The UK met its 10% biofuels target in transport by 2020 and is en route for a 20% target shortly after 2030. ‘Second generation’ biofuels, including biomethane, cellulosic biodiesel and ethanol, made up 30% of the first target and are on course to provide 60% of the second target.

Super-efficient hybrid cars using blended biofuels and ‘green’ electricity have become mainstream, with pure Electric Vehicles (EVs) beginning to dominate urban areas. By 2020 the 250,000th EV car was sold in the UK and ten years later 1.5 million EVs are now registered on the roads. Blended fuel was the fuel of choice for non-urban journeys and E85 (85%) blends are common place on garage forecourts. The standard garage forecourt now offers ‘green gas’, E15 and E85 blended biofuel-petrol and diesel, as well as super-fast electric charging points and spare battery packs for pure EVs.

‘FlexFuel’ and hybrid vehicles now make up 65% of all new cars sold. Heavy goods vehicle fuel is dominated by liquid and gaseous biofuels, with a railway renaissance and other demand reduction measures cutting road journeys by a third. Advanced biofuels now make up 30% of airline fuels, heavily based on algae-based feedstock.

In response to the massive impacts of extreme flooding, winds and drought across Europe in 2014, a revised EU Transport Biofuels agreement was reached, with tightening greenhouse gas savings targets. A major bio-ethanol plant in East Anglia was commissioned in 2017, with an output of 600 million litres, and several second generation biofuels plant have been built in Scotland and South West England using woody energy crops.

The Vegetarian Society celebrated the continued fall in meat consumption, down 25% since 2012 and the 10th year of reductions in a row. The move was triggered by meat scandals from 2012 through 2014, and supported by environmental NGOs such as Greenpeace and FOE. Celebrity endorsements, including the Duchess of Cambridge and pop stars like Plan B and Lady Gaga helped the movement away from meat gain high profile support. The move to less meat has significantly reduced the need for imported soya and UK wheat to be grown as animal feed.

Biofuels from the waste stream and energy crops

The 10,000th ‘carbon- neutral’ farm was welcomed in to the ‘Farm for the Future’ Club in 2030 by Low Energy Farm Minister Sarah Woodham, MP. Utilising Anaerobic Digestion (AD) on the mixed farm in South Leicestershire, the plant utilises animal and food wastes, some external food waste from a nearby Red Leicester organic cheese processor, and green silage. The plant injects excess biomethane into the nearby gas grid and spreads 10,000 tonnes of high quality digestate fertiliser on the land to reduce fertiliser costs and greenhouse emissions to virtually zero.

Linked to solar photovoltaic PV for on-site power generation, and a biomass heating District Heating (DH) network linking the farm and a nearby village, the Leicestershire farm exports more energy than it uses, as well as neutralising its methane and nitrous oxide emissions from fertiliser. Energy crops grown on the farm means that it is self-sufficient in wood fuel for the heating system, as well as allowing it to sell wood chips to three other local heating projects. Woodham commented to reporters: Farming used to be part of the climate change problem, but I am delighted to see our sector rapidly becoming a key part of the solution and offering low-carbon heat, power and liquid biofuels to the whole UK economy. According to Woodham, the sector is currently close to carbon neutral for the environment and aims to become a negative source of emissions by 2032.

The ‘Carbon-neutral village’ movement has recently been celebrating its 500th member and works closely with the ‘Farm for the Future’ programme.

The ‘bio-economy’ takes over from the oil economy

5th October 2030: The tenth UK bio-economy refinery was opened on Humberside by Prime Minister Caroline Johnson. Using a mixture of algae fuels, cellulosic biomass and animal feed quality wheat, the plant will provide a host of chemicals and raw materials for the bio-plastics, car body, and fuel markets.

Johnson told reporters: I’m proud to open this plant, which continues to show UK leadership in the circular renewable energy economy, rather than the wasteful one-trip economy we used to depend on. She was presented with a mug made from algae and a 5-litre can of bio-ethanol for her E85 Range-Rover. She quipped: Well, at least I’ve got some spare juice if we run out of fuel on the way home! The comment was a reference to a threatened strike by oil tanker drivers as oil prices hit $218 barrel and fuel demand fell for the 12th successive year. Oil tanker driver numbers have fallen by 25% in the past 15 years, only partially compensated b increased biofuel deliveries.

PM Johnson, riding high in the polls, talked candidly with journalists after the event. Back in the dark days of 2013 and 2014, only a few of us saw the potential to re-cast our economy and use the natural resources of wind, waves and bio-energy. She reminded those present: Many of our colleagues poured scorn on concerns about climate change and the introduction of early renewable technologies, suggesting they were too expensive and didn’t work. We thought differently and worked with green business to make sure big investments were made into the green economy. I think those investments have paid off big time. With 850,000 jobs directly and indirectly generated by Clean-Tech, green energy and Circular Economy production, fuels and know-how, this has been our biggest industrial success in 100 years.

2030 Vision – fact or fantasy?

Let us be clear about the underlying basis of this book. Having an energy vision is important. But I also believe that without the hard work and practical reality of projects and people, visions can become mere fantasy. Everything that was mentioned in this brief dip into the future above is already underway, at some level. In some instances, it is commercial or close to. The 30 Case Studies in the book demonstrate the reality of bio-energy at work and doing well. The bio-energy future I describe in this book does not therefore require massive leaps in imagination or fundamental advances in technology. Big breakthroughs and advances in technology and cost reductions are certainly required, but we are not dealing with technologies like nuclear fusion, where a multi-billion pound 20-year effort is needed to demonstrate that it is even a viable process, never mind turn it into a commercial reality.

So if the bio-energy future is already happening and in many cases working well, what is it and what are the implications of such an energy future?

Bio-energy - what’s in a name?

Bio-energy is a word that seems to come straight from the laboratory. In the energy world, bio-energy covers a bewildering array of materials, processes and technologies including wood chip, ethanol, biodiesel, log boilers, pyrolysis, methanol, underfed hearth boilers, wood pellets, bio-char, torrefaction, gasifiers, peat, miscanthus, short rotation coppice (SRC), algal reactors, anaerobic digesters, manure, corn, municipal solid waste (MSW), organic rankine cycle (ORC) engines and bagasse. The list is extensive and growing.

Ask a random group of UK adults in the street what they know about biomass or bio-energy however and the majority will look back blankly. Some might think it connected to biotechnology or GM food. Occasionally, a few might tentatively suggest wood.

Ask the same group of people about wind power or solar energy and the answers are likely to be a lot more forthcoming and accurate. Some will have their own solar PV panel or know a neighbour who has one, paid for by the Government’s Feed in Tariff (FIT) scheme. And yet when you tell the same people that up to 65% of the UK’s obligatory 15% renewable target by 2020 is planned to come from a range of bio-energy technologies, and only 2% from solar PV panels on roofs, confusion reigns. PR does not always equal reality. The genesis of the book grew out of this confusion, and the strong feeling that a poor understanding of a crucially important renewable energy source was preventing its wider use.

Strictly speaking, biomass means the mass of living biological organisms in a given area, often expressed as the average or total mass per hectare of land. A hectare is about the size of 2.5 football pitches. Biomass is measured as the mass of organically bound carbon (C) that is present.

Apart from bacteria, the total alive plant biomass on earth is about 550 billion tonnes carbon (gTC), with a total annual primary production of biomass on land of around 65 billion tonnes C/year. By contrast, fossil fuel emissions are currently just over 9 billion tonnes a year, and carbon emissions from land-use change just over 1 billion tonnes a year. As I am focusing mainly on the energy aspects of biomass, I use the broad term bio-energy. The other term you will see commonly throughout the book is biofuels. This is used to describe either liquid or gaseous fuels for the transport sector.

Used appropriately and efficiently, bio-energy can shift us away from a carbon emissions curve that seems to grow inexorably into the ‘red for danger’ zone. With sustained energy policy decisions, good technology choices, and the integration of land-use, energy and transport strategies, the ‘food vs fuel’ dichotomy often posed by anti-biofuel campaigners and the food industry need not be the case. I believe that ‘food AND fuel’ is the real choice for UK farming and energy policy. There is no reason why farming – currently contributing 8.5% of UK greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions – should not be a net carbon sink for the UK.

I believe that an achievable UK target could deliver well over 10% of our energy needs from bio-energy within 25-30 years, and double that if the UKs projected energy consumption is reduced and energy crop usage is expanded more significantly. This would provide vital low-carbon heat, power and transport fuels.

Getting 10% to 20% of our energy needs from bio-energy is significant and in our view worthy of sustained political support.

Reaching the 10-20% potential of bio-energy in the UK will require a major effort and journey to re-focus our energy systems. It will also require a grown-up debate based on the science of bio-energy and carbon emissions, and the pragmatic and sustained use of coherent energy policies. As Figure 1 shows, there are significant differences between the bio-energy carbon flow which works within a ‘circular economy’, and the ‘one-stop’ cycle of fossil fuels. Understanding that is key to public and political acceptance of using a lot more plants and trees as part of our energy system.

The purpose of this book is to explore what that bio-energy journey and those policies might look like, and to provide some route maps.

Back to the future?

Bio-energy in the form of wood was arguably humankind’s first useful renewable energy. In the form of stored solar energy through plants and trees, at some point in the distant past humans discovered that biomass could burn. This combustion created light, heat, the ability to cook and preserve food, and to produce other materials such as charcoal . Charcoal in turn allowed higher burning temperatures and in time, the working of metals. Today it currently provides the biggest contribution of all the renewable energy options to the energy mix, at around 10% of global energy demand.

The versatility of bio-energy is one of its key attributes. Unlike many renewable energy sources such as solar water heating, wind power, solar PV and tidal power, bio-energy can offer useful energy across the range of needs in a modern society. To run an industrialised country we require power, heat and transport fuels, as well as bio-chemicals to produce a range of products (see Figure 2). Bio-energy can and already does provide all of these in the UK and many other countries.

The versatility of bio-energy makes it as potentially useful as oil has become in the past 160 years but without the major climatic drawbacks. Unlike the blip that oil will prove to be, bio-energy is a renewable resource offering long-term sustainable options for our evolving society.

Today we now live in a ‘Peak Oil’ world looking at static or diminishing oil production output, and with increasingly desperate attempts to squeeze oil and gas from ‘extreme’ routes such as such as Shale Gas and Oil Tar Sands. It currently provides the biggest contribution of all the renewable energy options to the energy mix, at around 10% of global energy demand.

Is bio-energy sustainable?

Figure 1: The bio-energy and fossil fuel carbon cycles (IEA)

As a less dense fuel than fossil fuels, bio-energy will need to be used with care, efficiency and smart technology. If the much talked about Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) can be utilised, biopower and biofuels plant with CCS can go even further in allowing negative carbon emissions – taking carbon out of the atmosphere for ever. Given that we are very late on the curve to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to safer levels – the so-called 2DS scenario that tries to limit global temperature increases to 2oC above pre-industrial levels - that may be a critical option.

Figure 2: Integrated view of the wide variety of bio-energy feedstock, conversion and end route fuels (2).

Another attribute that makes bio-energy useful is that it provides energy 24/7, 365 days of the year. It is ‘despatchable’ power, heat and motion which doesn’t suffer from the issue of intermittency of the sun, wind and waves.

Intermittency isn’t really the deal-breaker that opponents of renewable energy like to make out. They sometimes announce in grave tones that: the wind doesn’t always blow, you know as though this issue alone should kill off wind turbines as a serious prospect. This is patently not true, as intermittent energy sources can be stored in many ways ranging from heavy-duty batteries to hot water in tanks, or by using an electricity grid and weather forecasting tools smartly. We already get close to 10% of our power from intermittent sources and we have needed no new storage yet. Tidal power comes in big slugs of power which is as predictable – as the tides. To a certain extent, intermittent renewables are also complementary to demand, wind output being at its peak in winter evening periods for example. As intermittent sources grow in capacity, however, and storage and management is needed, this will certainly have a cost. This fact does give bio-energy an advantage in being able to provide base-load for heat, power and transport needs.

Energy security and bio-energy

A backdrop to any discussion on future energy supplies is that energy security has become a strategic issue of increasing importance for many countries. The UK Government has growing concerns over ‘energy security’ as we have increasingly moved back into importing large amounts of energy. From a position of near energy independence in the early 1980s through to 2004, we now import nearly 30% of our energy. We are a net importer of coal, oil and natural gas, as well as 100% of the fuel for nuclear reactors. Domestic gas production is 60% less than in the year 2000 – a huge and worrying fall. A third of our imported gas now arrives in Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) bulk carriers from countries such as Qatar; a more expensive way of buying gas than via pipelines from Norway and Russia, but a trend set to continue.

It is within this context that the use of domestic and imported biofuels needs to be considered. Given that we are not a particularly wooded country, how much domestic biofuels can we utilise both today and in future to reduce our dependency on imported gas and oil for the heating and transport sectors? What level of imported biofuels is acceptable given that we also import many other products at high levels? Biomass can make an important contribution to global trade, provided good practice is used. Stored solar energy in the form of biomass fuels, exported from Latin America and Africa for cash, or traded with products and services to colder climates in the North, seems to me a fair exchange.

The US, sometimes aided and abetted by the UK, has gone to war in the Middle East (and North Africa) several times to ensure access to oil. So ‘energy security’ is not simply an academic concern, it has become one of a growing list of high priority concerns for UK national security. I believe that bio-energy is part of the solution.

Is there enough bio-energy for everyone?

It’s important to get some perspective on bio-energy. There is enough energy in an hour of sunlight to power mankind’s needs for the whole year. Bio-energy is stored solar energy. A big advantage of bio-energy is that, if used efficiently and appropriately, there is plenty of it. Globally, even conservative assessments of the practical potential suggest that 50% of our primary energy needs could be met with bio-energy resources over the next 50-60 years. Regionally within Europe the figure is at least 25%, and could easily be more than 40%.

In the UK itself, I argue conservatively that at least 10% of our energy needs could sustainably come from a variety of bio-energy fuels, sources and technologies within 20-30 years. Assuming really successful energy efficiency programmes that actually cut energy demand, plus the greater use of energy crops, then the bio-energy contribution could increase to more than 20% of the UKs energy supply by 2030-2040 (3) . To put that contribution in perspective, nuclear power provides less than 7% of the UKs overall energy demand, despite 50 years of sustained support and massive levels of subsidy.

10% to 20% of our energy supply in a future low-carbon sustainable economy is a bio-energy prize worth attaining.

Bio-energy can make extremely significant contributions to our transport, heating and power needs. They can also offer bio-chemical alternatives to oil-based products such as plastics. The ubiquitous Coca Cola bottle is increasingly moving to a bio-plastic feedstock in Europe, not one based on oil. It’s a symbolic shift and an indication of the beginning of the end of the oil age. With oil prices stuck at well over $100/barrel and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) suggesting these could double within 15 years (4), bio-chemicals and even algal energy are today rapidly becoming viable options.

So what’s the catch? If it’s so versatile, offers 24/7 heat, power and transport, and there is a lot of it, why aren’t we all familiar with bio-energy and using it every day? I believe there are several reasons for that.