Descent in Buildings

hospitality.

PART 1

Moufang Quadrangles

Chapter One

Buildings

We use this chapter to assemble a few standard definitions, fix some notation and review a few of the results about buildings and Moufang polygons which will be used most frequently in these notes.

A summary of the basic facts about Coxeter groups and buildings with which we expect the reader to have some familiarity can be found, with references to proofs, in [65, 29.1-29.15]. These include the basic properties of roots, residues, apartments and projection maps. (We emphasize, however, that although we assume some familiarity with this background material, we have made every effort throughout these notes to include explicit references to the results in [60], [62], [65] and elsewhere each time they are applied.)

When we refer to the type of a building Δ, we mean either the corresponding Coxeter diagram or, equivalently, the corresponding Coxeter system (W, S); see 19.2. The cardinality |S|, which we always assume to be finite, is called the rank of Δ. More generally, the rank of a J-residue of Δ is |J| for each subset J of S.

Root groups and the Moufang condition play a central role in this monograph. A root of a building is a root of one of its apartments. For a given root α of a building Δ, the corresponding root group Uα is the subgroup of Aut(Δ) consisting of all elements that act trivially on each panel containing two chambers of α.

Definition 1.1. As in [62, 11.7], we say that a building Δ is Moufang (or satisfies the Moufang condition) if

    (i)  it is thick, irreducible and spherical as defined in [62, 1.6 and 7.10];

   (ii)  its rank is at least 2; and

  (iii)  for every root α, the root group Uα acts transitively on the set of all apartments containing α.

We emphasize that if we say that a building is Moufang, we are implying that it is spherical, thick, irreducible and of rank at least 2. Nevertheless, when we say that a building is Moufang, we will sometimes also say explicitly that the building is spherical just to avoid any possible confusion. (In Chapter 24 we introduce the more general notion of a Moufang structure on a spherical building. See also [1, 8.3] and [44, Chapter 6, §4, and Chapter 11, §7] for other notions of a Moufang building. These other notions will not play any role in these notes.)

Definition 1.2. Let Δ be a building, let R be a residue of Δ and let c be an arbitrary chamber of Δ. By [62, 8.21], there is a unique chamber z in R nearest c and

for every chamber x ∈ R. This unique nearest chamber z is called the projection of c to R and is denoted by projR(c). The projection map projR : Δ → R will play an important role in these notes starting in Chapter 21.

Remark 1.4. A fundamental result of Tits says that an irreducible thick spherical building of rank at least 3 satisfies the Moufang condition as do all the irreducible residues of rank at least 2 of such a building. For a proof, see [62, 11.6 and 11.8].

MOUFANG SETS.

A building of type A1—in other words, a building of rank 1—is only a set of cardinality at least 2 without any further structure, but the buildings of type A1 we will encounter come endowed with a group of permutations having special properties which led to the following definition introduced by Tits in [58]:

Definition 1.5. A Moufang set is a pair (X, {Ux | x ∈ X}), where X is a set with |X| ≥ 3 and for each x ∈ X, Ux is a subgroup of Sym(X) (where we compose from right to left) such that the following hold:

    (i)  For each x ∈ X, Ux fixes x and acts sharply transitively on X\{x}.

   (ii)  For all x, y ∈ X and each g ∈ Ux, gUyg−1 = Ug(y).

The groups Ux for x ∈ X are called the root groups of the Moufang set.

Definition 1.6. be a Moufang set and let

By 1.5(i), the group G acts 2-transitively on X and by 1.5(ii), the root groups are all conjugate to each other in G. Let x, y be distinct elements of X, there exist a unique element μxy(g) in the double coset

that interchanges x and y. Thus μ := μxy to G which depends on the choice of x and y. By [19, 3.1(ii)], the stabilizer Gxy is generated by the set

Since Ux acts sharply transitively on X\{x}, the subgroup Gxy is isomorphic to the subgroup of Aut(Ux) it induces. The tori are the conjugates in G of the subgroup Gxy. Since G acts 2-transitively on X, the tori are precisely the 2-point stabilizers in G.

Definition 1.7. Two Moufang sets

are isomorphic if there exists a bijection from X to X′ that transports root groups to root groups (and such a bijection is called an isomorphism).

Definition 1.8. Let

be two Moufang sets and let x, y be an ordered pair of distinct elements of X. An xy-isomorphism from X to X′ inducing an isomorphism φ from Ux such that

for all u ∈ Ux , where μ = μxy and μ′ = μφ(x)φ(y) are as in . If x1, y1 is another ordered pair of distinct elements of X, then there is an element g in the group G defined in 1.6 mapping the ordered pair x, y to the ordered pair x1, y1 and the composition of g with an xyis an x1yare weakly isomorphic ) if there is an xyfor some choice of x, y in X (and hence for all choices of x, y in X), and we define a weak isomorphism to be an xy-isomorphism for some choice of x, y in X. The inverse of a weak isomorphism is a weak isomorphism as is the composition of two weak isomorphisms, and every isomorphism of Moufang sets is also a weak isomorphism.

Remark 1.10. , etc., be as in 1.8, let x, y be an ordered pair of distinct elements of X, let x′, y′ be an ordered pair of distinct elements of X′ and suppose that φ is an isomorphism from Ux such that (1.9) holds for all u ∈ Ux with μ = μxy and μ′ = μx′yfrom X to X′ which sends x to x′ and yu to (y′)φ(u) for all u ∈ Ux is an xy.

Notation 1.11. be a Moufang set, choose distinct points x, y in X, let μ = μxy defined in and let m = μ(a). There exists a unique permutation ρ such that

. Therefore

since m interchanges x and y. We identify Ux with the set X\{x} via the map u ↦ yu, then we identify ρ with the permutation yu ↦ yuρ of X\{x, y} and finally we extend ρ to a permutation of X by declaring that it interchanges x and y. Given these identifications, it follows from (1.12) that the permutations m and ρ of X are the same. In particular 〈Ux, ρ〉 = 〈Ux, Uy〉. Since this group acts transitively on X, it acts transitively on the set of root groups {Uz | z ∈ Xis uniquely determined by Ux and ρ (although ρ, of course, depends on the choice of a). We can thus set

This is the point of view taken in [17] and [19].

See 3.9 for examples of various families of Moufang sets described in terms of a single root group and a permutation of its non-trivial elements as in 1.11.

MOUFANG POLYGONS AND ROOT GROUP SEQUENCES.

A generalized n-gon (for n ≥ 2) is a building of type

and a generalized polygon is a generalized n-gon for some n. See [62, 7.14 and 7.15] for an equivalent definition in terms of bipartite graphs. The classification of generalized n-gons satisfying the Moufang conditions (i.e. of Moufang polygons) was carried out in [60]. Moufang n-gons exist, in particular, only for n = 3, 4, 6 and 8. The classification says that each Moufang n-gon is uniquely determined by a root group sequence Ω as defined in [60, 8.7], and these root group sequences are, in turn, determined by certain algebraic data and isomorphisms x1, …, xn from this algebra data to the root groups from which Ω is composed according to one of the nine recipes [60, 16.1–16.9].

Notation 1.14. In accordance with [65, 30.8], we will use the following names for the root group sequences obtained by applying the recipes [60, 16.1–16.9]:

, where K is a field or a skew field or an octonion division algebra as defined in [60, 9.11].

where Ʌ = (K, K0, σ) is an involutory set as defined in [60, 11.1].

, where Ʌ = (K, L, q) is a non-trivial anisotropic quadratic space as defined in 2.1 (see 2.14).

, where Ʌ = (K, K0, L0) is an indifferent set as defined in [60, 10.1].

, where Ʌ = (K, K0, σ, L, q) is an anisotropic pseudo-quadratic space as defined in [60, 11.17].

, where Ʌ = (K, L, q) is a quadratic space of type E6, E7 or E8 as defined in 8.1.

, where Ʌ = (K, L, q) is a quadratic space of type F4 as defined in 9.1.

, where Ʌ = (J, F, #) is an hexagonal system as defined in [60, 15.15].

, where Ʌ = (K, σ) is an octagonal system as defined in [60, 10.11].

Notation 1.15. We will say that a root group sequence is of of type if it is isomorphic to a root group sequence in case (i) of 1.14, of type or of involutory type if it is isomorphic to a root group sequence in case (ii), of type or of quadratic form type if it is isomorphic to a root group sequence in case (iii), etc.

Among all the Moufang polygons, the exceptional Moufang quadrangles—are the most extraordinary. They will be the focus of our attention in Parts 2 and 5 of this monograph.

Let c be a chamber of a Moufang spherical building Δ and let E2(c) denote the subgraph spanned by all the irreducible rank 2 residues of Δ. Another fundamental result of Tits ([62, 10.16]) says that Δ is uniquely determined by E2(c). The irreducible rank 2 residues containing c, which are in one-to-one correspondence with the edges of the Coxeter diagram of Δ, are Moufang polygons. Thus each of these residues is determined by a root group sequence. This leads to the notion of a root group labeling of the Coxeter diagram Π. In a root group labeling, the edges of Π are decorated with root group sequences and the vertices with isomorphisms identifying certain root groups of the root group sequences decorating the different adjacent edges. A description of the results of Tits’ classification of Moufang spherical buildings in terms of root group labelings is given in [65, 30.14]. In these notes we will apply the corresponding notation for these buildings as given in [65, 30.15]. Thus, in particular:

Remark 1.16. In the notion in [, and G2(Ʌ).

Remark 1.17. Let Ω′ be a subsequence of a root group sequence Ω as defined in [60, 8.17]. By [60, 7.4 and 8.1], the generalized polygon associated with Ω′ is a subbuilding of the generalized polygon associated with Ω. Suppose, for example, that Ʌ′ = (F, A, B) is an indifferent set. Then Ʌ := (F, F, F. As a second example, let Ʌ be the involutory set (E, F, σ), where E/F is a separable quadratic extension and σ is the non-trivial element of Gal(E/F). Then Ʌ′ := (F, F, idFfor all ℓ ≥ 3.

Notation 1.18. Let Δ be a Moufang spherical building, let Σ be an apartment of Δ, let γ = γΣ be the set of all roots of Σ and let G = Aut(Δ). We denote by G† the subgroup of G generated by all the root groups of Δ. By [62, 11.22], there exists a map

such that for each α ∈ γ and for each non-trivial element g in the root group Uα, μΣ(g) is the unique element in the double coset

which maps Σ to itself. Here −α denotes the root of Σ opposite α (i.e. the complement of α in Σ regarded as a set of chambers). The wall of α is the set of all panels of Δ containing one chamber in α and one in −α. If α ∈ γ, then by [62, 3.13], there is a unique automorphism sα of Σ that stabilizes every panel in the wall of α and interchanges α with – α. We have sα = s–α for all α ∈ γ. A reflection of Σ is an automorphism of the form sα for some α ∈ γ. For each α , the element μΣ(g) induces sα on Σ (but is not necessarily of order 2). See 19.15 below.

Notation 1.19. Let Δ and G† be as in 1.18, let P be a panel of Δ and let GP be the stabilizer of P in G†. We choose a chamber x in P and an apartment Σ containing x and let α denote the unique root of Σ containing x but not P ⋂ Σ. By [62, 11.4], the root group Uα acts sharply transitively and, in particular, faithfully on P\{x}. Let Ux denote the image of Uα in Sym(Pdenote the group generated by Uβ for all roots β of Σ containing x. If β is a root of Σ containing x other than α, then Uβ acts trivially on Pacts transitively on the set of apartments containing x. It follows that the permutation group Ux is independent of the choice of the apartment Σ. Thus gUxg−1 = Ug(x) for all x ∈ P and all g ∈ GP and hence the pair

is a Moufang set as defined in 1.5 and

for all g ∈ Uα, where μΣ is as in 1.18, y is the unique chamber of P ⋂ α other than x, μxy denotes the image of g in Ux denotes the image of μΣ(g) in Sym(P).

BRUHAT-TITS BUILDINGS.

In these notes, we use the term Bruhat-Tits building in the sense introduced in [65]:

Definition 1.20. A Bruhat-Tits building is a thick irreducible affine building whose building at infinity is Moufang. The building at infinity of an affine building is constructed in [65, Chapter 8]. By 1.1, the building at infinity of a Bruhat-Tits building is spherical, irreducible and thick.

Assumption 1.21. By [(as defined in [65, 8.5]) and we will always do this in these notes.

for some ℓ ≥ 2 and for X = A, B, …, F or G (see ∞ is Xℓ∞ is defined over a field or a skew-field or an octonion division algebra K ∞ and completed the classification of Bruhat-Tits buildings by determining exactly which Moufang buildings can appear as the building at infinity (see [65, 27.5]).

Notation 1.22. We will apply the notation for Bruhat-Tits buildings given in the fourth column of Table 27.2 in [65] except that we suppress the reference to the valuation of K is complete, hence that the field or skew-field or octonion division algebra K is complete and hence that the discrete valuation of K , etc.

Remark 1.23. in the notation described in ∞ is obtained by simply removing the tilde. Note, however, that the spherical Coxeter diagrams Bℓ and Cℓ are the same for all ℓ are not the same when ℓ > 2. As a consequence, the inverse of the process of deleting the tilde is not so straightforward when X = B or C and ℓ > 2. Suppose, for example, that

for some ℓ ≥ 2 and some anisotropic quadratic space Ʌ = (K, L, q) such that K is complete with respect to a discrete valuation ν and 1 ∈ q(L). Then by [. Similar results hold in the other cases; see [65, 27.2].

Definition 1.24. As observed in [65, 30.33], a Moufang building can be mixed as defined in [65, 30.24] (see also 28.3), algebraic or exceptional as defined in [65, 30.32] or classical as defined in [65, 30.30]. (If it is exceptional, it is automatically algebraic, if it is algebraic, then it is either exceptional or classical and if it is not algebraic, then it is either classical or mixed.) We will say that a Bruhat-Tits building is mixed, exceptional, classical, respectively, algebraic if its building at infinity is mixed, exceptional, classical, respectively, algebraic.

Remark 1.25. Let F be a field complete with respect to a discrete valuation and let G be an absolutely simple algebraic group. If the F-rank of G is 1, then

is a Moufang set, where Δ is the set of parabolic subgroups of G(F) and Ux is the unipotent radical of x for each x ∞ of ends is Δ to which the action of the groups Ux can be extended. These trees together with Bruhat-Tits buildings in our sense are precisely the affine buildings that were investigated in [7] (together with certain non-discrete generalizations).

The following result should have been formulated explicitly in [65]:

Theorem 1.26. Let be a Bruhat-Tits building. Then every automorphism of ∞ is induced by a unique automorphism of . In other words) and Aut(Δ) are canonically isomorphic.

Proof. By [65, 13.10 and 13.31], it suffices to show that any two valuations of the root datum of Δ are equipollent. Let K (or {K, Kop} or {K, E}) be the defining field of Δ in the sense of [65, 30.29]. By [65, 27.5] K is complete with respect to a discrete valuation. As was observed in 1.22, the discrete valuation ν of K is unique. By [65, 19.4, 23.16, 24.9 and 25.5], the parameter system defining Δ is ν-compatible as defined in the references in the second column of [65, Table 27.2]. By [65, 3.41(iii) and 16.4] combined with the results [65, 20.2(ii), 21.27(ii) and 22.16(ii)], it follows that any two valuations of the root datum of Δ are equipollent as claimed.

□

Remark 1.27. We allow ourselves, in light of to type-preserving elements of Δ.

SIMPLICIAL COMPLEXES.

In the original definition given in [55], a building is a simplicial complex, but in these notes (as in [62] and [65]), we view buildings as certain edge-colored graphs and the residues as certain subgraphs. See [62, 1.2 and 7.1] for the precise definitions. The vertices of these graphs are called chambers and when we write, for example, c ∈ Δ or c ∈ R or c ∈ Σ or c ∈ α, we mean that c is a chamber of the building Δ or the residue R or the apartment Σ or the root α.

In Chapters 26 and 27, however, where we work more closely with the notion of the building at infinity of an affine building, the notion of a building as a simplicial complex plays an important role. We use the rest of this chapter to fix some notation which we will need (only in those two chapters).

Definition 1.28. A simplicial complex , where V is a set whose elements are called vertices is a subset of the power set of V whose elements are called simplices, such that

for all υ ∈ V and

   (ii)  all subsets of a simplex are also simplices.

The dimension of a simplex is its cardinality minus one. The set V is generally identified with the set of simplices of dimension 0.

Definition 1.29. be a simplicial complex. A numbering of B is a surjective map from V to a set I (which we call the index set) such that the restriction of this map to each simplex is injective. A numbered simplicial complex is a simplicial complex endowed with a numbering.

Definition 1.30. be two simplicial complexes with numberings ν and ν′ having index sets I and I′. A morphism from (B, ν) to (B′, ν′) is a pair (ξ, σ), where ξ is a map from V to V′ carrying simplices to simplices and σ is a map from I to I′ such that ν′ ο ξ = σ ο ν. An isomorphism from (B, ν) to (B′, ν′) is a morphism (ξ, ν) such that ξ and ν are bijections and (ξ−1, ν−1) is a morphism from (B′, ν′) to (B, ν). We denote by Aut(B, ν) the group consisting of all isomorphisms from (B, ν) to itself. A subcomplex of (B, ν) is a numbered simplicial complex (B1, ν1) whose vertex set is a subset of V and whose index set is a subset of I such that (incl, incl) is a morphism from (B1, ν1) to (B, ν).

Notation 1.31. Let Π be a Coxeter diagram with vertex set S, let n = |S|, let Δ be a building of type Π, let V be the set of all maximal residues of Δ and let ν be the map from V to S which sends a maximal residue whose type is J to the unique element s of S such that J = S\{s}. If R is a proper residue of Δ and J ⊂ S if R is a single chamber), then for each s ∈ S\J, there exists a unique (S\{s})-residue Rs such that R ⊂ Rs and by [62, 7.25],

For each residue R, we denote by AR the set of maximal residues containing R ) and we set

denotes the set of subsets AR of V for all residues R of Δ (proper or not). Then Δ# is a numbered simplicial complex with index set S whose simplices of dimension k as defined in 1.28 correspond to residues of Δ of rank n – k – 1 as defined in [65, 29.1]. In particular, every simplex of Δ# has dimension at most n – 1 and the chambers of Δ (i.e. the minimal residues) correspond to the simplices of Δ# of dimension n – 1 (i.e. the maximal simplices).

Remarks 1.32. Let Δ, Δ#, S and n be as in 1.31. Then the following hold:

(a)  The building Δ can be reconstructed from Δ#: Two chambers are s-adjacent in Δ for some s ∈ S precisely when the intersection of the corresponding maximal simplices has dimension n – 2.

(b)  The correspondence

is containment-reversing.

(c)  There is a canonical isomorphism from Aut(Δ) to Aut(Δ#).

, where Vcontaining only elements of VΣ.

In light of these observations, it is natural to think of Δ and Δ# as the same object, simply seen from two points of view.

Chapter Two

Quadratic Forms

We use this chapter to assemble a few standard definitions and results about quadratic forms and polar spaces.

Definition 2.1. A quadratic module is a triple Ʌ = (R, L, q) consisting of a commutative ring R with identity 1 = 1R, an R-module L and a quadratic form q on L, that is to say, a map q from L to R such that the map f from L × L to R given by

is bilinear and q(tu) = t²q(u) for all u, υ ∈ L and all t ∈ R. The symmetric bilinear form f will be denoted by ∂q. A quadratic module (R, L, q) (or a quadratic form q) is anisotropic if q(υ0 for all υ ∈ L* := L\{0} and isotropic otherwise. In most cases, it causes no ambiguity to refer to q when Ʌ is meant and we will do this whenever it is convenient. A quadratic space is a quadratic module where the ring R is a field and thus L is a vector space over K. If Ʌ = (K, L, q) is a quadratic space, we set dimK (q) = dimK L.

Remark 2.2. Let (R, L, q) be a quadratic module. If 2 is invertible in R, then q(u) = ∂q(u, u)/2 for all u ∈ L, so q is uniquely determined by ∂q. In particular, q is uniquely determined by ∂q for a quadratic space (K, L, q) when char(K2. This is not true, in general, if char(K) = 2. The norm of an inseparable quadratic extension E/K, for example, is a non-zero quadratic form such that ∂q is identically zero.

Definition 2.3. Let Ʌ = (R, L, q) and Ʌ′ = (R, L′, q′) be two quadratic modules over the same ring R. An isometry from Ʌ to Ʌ′ (or from q to q′) is a bijective linear map η : L → L′ such that q = q′ ο η. We say that Ʌ and Ʌ′ (or q and q′) are isometric, and write Ʌ ≅ Ʌ′ (or q ≅ q′), if there exists an isometry from Ʌ to Ʌ′. A similarity from Ʌ to Ʌ′ (or from q to q′) is an isometry from q to γq′ for some invertible element γ of R; the factor γ is called the multiplier, or similarity factor, of the similarity. A similitude of Ʌ is a similarity from Ʌ to itself.

Definition 2.4. Let Ʌ = (R, L, q) be a quadratic module. A subform of q is the restriction of q to a submodule of L. Every subform of q is, of course, itself a quadratic form over R. A quadratic submodule of Ʌ is a quadratic module (R, L′, q′) over R such that L′ is a submodule of L and q′ is the restriction of q to L′.

Definition 2.5. Let Ʌ = (R, L, q) and Ʌ′ = (R, L′, q′) be two quadratic modules over the same ring R. The orthogonal sum Ʌ ⊕ Ʌ′ of Ʌ and Ʌ′ is the quadratic module (R, M, q ⊕ q′), where M = L ⊕ L′ and Q := q ⊕ q′ is the quadratic form on M given by

for all υ ∈ L and all υ′ ∈ L′. Note that

for all υ ∈ L and all υ′ ∈ L′.

Notation 2.6. Let Ʌ = (R, L, q) be a quadratic module over R and suppose that S is a commutative ring with multiplicative identity 1S and π is a homomorphism from R to S mapping 1R to 1S. Using π to make S into an R-module, we form the tensor product LS = L ⊗R S. We then endow LS with the structure of an S-module in the usual way, so that

for all υ ∈ L and all s, t ∈ S. As is shown, for example, in [28, pp. 1.7-1.8], there exists a unique quadratic form on LS over S such that

and

for all u, υ ∈ L and all s, t ∈ S. We will call the quadratic module ɅS := (S, LS, qS) (or qS) the scalar extension of Ʌ (or q) from R to S. In our applications of this construction, R will almost always be a subring of S with the same multiplicative identity and π will be the natural embedding; the one exception is in 2.9 below, where π is equally natural. For this reason, we do not mention π in our notation.

Suppose that T is a third commutative ring with identity 1T and that π′ is a homomorphism from S to T sending 1S to 1T. There is a canonical identification of

with LT = L ⊗R T as T-modules (with tensor products formed using π, π′ and their composition) where

for all υ ∈ L, s ∈ S and t ∈ T. Applying this identification, we have

Example 2.9. Let Ʌ = (R, L, q) be a quadratic module and A an ideal in R(respectively, υ ↦ ῡ) the canonical map from R (respectively, from L -module under the well defined natural action

given by

for all υ ∈ L is called the reduction of Ʌ modulo A-modules such that

for all υ ∈ L and all r ∈ Rof Ʌ from R obtained by setting π in 2.6.

Definition 2.10. A quadratic module Ʌ = (R, L, q) is strictly non-singular if the R-module L is free and of finite rank and the natural map

from L to its dual module is an isomorphism. This is equivalent to the condition that the matrix of ∂q relative to some (or any) basis of L is invertible.

Definition 2.11. Let Ʌ = (K, L, q) be a quadratic space. The quadratic form q (or the quadratic space Ʌ) is non-singular if ∂q is non-degenerate, that is to say, if x ∈ L and ∂q(x, y) = 0 for all y ∈ L, then x = 0. Thus Ʌ is strictly non-singular if and only if it is non-singular and finite-dimensional. The quadratic form q is singular if it is not non-singular and totally singular if ∂q is identically zero. If q is anisotropic and char(K2, then f(u, u) = 2q(u0 for f = ∂q and for all u ∈ L*, so q is non-singular. It is not, however, true that anisotropic implies non-singular if char(K) = 2, as the example in 2.2 shows. See also 2.31 below.

Example 2.12. Let q be the norm of a quadratic extension E/K, let f = ∂q and let a be an element of E not in K. We make E ⊗K E into a vector space over E by endowing it with the unique scalar multiplication such that (2.7) holds for all s, t, υ ∈ E. Since the subset {1, a} of E is linearly independent over K, the subset {1 ⊗ 1, a ⊗ 1} of E ⊗K E is linearly independent over E. Therefore 1 ⊗ a – a 0 but qE(1 ⊗ a – a ⊗ 1) = a² – f (1, a)a + q(a) = 0. Thus q is anisotropic but qE is not.

Example 2.13. Let q be the norm of a quadratic extension E/K, let L/K be an extension such that L ⋂ E = K and let F be the composite field LE. Then qL is the norm of the quadratic extension F/L.

Remark 2.14. We will call a quadratic space non-trivial if it is of positive dimension. Note that by exist only for non-trivial anisotropic quadratic spaces even though we did not say this explicitly in [60] and [65] (and probably forget to say it explicitly now and then in these notes).

Notation 2.15. Let Ʌ = (R, L, q) be a quadratic module and let Ω = (R, M, Q) be a quadratic submodule of Ʌ. Then

is a submodule of L; let Ω⊥ denote the corresponding quadratic submodule of Ʌ. If Ω is strictly non-singular, then

(by [30, 5.4.1], for example), and after the obvious identifications we have Ʌ = Ω ⊕ Ω⊥ in the sense of 2.5. In this case, we call M⊥ (respectively, Ω⊥) the orthogonal complement of M (respectively, Ω).