Construction Management JumpStart: The Best First Step Toward a Career in Construction Management

Contents

Cover

Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Publisher's Note

Dedication

Acknowledgments

About the Author

Introduction

Chapter 1: The Construction Industry

The Scope of the Industry

A Historical Perspective

Industry Sectors

The Project Players

The Industry Image

Career Opportunities

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Chapter 2: What Is Construction Management?

Construction Management Defined

The Construction Project

The Owner Sets the Stage

Project Delivery Methods

Project Delivery Selection

What Does a Construction Manager Do?

What It Takes to Be a Construction Manager

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Chapter 3: How We Get the Work

Finding the Work

The Competition

How We Play the Game

Making the Bid/No Bid Decision

A Final Note

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Chapter 4: The Construction Contract

The Contract Documents

The Construction Specification Institute

Contract Types

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Chapter 5: Project Stages

The Design and Construction Process

The Successful Project

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Chapter 6: Estimating Project Costs

What Is an Estimate?

The Characteristics of a Good Estimator

Factors Impacting Project Cost

Types of Estimates

Understanding Project Costs

The Estimating Process

Putting It All Together

Completing the Estimate

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Chapter 7: Contract Administration

Starting Off Right

Who’s on First?

Coordinating Construction Details

Getting Paid

Schedule Issues

Making Changes

When Things Go Wrong

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Chapter 8: Construction Operations and Job Site Management

Building the Project

Construction Impacts

The Superintendent

Documenting Construction Activity

Public Relations

Company Image and Publicity

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Chapter 9: Project Planning and Scheduling

It’s All About Time!

Types of Schedules

Building the Schedule

Communicating and Updating the Schedule

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Chapter 10: Monitoring Project Performance

The Project Control Cycle

Factors Impacting Project Performance

Tracking Quality, Cost, and Time

Assessing Overall Project Status

Documenting Project Performance

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Chapter 11: Managing Quality and Safety

Attitude Is Everything

Developing the Quality Management Plan

The QA/QC Functions

Safety as a Component of Quality

A Dangerous Business

Developing the Safety Management Plan

The Economics of Quality and Safety

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Chapter 12: Managing Project Risks

A Systematic Process

The Risk Mitigation Plan

The Risk Management Team

You Get What You Plan For

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Chapter 13: Building Information Modeling

What Is a Building Information Model?

Designing in BIM

Using BIM to Manage Construction

Implementing BIM

Implications for the Future

Terms to Know

Review Questions

Appendix A: Common Acronyms Used in Construction

Appendix B: Answers to Review Questions

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Glossary

Index

Wiley End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 3: How We Get the Work

Table 3-1 Selection Methods

Table 3-2 Weighted Criteria Evaluation Matrix

Table 3-3 Making the Decision to Bid

Chapter 5: Project Stages

Table 5-1 Building Elements and Work Items

Chapter 9: Project Planning and Scheduling

Table 9-1 Level of Detail

Table 9-2 Activity List

Chapter 10: Monitoring Project Performance

Table 10-1 Management Elements and Tracking Tools

Table 10-2 Cost Analysis

Chapter 11: Managing Quality and Safety

Table 11-1 Price Differences Based on Quality

Chapter 12: Managing Project Risks

Table 12-1 Design Risks

Table 12-2 Construction Risks

Table 12-3 Political/Legal/Regulatory Risks

Table 12-4 Financing Risks

Table 12-5 Environmental Risks

Construction Management JumpStart

Second Edition

Barbara J. Jackson

Acquisitions Editor: Agatha Kim

Development Editor: Kelly Talbot

Technical Editor: Paul Weber

Production Editor: Angela Smith

Copy Editor: Kim Wimpsett

Editorial Manager: Pete Gaughan

Production Manager: Tim Tate

Vice President and Executive Group Publisher: Richard Swadley

Vice President and Publisher: Neil Edde

Compositor: James D. Kramer, Happenstance Type-O-Rama

Proofreader: Publication Services, Inc.

Indexer: Jack Lewis

Project Coordinator, Cover: Lynsey Stanford

Cover Designer: Ryan Sneed

Cover Image: altrendo images / Stockbyte / Getty Images

Copyright © 2010 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana

Published simultaneously in Canada

ISBN: 978-0-470-60999-6

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation warranties of fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales or promotional materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional services. If professional assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. The fact that an organization or Web site is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Web site may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Web sites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.

For general information on our other products and services or to obtain technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at (877) 762-2974, outside the U.S. at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Jackson, Barbara J. Construction management jumpstart / Barbara Jackson. — 2nd ed. p. cm. ISBN-13: 978-0-470-60999-6 (pbk); ISBN-10: 0-470-60999-0 (pbk); ISBN: 978-0-470-76806-8 (ebk); ISBN: 978-0-470-76808-2 (ebk); ISBN: 978-0-470-76807-5 (ebk) 1. Construction industry — Management. I. Title. HD9715.A2J32 2010 624.068 — dc22 2010013509

TRADEMARKS: Wiley, the Wiley logo, and the Sybex logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates, in the United States and other countries, and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Wiley Publishing, Inc., is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Dear Reader,

Thank you for choosing Construction Management JumpStart, Second Edition. This book is part of a family of premium-quality Sybex books, all of which are written by outstanding authors who combine practical experience with a gift for teaching.

Sybex was founded in 1976. More than 30 years later, we’re still committed to producing consistently exceptional books. With each of our titles, we’re working hard to set a new standard for the industry. From the paper we print on, to the authors we work with, our goal is to bring you the best books available.

I hope you see all that reflected in these pages. I’d be very interested to hear your comments and get your feedback on how we’re doing. Feel free to let me know what you think about this or any other Sybex book by sending me an email at nedde@wiley.com. If you think you’ve found a technical error in this book, please visit http://sybex.custhelp.com. Customer feedback is critical to our efforts at Sybex.

Best regards,

Neil Edde

Vice President and Publisher

Sybex, an Imprint of Wiley

To Jim Rodger, for dedicating 26 years of his life to quality construction management education and for always putting the students first.

Acknowledgments

No great accomplishment ever happens in a vacuum. There are always a lot of people behind the scenes who deserve much of the credit for any good thing that makes it to the light of day. I believe this book is one of those good things, and it would never have happened without the hard work and dedication of several people.

I want to start by thanking Sybex for launching the JumpStart series. I believe that it serves a unique purpose by introducing the public to a number of career paths that they may otherwise never encounter. I am especially grateful to Elizabeth Peterson for discovering my web page and making the phone call asking whether I would be interested in writing this book. I want to acknowledge her for recognizing construction management as the untapped career opportunity that it is. Elizabeth, by initiating this book on construction management, you have provided a great service to the construction industry and the clients it serves. Thank you.

I also want to thank the many other talented members of the Sybex team who helped put this book together. I’ll start by thanking my developmental editors, Brianne Agatep and Maureen Adams, for walking me through the writing process and taking care of all of my formatting errors. Next I want to give a special thanks to Suzanne Goraj, who cleaned up all of my grammatical gaffes and helped my message ring loud and clear. And to Mae Lum, the production editor, a special thank-you for keeping everything on track while I traveled around the country teaching seminars and doing consulting work for the construction and design-build industry. I’d also like to thank Agatha Kim, Kelly Talbot, and Angela Smith for all of their contributions to making the second edition of this book even stronger.

Of course, I would be remiss without thanking the rest of the Sybex team responsible for tying up the loose ends and putting the whole thing together: compositor Kate Kaminski of Happenstance Type-O-Rama, illustrator Jeff Wilson of Happenstance Type-O-Rama, proofreader Nancy Riddiough, and indexer Nancy Guenther. For the Second Edition, copyeditor Kim Wimpsett, compositor James Kramer of Happenstance Type-O-Rama, illustrator Richard Sheppard of Happenstance Type-O-Rama, proofreaders Publication Services, Inc., and indexer Jack Lewis.

In addition to the fine folks at Sybex, a number of other supporters must be mentioned. Let me start by acknowledging several authors, most of them good friends and fellow faculty, who have written really good texts used as general references in the writing of this book.

Managing the Construction Process: Estimating, Scheduling, and Project Control by Frederick E. Gould (2004)

Construction Jobsite Management by William R. Mincks and Hal Johnston (2004)

Management of Construction Projects: A Constructor’s Perspective by John E. Schaufelberger and Len Holm (2002)

Construction Management Fundamentals by Clifford J. Schexnayder and Richard E. Mayo (2004)

BIM and Construction Management: Proven Tools, Methods, and Workflows by Brad Hardin (2009)

I extend a very special thank-you to my dear friend, colleague, and technical editor Paul Weber for his diligent review of every word in the manuscript for technical accuracy and application. Paul, I greatly appreciate your support and assistance in helping me achieve this goal. And as always, your abilities to communicate graphically were put to good use in several instances throughout the book.

To my department head, Allan Hauck, and to my colleagues and students at Cal Poly State University, thank you for putting up with my mental absences while I was focused on the completion of this book and for encouraging me every step of the way.

And finally, as always and forever, I thank my husband Wayne for his continued support, love, and understanding year after year while I continue to pursue the passions of my heart.

About the Author

Barbara J. Jackson is Director of the California Center for Construction Education and a Professor of Construction Management at California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo. She holds a BS in Housing and Design, an MS in Construction Management, and a Ph.D. in Education and Human Resources. With over 20 years of experience as a licensed contractor and design-builder, she is a nationally recognized speaker and consultant on alternative project delivery.

Introduction

Congratulations! You are about to embark on an adventure. This book is about the processes, the people, and the practices that we call construction management—a term and a profession that may be unfamiliar to many people. Construction, as most individuals understand it, is an activity or a series of activities that involves some craftspeople, building materials, tools, and equipment. But you will learn that there is a great deal more to it than that. If you think that construction is all about brawn and not much about brains, then you probably haven’t been paying very close attention to what has been going on in the built environment in the past several decades. Buildings today can be very complicated, and the building process has become extremely demanding. It takes savvy professional talent to orchestrate all of the means and methods needed to accomplish the building challenge.

This book’s focus is not on construction per se. Its focus is on the construction process and those individuals who manage that process. Construction management involves the organization, coordination, and strategic effort applied to the construction activities and the numerous resources needed to achieve the building objective. Construction management combines both the art and science of building technology along with the essential principles of business, management, computer technology, and leadership.

Construction management as a profession is a relatively new concept, which may explain why you have not heard of it before. Up until the 1960s, the management tasks associated with large construction projects were typically handled by civil engineers. But in 1965, faculty from nine universities gathered in Florida to form the Associated Schools of Construction. What started as a movement to upgrade the status of construction education at universities evolved into a standardized construction management curriculum leading to an exciting new career choice, one for which there was increasing demand. Men and women who love the idea of transforming a lifeless set of plans and specifications into something real—a single-family home, a high-rise office building, a biotech facility, a super highway, or a magnificent suspension bridge—had found an educational program that provided both the academic course work and the practical management tools needed to plan, organize, and coordinate the increasingly complex construction process.

If you are one of the many individuals who desire the intellectual challenges of architecture, engineering, technology, and business, yet long to be outside in the thick of things, getting your hands dirty and ultimately producing a tangible result—something of lasting value—then construction management might just be the ticket for you.

The purpose of this book is to give you a jump-start on understanding what construction management is all about. After reading this book, you will have a good sense of what the job of a construction manager entails and what is needed to be good at it. You will learn about the diverse tasks associated with planning, organizing, and managing a construction project to a successful end. You will also discover the many opportunities available for an individual interested in pursuing a career in CM.

You can continue to explore these opportunities by reading other books about construction management, by taking construction management classes, and by networking with practitioners in the industry. And for those of you who want to take your interests and careers in construction to the next level, you can consider pursuing professional certification through either the American Institute of Constructors (AIC) or the Construction Management Association of America (CMAA). Both of these organizations and their certification programs are introduced in Chapter 1.

And after you’ve read this book, the next time you see some construction, I hope that, besides being fascinated by the activity, you will also be impressed by the ingenuity, creativity, and heart of the people who can achieve such feats. It’s also my goal to give you a new appreciation for the men and women who built this nation in the past and who continue to contribute to the built environment in a significant way. Enjoy!

Who Should Read This Book

If you have picked up this book, I suspect that you have already experienced construction at some level and are curious about what construction management is. You may currently be working in construction on the building side as a craftsperson or laborer and want to know how you can move over to the management side. Or you may be a construction management student wanting a glimpse into the day-to-day challenges faced by the construction professional. On the other hand, you may currently have nothing to do with construction other than having a longtime interest in the building process. Some of you may have had a home built or a room added on and are simply interested in learning what the fuss was all about.

I hope that architects and engineers will pick up this book to get a better understanding of the contractor side of the equation. Some designers, tired of sitting behind a desk all day, may even contemplate giving construction management a try just for the heck of it. I suspect that there will be more than a few real estate agents, mortgage brokers, and interior designers who will use this book to become better informed regarding the construction process, integrating the new knowledge into the services they provide their clients. Then, of course, there are those of you who are already working in construction management but have been looking for a resource that will help explain what it is you do for a living!

No matter what your reason for buying this book, I feel confident that it will be money well spent. For those of you who have little or no experience with construction, I venture to guess that someday you will, and when you do, your knowledge and understanding of construction management will become quite valuable.

As for those of you who already have experience in construction, I have tried to write a comprehensive overview of the construction management process from the constructor’s perspective. I’m sure you will relate to the Real World Scenarios presented throughout the text and enjoy the human aspects conveyed in the pages of this book. They are intended to drive home the challenges associated with construction and express the contribution that construction professionals make to the built environment. This book will assist you in communicating to clients, colleagues, and the public at large the significant role that the construction manager plays in the overall success of a construction project.

What This Book Covers

This book walks you through the construction management process—explaining how you take a project from a set of two-dimensional drawings to a three-dimensional wood, steel, or concrete building, bridge, or highway. Along the way, you will learn about the seven functions of construction management and how each of them contributes to the successful delivery of the construction project. Here’s an overview of what this book covers:

Chapter 1 This chapter introduces you to the construction industry and the opportunities that it offers. Here you will learn about the different industry sectors and the roles of the various participants in the construction process.

Chapters 2–5 These chapters explain in greater detail what construction management is and how construction work is obtained in the first place. You will also learn about the construction contract and about each of the stages leading from design to post-construction.

Chapter 6 Figuring out what a project is going to cost is one of the first steps to getting a construction contract. This chapter deals with the estimating function of construction management. Here you will learn about the different types of estimates and how you price construction work.

Chapter 7 In this chapter, you will learn all about the conditions of the contract and what it takes to manage them. Contract administration is all about handling the red tape, business details, and paperwork of the construction project.

Chapter 8 Once the contract is signed and everything is a go regarding the project, you are ready to start construction. This chapter deals with organizing the job site and coordinating all of the manpower, materials, and equipment needed to get the work done.

Chapter 9 This chapter stresses the importance of good project planning and identifies the various tools used to schedule all of the activities associated with moving the project from startup to completion.

Chapter 10 The only way to know whether your project has met its goals for cost, time, and quality is to monitor and track individual components of performance. This chapter gets into the details of project control and explains how to get a job back on track if it should start to go off course.

Chapter 11 In this chapter, you will learn the importance of quality control and safety management throughout the construction process. No project can succeed without well-established quality and safety plans.

Chapter 12 Bottom line: Construction management is all about managing risk. In this chapter, you will learn about a standardized process for identifying, analyzing, and quantifying project risks so plans can be made to mitigate their impact.

Chapter 13 This final chapter introduces you to building information modeling (BIM) and how it is being utilized by contractors today. Building information modeling takes 3D modeling to a whole new level. Although relatively new to the construction industry, the use of this technology is growing fast, and it will transform how construction managers do their jobs.

Making the Most of This Book

At the beginning of each chapter of Construction Management JumpStart, you’ll find a list of the topics that I cover within the chapter.

In addition, several special elements highlight important information.

New terms

provide explanations of important concepts in the margin of the page, where you can easily spot them.

To help you absorb new material easily, I’ve highlighted new terms in italics and defined them in the page margins.

NOTE

Notes provide extra information and references to related information.

You’ll also find a list of Terms to Know section near the end of each chapter to help you review the new terms introduced in the chapter. These terms are compiled in the Glossary at the end of the book.

At the end of each chapter, you can test your knowledge of the chapter’s relevant topics by answering the review questions. You’ll find the answers to the review questions in Appendix B.

Chapter 1

The Construction Industry

The economic impact of construction

How construction was transformed from a craft to an industry

The five primary sectors of the construction industry

The roles of the project participants

How the construction industry is transforming

The advancement of technology in construction

The construction industry’s impact on sustainability

Opportunities in construction management

The construction industry is vast and varied. Just take a look around—from homes to highways to hospitals—and you see the results of this industry. Starting with the need for shelter, we first built primitive huts and houses. Then we constructed buildings for assembly and churches in which to worship. As our needs expanded, so did our building capabilities. We eventually built political capitals, great cities bustling with business and commerce. Though the means and the methods have changed over the centuries, the construction industry is still about building communities that serve people.

Construction is big business, totaling more than $3.9 trillion annually worldwide, and there is no slowdown in sight. The industry employs about 7 million people directly (plumbers, carpenters, welders, and so on) and hundreds of thousands more indirectly. It gives rise to the steel industry, the lumber industry, the carpet industry, the furniture industry, the paint industry, the concrete industry, the paving industry, and so on. It goes even further than that if you consider the trucking, shipping, manufacturing, and mining industries. Architects, engineers, draftspeople, building inspectors, code officials, and other professionals would not have jobs if it weren’t for construction. As construction projects become increasingly more complex, the challenges associated with managing these projects become more complicated. The need for qualified construction managers is tremendous, and opportunities abound for those interested in the work.

Let’s take a closer look at the construction industry and the position it has in our economy and our lives.

The Scope of the Industry

Let’s first make sure that you understand what construction is really all about. I have found that most people, including many who are already engaged in construction, do not understand the significance of the industry. So, let’s start by considering the scope and the magnitude of construction and take a look at its impact on our society and our economy.

It’s Just Construction

In my experience, the average observer of construction regards the process as rather insignificant and inconsequential—nothing special, nothing unique, not an industry of any major importance—mostly filled with noninfluential blue-collar macho types. After all, when compared to medicine or law or even architecture, the common notion is it’s just construction. This is why our great buildings and structures are typically identified only with the designer, and not with who built them. The contractor is incidental. Let me give you a few recent examples to drive home my point.

The distinctive architectural designs of Frank Gehry are known all over the world. One of his newest creations, the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles, is the most challenging of all Frank’s buildings … an enormously complicated structure because of the curved shapes and intricate joinery, according to Terry Bell, project architect for Gehry Partners, LLP, as quoted on the Walt Disney Concert Hall website. The website mentions that extraordinary state-of-the-art construction techniques were needed for the Concert Hall—[o]ne of the most technically advanced structures in the world, [with] its lack of right angles and the overall sculptural quality. At any one time as many as 550 construction workers were on-site to transform the concrete and steel into one of the most acoustically sophisticated concert halls in the world. However, you would be hard-pressed to find one mention of the building contractor of this magnificent construction feat in the popular press or on the Concert Hall’s website. Not one single mention! This incredible construction challenge was accomplished by the M.A. Mortenson Company.

base isolators

Large shock absorbers made of alternating layers of rubber and steel attached to a building’s foundation to allow movement of the structure without causing damage.

Let’s consider another example. In 2002, the third-largest cathedral in the world and the first cathedral to be built in the United States in more than a quarter of a century was constructed in downtown Los Angeles. Designed by the world-renowned Spanish architect Professor Jose Rafael Moneo, the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels stands 11 stories tall and weighs a whopping 151 million pounds. The cathedral rests on 198 base isolators so that it will float up to 27 inches in any direction during an 8-point magnitude earthquake. It has been stated that the design is so geometrically complex that none of the concrete forms could vary by more than ¹⁄16th of an inch. Having visited the cathedral several times during its construction and been witness to the extraordinary efforts made by the construction team to ensure the quality of the design along with the requirements for the budget and schedule, I was very disappointed, again, not to find one mention of the contractor, Morley Builders, on the cathedral’s website.

Consider any of our architectural jewels: the Willis Tower (formerly known as the Sears Tower) in Chicago, the Space Needle in Seattle, the Transamerica Pyramid in San Francisco, and the Empire State Building in New York. With a little research, you would find that each of these buildings is easily identified with their designers. However, it would be a real challenge for you to discover that Morse Diesel International, Inc., was the builder of the Sears Tower, that Howard S. Wright Construction built the Space Needle, that the general contractor for the Transamerica Pyramid was Dinwiddie Construction (now Hatheway-Dinwiddie), and finally that Starrett Brothers & Eken, Inc., was the builder of the Empire State Building.

To me, not recognizing and acknowledging the contractor along with the designers of these buildings is a grave injustice—but, unfortunately, indicative of how our society views the construction industry. Apparently, to some people it is not very important. Well, let me explain why it is very important. Drawing a pretty picture on paper or calculating a complex engineering formula does not make a building real—construction does, and that takes tremendous creativity, ingenuity, tenacity, skill, blood, sweat, and tears. So remember, no matter how outstanding the design, it is not architecture until somebody builds it! Just construction? I don’t think so!

Construction’s Contribution

Our society does not take the contributions of the construction industry very seriously. But it should, because without these contributions, this world would be a very bleak place. When you walk out of your office, home, or classroom today, just take a good look at the world around you. I want you to notice the houses, the churches, the hospitals, the shopping malls, the theaters, the baseball stadiums, the bridges, the streets, and even the cars driving around. None of these would exist without construction. There would be no cars or any other manufactured products because there would be no manufacturing plants—no Nike shoes, no McDonald’s restaurants, and no iPhones. There would be no commerce, no transportation, and no manufacturing. Progress and construction go hand in hand—we can’t have one without the other. Our society, our economy, and our culture are all dependent upon the construction industry. So, the next time you hear someone complaining about construction workers stirring up dust at the intersection or delaying their trip to work in the morning, I hope that you will take the time to point out what our world would be like without construction.

NOTE

When a building is notably impressive, people ask, Who designed that wonderful building? But when a building design is particularly unimpressive, people ask, Who built that eyesore? Why aren’t people as curious about who builds the great structures as they are about who designed them?

Construction Statistics

Let’s put it all in perspective. Construction is one of the nation’s largest industries, accounting for approximately 9 percent of the gross national product. It is larger than the automobile and steel industries put together. Housing starts (which are identified by building permits issued) are one of the major economic indicators reflecting the overall health and direction of our economy.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the year 2008 ended with approximately $1 trillion worth of construction (all private and public sectors) put in place for the year. The U.S. Department of Labor estimates that there are at least 880,000 construction companies employing just under 7.7 million people in the United States. Construction offers more opportunities than most other industries for individuals who want to own and run their own businesses, and statistically an additional 1.6 million individuals do just that.

Construction impacts the quality of life for every human being and plays a major role in all of society and has for a very long time. Anyone who is involved in construction—from the grading laborer to the electrician to the estimator to the construction manager to the construction company executive—needs to understand that what they do makes a big difference in the world.

Construction has been around a very, very long time. Construction means, methods, and motivations have changed over the past 12,000 years or so, and the trek has been absolutely fascinating. Let’s continue this adventure by taking a look at some of the factors that have influenced this very significant industry.

A Historical Perspective

The purpose of spending some time on the history of the construction industry is to further reveal the impact of construction on society. As you read this brief history, imagine the creativity, ingenuity, and tenacity that these early constructors must have possessed in order to achieve such extraordinary building achievements. What started as a craft motivated by necessity (shelter from the elements) gradually turned into building science motivated by curiosity, intrigue, and genius. The building challenges of today are just as complex as in the past and are even more sophisticated, inspiring the same attributes exhibited by the early master builders. Let’s take a brief walk through time and visit some of the world’s greatest construction accomplishments.

Ancient Times

Although agriculture is probably recognized as the oldest industry in history, construction is most likely a close second. The construction industry can trace its roots back to at least the Stone Age, as early as 12000 BC. Using materials readily available—mud, wood, and stone—early man began constructing simple structures for protection from the rain, cold, heat, and snow. During this same period, the development of bronze and iron allowed man to make stronger tools that significantly expanded the possibilities in building construction, allowing builders to develop their skills.

As construction skills and tool development increased, real expertise in the building trades began to emerge. Simple shelter grew into planned settlements, villages, and cities. Soon, the need for common gathering places became part of the building challenge, and this period saw the start of public building for special events, religious ceremonies, manufacturing, and commerce. Small villages became large cities, and large cities grew into great civilizations, and at the heart of it all was construction.

Egypt and the Pyramids

Many of these early civilizations were building with one of the first manufactured building materials, dried mud bricks. However, the Egyptians began to use stone as their primary building material. Although the process of moving these very large masses of rock was difficult, to say the least, the ingenuity of these ancient builders conquered these challenges, resulting in some of the most fascinating building projects in all of history—the great pyramids.

At this time, there was really no distinction between architecture, engineering, or construction. All three disciplines were embodied in one person—the master builder. The master builder concept would survive for many years, until the complexity of structures and construction techniques warranted a separation of disciplines.

It was during the building of the pyramids that the first known building code was recorded, dating back to approximately 1792–1750 BC. These written rules and responsibilities were among the laws carved into stone tablets, collectively known as the Code of Hammurabi. The building code dictated acceptable workmanship standards for the master builder. Failure to meet these standards brought stiff penalties, in some cases including death.

Greek Influence

During the pyramid-building era, the Egyptians used large numbers of unskilled workers to construct their massive undertakings. However, the Greek master builders, who were building many beautiful temples made of marble and limestone (such as the Parthenon in Athens), started to organize and utilize small groups of skilled stonemasons. This idea of congregating workmen around a particular craft represents the beginning of the building trades concept, in which a particular building skill is honed to a level of expertise associated with a master craftsman. Although much of the work was still performed by an unskilled workforce, the use of skilled artisans allowed for a finer detail and design to be applied to the architecture. This is clearly a turning point in construction history.

The Roman Empire

The Roman Empire represents one of the most influential periods of time for architecture, engineering, and building science. During the Roman Empire, significant strides were made in construction techniques. An early form of concrete, a staple in every present-day building project, was invented by the Romans. This early version consisted of a pasty, hydrated lime and pozzolan ash mixture made from rock. In addition to utilizing concrete in the foundations of their structures, the Romans began adding domes and arches to their buildings, achieving engineering and construction feats that were astounding. During this time, some of the world’s most impressive structures were built, including the Colosseum and the Pantheon. The first glass was also incorporated in the first century AD and decorated many Roman structures. Road construction was another highlight of the Roman Empire, and many of these ancient pathways are still carrying travelers today.

Around 40 BC, a Roman writer, engineer, and architect named Marcus Vitruvius Pollio wrote the first design and construction handbook. His writings included topics on building materials, construction processes, building styles, road and bridge design, water-heating techniques, acoustics, and other building physics. With Vitruvius’ writings, the concept of master builder or architect took on even greater distinction. The master builder was responsible for both the design and the supervision of the construction. Surprisingly, Vitruvius’ work was recognized as the authority on building and design for centuries.

The Middle Ages

With the downfall of the Roman Empire came a real decline in building activity and technology. Then around 900 AD, the powerful Roman Catholic Church revitalized stone construction as it intensely pursued church and cathedral building throughout Europe. Even during this somewhat stagnant period, great building efforts were taking place. Glorious Gothic cathedrals highlighted the European landscape, and many other impressive structures were being designed and built all over the world.

Craft training and education became a major focus, and craft guilds were organized, even forming special brotherhoods around specific trades. Building construction became a major industry in and of itself. The two most important building trades were carpenters and stonemasons. Three distinct stages of ability were recognized—master, journeyman, and apprentice. These three stages of organized labor are still widely recognized today among the trade unions.

The Renaissance

Toward the end of the Middle Ages, a renewed interest in architecture, building, and science took place, continuing the transformation and evolution of construction and building design. It was during this time that the concept of the master builder began to be questioned as the most efficient way to build. Leone Battista Alberti, considered by some to be the precursor to the modern-day architect, argued that he could create drawings and models as a way to direct master craftsmen without actually being involved in the building process. Alberti was a theoretical architect rather than a practical hands-on architect-builder. He furnished plans of his buildings but never participated in the actual construction. This was the first application of a new philosophy that would eventually separate design and construction as distinct functions. Interestingly, there is a real push today to return to the master builder concept—but with the recognition that the modern master builder is a collaborative team.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution had a major influence on all of society. The construction industry was no exception. As construction became recognized as separate and unique from design, more theoretical concepts involving physics, mathematics, chemistry, and thermodynamics were being applied, and building science as a discipline began to emerge. The various building professions took on increasingly defined roles—the art of architecture, the science of engineering, and the craft of building became even more distinct. As architecture moved further away from the building process, the engineering disciplines took on a greater role for overall technical coordination, while general contractors were left to assemble, organize, and manage the labor force, equipment, and materials on a project. Cast iron and wrought iron became the building materials of choice. These materials were being used to build bridges, railways, great exhibition halls, and various other buildings. New machinery and equipment such as steam shovels, steam hammers, and pile drivers were being invented to support building. The transformation of construction into a modern industry began during this period of time.

The Age of the Skyscraper

During the late 1800s, the production of steel and electricity really took center stage as factors that would influence the construction industry in a big way. It was a time of immense growth in building technology. Steel framing replaced iron framing and allowed for high-rise building. Portland cement and reinforced concrete were invented. Glass was now being mass-produced and was used to clad many of these new building frames. The dream of constructing tall buildings reaching to the sky became a reality when E.G. Otis invented the first passenger elevator. Building skyscrapers was seen as a way to conserve land as the pace of growth in American cities became a concern. Technological advancements in building science continued, electric power became commonplace in all structures, and advancements in heating and cooling systems made life easier for people in all climates of the world.

Construction started showing up as big business during this time. Although most building was still being performed by small and medium-sized companies, much larger organizations were forming, and the globalization of the construction industry had begun. Opportunities for extensive projects in housing, industry, transportation, and city development were popping up all over the world. The construction industry developed into a major economic sector.

The 20th Century

infrastructure

The basic roadways, bridges, and railroad networks that support a community or society.

specifications

The written instructions from an architect or engineer accompanying the project plans pertaining to the quality of materials and workmanship required for the project.

Although only a few advances in materials or technologies took place during the 20th century, new challenges were being imposed upon the construction industry. After World War II, there was a construction boom in the United States and around the world. The demand for housing, industry, and infrastructure was enormous. Time, cost, and quality became critical concerns for those needing new facilities. The construction industry responded. Mechanized tools, panelized construction, and prefabrication inspired a whole new way to view the building process. New techniques emerged to help regulate and standardize building materials and methods. Building codes, standards, and specifications were established to help regulate and control the quality of materials and methods. Over time, as more residential, commercial, and industrial development started to spring up, new issues such as the environment, energy conservation, sustainability, safety, and workforce diversity started to add to the complexity of the building process in a way that had never been seen before.

The industry began to recognize that the correlation between sound management techniques and successful building practices was very important to the success of a project. The ability to measure and monitor progress and economic effectiveness of the construction process became more important as projects became increasingly complex. Although the discipline of engineering had been tapped to provide the management function for years, a new distinction was being drawn.

As early as 1935, a new educational program that focused specifically on construction was popping up at a few