Celtic Wales

CELTIC WALES

Celtic Wales

Miranda Aldhouse-Green

and Ray Howell

UNIVERSITY OF WALES PRESS

© Miranda Aldhouse-Green and Ray Howell, 2017

First published in 2000

This edition published in 2017

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing it in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright owner except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Applications for the copyright owner’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the University of Wales Press, 10 Columbus Walk, Brigantine Place, Cardiff, CF10 4UP.

www.uwp.co.uk

British Library CiP Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978-1-78683-042-5

e-ISBN 978-1-78683-044-9

The rights of Miranda Aldhouse-Green and Ray Howell to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 79 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Cover image: The Snowdon Bowl (bronze handle fragment, Late Iron Age) © National Museum Wales.

To

Stephen, Chris,

Jadwiga, David, Hannah and Maia

Contents

Acknowledgements

List of illustrations

Preface

Map of Wales

Prelude

1  Celtic Wales in its European Context

2  The First Welsh Celts: Iron Age Wales

3  Celts and Romans

4  The First Christians in Wales

5  The Early Medieval Period

6  Celtic Myths of Wales

Further Reading

Glossary

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their gratitude to the staff of the Department of Archaeology and Numismatics, The National Museums & Galleries of Wales for their help in preparing the publication. They are also grateful to the University of Wales College, Newport for its support in the project, and to the staff of the University of Wales Press for their professionalism and encouragement.

MJAG and RH

The authors and publishers wish to thank the copyright holders who have kindly permitted the reproduction of photographs as follows:

Figures 1 and 4 public domain images from Wiki Commons

Figure 2, by permission of the National Museums & Galleries of Wales

Figures 3, 6 and 7 by permission of Cadw: Welsh Historic Monuments. Crown Copyright.

Figure 5, from Early Christian Monuments of Wales by V. E. Nash-Williams (University of Wales Press).

Figure 8, by permission of the British Museum

List of illustrations

Figures

1  Lindow Man, a bog-body from Lindow Moss, Cheshire. Dating to the mid-first century AD.

2  One of two trapezoidal bronze plaques found at Tal-y-llyn, north Wales; first century AD, by permission of the National Museums & Galleries of Wales

3  Ruins of basilica at Caerwent © Crown copyright (2016) Cadw

4  A samian bowl

5  The Vortipor memorial, from Early Christian Monuments of Wales by V. E. Nash-Williams (University of Wales Press).

6  Degannwy Castle in Gwynedd © Crown copyright (2016) Cadw

7  Maen Achwyfan, near Whitford in Clwyd © Crown copyright (2016) Cadw

8  Epona, the Gaulish horse-goddess © British Museum

Maps

1  The main administrative units of Wales before and after local government reorganization in 1974.

2  Wales historic areas

Preface

This book has come about because of a perceived need for a concise, yet scholarly and up-to-date account of Wales during the Iron Age, Roman and early medieval periods; Celtic Wales has been written with both students and the informed general reader in mind.

The decision has been taken to use the 1974–96 county names as far as possible, but to retain Anglesey, on the one hand, and to unify Glamorgan, on the other. The reason for this choice is that these boundaries are both geographically and historically appropriate and serve to define regions that remain meaningful today.

The main administrative units of Wales before and after local government reorganization in 1974.

Prelude

Wales did not exist as an entity in prehistoric or Roman times. Indeed, the region of the British Isles that we now call Wales did not become ‘Welsh’ until Roman influence declined, a language recognizable as Welsh emerged and small kingdoms were formed. This book sets out to explore the evidence for British settlement and society in the area which coincides with the boundaries of modern Wales during the period from later prehistory (from c. 700 BC) to the tenth century AD. This long span of some fifteen centuries covers a period of time which has long been labelled as ‘Celtic’, a term first adopted by Classical writers in the sixth century BC, to identify and describe communities living in much of temperate Europe, which these observers considered as being different from their own and yet which possessed sufficient homogeneity to allow the application of a single name. The terms ‘Celts’ and ‘Celtic’ are the subject of lively current debate. In our opinion, the term ‘Celtic’ has the same sort of validity as today’s use of ‘European’, encompassing linkages between groups of people while recognizing regional diversity. Certain features of material culture, notably styles of art, demonstrate some commonality within Europe, and the highly symbolic nature of this art makes it more than likely that the people making and using it possessed some shared ‘mindset’ which enabled its ‘currency’ throughout the huge region between Ireland and Hungary. Moreover, early linguistic evidence clearly demonstrates linkages over this area and beyond, into Asia Minor (Galatia).

The book begins with a brief synopsis of Celtic Wales in its wider geographical context, together with an analysis of current issues, such as the nature of ‘Celticity’ (chapter 1). There follows a survey of the early Iron Age in Wales (chapter 2), when the only evidence at our disposal is the archaeological record. Important sites of this period include the fortified hill settlements, or ‘hillforts’, of Llanmelin, Tre’r Ceiri, Twyn y Gaer and Moel y Gaer, to name but a few, and the lacustrine sites of Llyn Fawr and Llyn Cerrig Bach, both foci for the ritual deposit of votive offerings. The evidence for technology, trade and economy is examined, and the chapter ends with a brief account of the splendid legacy of Celtic art, as reflected in such prestigious decorated metalwork as the Capel Garmon fire-dog and the Tal-y-llyn plaques. It is noteworthy that Celtic art did not wither and die under Roman influence but re-emerged to decorate stone crosses and illuminated manuscripts in the early Christian period. Investigation of the Iron Age in Wales reveals enormous gaps in our knowledge and understanding of the pre-Roman period in the last 300 years BC.

Chapter 3 investigates the nature of the interaction between the Britons in Wales and the Romans. The Roman forces found it difficult to subdue the Welsh tribes. The intensity of military resistance, particularly by the Ordovices in the north and the Silures in the south, coupled with the very difficult, mountainous terrain (ideal for guerrilla warfare) over much of the region, led to bloody conflict that, according to the writings of the Roman political historian Tacitus, lasted until AD 77, when his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, finally pacified the north. This chapter also explores the Roman occupation of Wales, the literary testimony to the military campaigns and the resistance of the Welsh tribes. Although, from the mid-first century AD, we possess written chronicles from Roman historians such as Tacitus, we still have to rely upon archaeology to gain a detailed picture of the Roman period in Wales. Archaeological evidence can help to answer questions about the nature and dating of Roman military installations: marching-camps, auxiliary forts and legionary fortresses. It enables us to pose questions about the different regional character of romanization (or cultural interaction) in north and south Wales, the nature of urban and rural settlement, religion and ritual. It is archaeological exploration of Roman sites in Wales that puts flesh on the bare bones of written testimony. Excavations at the Silurian civitas capital at Caerwent in the 1980s and 1990s have yielded a great deal of new information about life in a Romano-British town. Likewise, modern investigation of such important military sites as Usk, Caerleon and Segontium serve to demonstrate the complexity of the Roman military presence, the disposition of forces, troop movements and fort-networks. Study of rural settlement reveals a wide variety of communities living outside the towns, from the highly sophisticated Roman villas of the Vale of Glamorgan – like Llantwit Major – to much humbler dwellings, such as Thornwell Farm, Chepstow and Bryn Eryr on Anglesey, which show little sign of romanitas. What is very striking is the extent of continuity of settlement from the Iron Age to the Roman period.

By the end of the fourth century, even in those areas where romanitas can be demonstrated by evidence from sites such as villas and towns, significant changes were apparent; and chapter 4 looks at the transition in Wales from paganism to Christianity, and the decline of romanitas. Some of the changes which took place during this early post-Roman period, such as the emergence of Christianity, were firmly rooted in the late Roman tradition. There is good evidence to confirm that the first Christians in Wales were early converts. Three Romano-British martyrs, Alban, Julius and Aaron, are known and the latter two of these died in Wales. From AD 313 and Constantine’s ‘Peace of the Church’, Christianity enjoyed legal protection in the Roman Empire. When, in the following year, the Council of Arles was called, three British bishops attended, confirming that the insular church was already well established.

As Roman political control declined, new political and social structures emerged. These changes, which shaped sub-Roman and early medieval Wales (chapter 5), are best explored archaeologically and interesting clues are provided by sites such as Dinas Emrys, Degannwy and Dinorben. An especially important early medieval site is Dinas Powys, an apparently high-status secular site with evidence of both local industrial activity and very wide-ranging trade connections. Excavations during the 1970s at nearby Llandough have confirmed the presence of an important ecclesiastical foundation and examination of evidence from both these sites may significantly enhance our understanding of post-Roman Wales.

One of the most interesting questions about early medieval developments is the extent to which survivals of ‘native tradition’ can be demonstrated. In some cases, it is possible to argue that aspects of culture show clear links to pre-Roman peoples. The investigation of these connections and the extent to which it is possible to speak in terms of ‘Celtic continuity’ is an important theme in this book. The early Welsh kingdoms matured and social structures developed, although – once again – external influences were strong and, at times, threatening. The cultural synthesis that emerges in Wales represents another important theme of this volume.

The final section in the book (chapter 6) is concerned with the earliest medieval mythic tradition. The first mythological Welsh narratives consist of the Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi and Culhwch ac Olwen, which were compiled in written form no earlier than the thirteenth century AD. However, many scholars believe that such mythic tales contain resonances of a far earlier and pagan past, and it is certainly possible to identify specific features of correspondence between this body of Welsh texts and the archaeological and iconographic evidence for pre-Christian Celtic Europe. Particular themes explored here include triplism, the veneration of the human head, shape-shifting and the prominence of animals, sacred cauldrons, the treatment of female and male characters and the interface between paganism and Christianity. The question of whether discernible resonances (or apparent relationships) between late prehistoric and early historical pasts, in terms of genuine linkages, have any validity