Samurai Swordsman: Master of War

PREFACE

The figure approaches from a distance, following the dusty road over the brow of a hill. As he gets closer, he is seen to be a man who is travel-stained and wild, with a sword at his side. He stops, and our eyes meet. Another man is nearby. He too is armed, and he is waiting. The opponents approach each other. There is the flash of a sword blade, and one falls dead.

This is the image projected almost daily in Japan by a million television screens, comics, and films. The wanderer is victorious, and he will wander again. He (and it is almost always he, with notable exceptions, discussed in Chapter 8) is an expert in the martial arts, ruthless and deadly, and always ready for his next encounter. He is the samurai swordsman. The image of this legendary warrior is also fostered in the modern practice of the martial arts of Japan, whose devotees model themselves upon him, seeing themselves as heirs to a great tradition. The martial arts may have been refined and modified in response to changing conditions, but they still enshrine the more subtle and esoteric traditions of the brave samurai swordsman.

In addition to the samurai heritage, the other theme that we will follow throughout these pages is the development of the martial arts themselves. Although the fighting arts of the samurai sword will be emphasized, other techniques of single combat, using bow, spear, and dagger, will be studied to see how their prominence changes through history, and to examine closely how these weapons were actually used in the time when skill meant survival, and failure, death.

This work is a revised version of an earlier book of mine, The Lone Samurai and the Martial Arts, which has been out of print for many years. The text has been thoroughly reworked and augmented by many new illustrations. Much new material has become available since the late 1980s, and a whole new generation of scholars has been producing excellent work from primary sources, which has raised questions about many established notions about samurai warfare. For example, the calling out of pedigrees and the issuing of personal challenges in the heat of battle, often regarded as the stock in trade of the samurai, has been called into question. I also acknowledge the high-quality research into the structure and design of Japanese armor undertaken at the Royal Armouries, Leeds, by Ian Bottomley. I also wish to acknowledge the cooperation of the Maniwa Nen-ryū dōjō and other martial arts institutions in Japan.

—Stephen Turnbull

Chapter 1

SWORDS AND HEROES

The most enduring traditional image of the samurai is that of the lone wanderer, owing allegiance to none but himself, and relying for his continued survival on his skills with the sword. This is a powerful picture, and one that has tended to dominate the perception of the archetypal Japanese warrior. However, as the following pages will show, this image owes as much to the peaceful years of the Tokugawa period (1603 – 1867) as it does to the preceding years of war. It is also a far cry from the reality of the earliest samurai warriors, who were aristocratic mounted archers rather than swordsmen. These men relied far less on the sword than on the bow. Nor did they hold allegiance only to themselves. Instead, they were part of a vast web of dependent feudal links, with their ultimate loyalty being to the lords who led them into battle. Their fierce sense of pride and personal honor, and their individual prowess at the martial arts, were the only features they had in common with their later popular image. Yet their exploits with horse, bow, and sword set the standard by which future generations of samurai would be judged.

The Sword and the Kami

The first use of the word samurai dates back to the eighth century ad, but this was preceded by many centuries of myth, legend, and history. Japan’s long military tradition, in fact, goes back over two millennia, and at the very beginning of time—according to the creation myths that explain the origins of the Japanese islands—we find the image of a weapon. This is the Jewel-spear of Heaven that Izanagi, the father of the kami (deities), plunges into the ocean, and from whose point drips water that coalesces into the land of Japan.¹ Later in the same work (the Kojiki, c. ad 712) we see a reference to the most enduring Japanese martial image of all, when Izanagi uses a sword to kill the fire god, whose birth has led to the death of his wife, Izanami.

Swords also played a part in the stories about the two surviving children of Izanagi: Susano-M, the thunder god, and Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun. The Kojiki tells us how Susano-ō destroyed a monstrous serpent that was terrorizing the people. He began by getting it drunk on sake (rice wine) and then hewed off its heads and tail. But when he reached the tail, his blade struck something it could not penetrate, and Susano-ō discovered a sword hidden therein. As it was a very fine sword, he presented it to his sister, Amaterasu, and because the serpent’s tail had been covered in black clouds, the sword was named Ame no murakomo no tsurugi, the Cloud Cluster Sword.² Amaterasu in turn gave the sword to her grandson, Ninigi, who was to descend from heaven and rule the earth. Ninigi eventually passed it on to his grandson Jimmu, identified as the first tennō (emperor) of Japan, whose traditional dates are 660–585 bc. Jimmu Tennō kept this sword as one of the crown jewels of the Japanese emperors.

Taira Shigehira, the classic samurai mounted archer.

The legendary Prince Yamato is the first of a long line of individual samurai swordsmen who meet a tragic death. In reality, Yamato is probably a composite character (Yamato is an early name for Japan), but the tales of his exploits give a fascinating insight into the attitudes of these early times.

Disguised as a woman, with the Cloud Cluster Sword concealed beneath his robes, Prince Yamato carried out an assassination. He joined in with the merrymaking at the rebel leader's banquet, and then at the right moment pounced on his victim.

Historical figures blend with the characters of mythology in the other early chronicle, the Nihon Shōki, which gives us many details about the early emperors, including several individuals renowned for their prowess at the martial arts. But the character who can be regarded as the first of the long line of brave individual swordsmen is Prince Yamato. Yamatotakeru-no mikoto, to give him his full title, is probably a composite character (Yamato is an ancient name for the Japanese nation), because his heavenly exploits make a statement about the very earthly struggles that were then going on in Japan. The descendants of the sun line of emperors by no means ruled unopposed, and had to strive to assert the authority of their uji (clan) against challengers.

Prince Yamato was the third son of Emperor Keikō, and began his career inauspiciously when he murdered his elder brother. As a punishment, he was dispatched on a series of missions to quell rebels to the throne, thus bringing into the story some elements of the wandering swordsman image. Like the later stereotypes, Prince Yamato was forced to journey to a distant land where he could put his warrior skills to positive use by opposing the enemies to the imperial line. It is, however, fascinating to note that Yamato’s first victory against a rebel chieftain was accomplished, not solely by the honorable use of a sword, but by employing skills that in later years would be considered techniques of nin-jutsu: the arts of stealth and invisibility. Yamato’s trick consisted of disguising himself as a woman, with the Cloud Cluster Sword concealed beneath his robes. He joined in with the merrymaking at the rebel leader’s banquet, and then at the right moment pounced on his victim.³ Not long afterwards, another sword appears in a story, but once more it is involved in a trick. Prince Yamato fashioned an imitation sword out of wood, challenged his victim to a duel, and sportingly suggested that they should exchange swords for the fight. The outcome may be guessed at.⁴

So far, the legend of Prince Yamato also conforms to another alternative samurai stereotype: that of the warrior as a deceitful trickster—the genesis of the image of the ninja. However, the conclusion of the Yamato story places the hero in a much more acceptable light. Before setting off on his final campaign, Prince Yamato called in at the Great Shrine of Ise, where he was presented with the sword called Ame no murakumo: the Cloud Cluster Sword, which Susano-ō had wrested from the tail of the serpent. Armed with this miraculous weapon, the hero set about defeating the rebels.⁵ The Cloud Cluster Sword also proved useful in an unconventional way when Prince Yamato was invited to join in a stag hunt near Mount Fuji, and realized very quickly that he was to be the quarry. The hunters set fire to the long, dry grass, with the aim of either burning Yamato to death or driving him in confusion toward their ambush. The prince took the sword and cut his way through the burning grass to freedom, so that the Cloud Cluster Sword became known as Kusanagi, the Grass-Mowing Sword. Here again is a powerful samurai image: that of the warrior slashing wildly about him with his sword. But a stranger enemy was lying in wait, in the shape of a huge serpent, which stung Yamato in the heel. This brought on a fever from which the prince died. The Yamato legend concludes with his death from the fever, after which he was transformed into a white bird.

It is interesting to follow the Yamato legend just a little further, because the sword Kusanagi was already revered as the sacred sword of Japan, and with a sacred mirror and a set of jewels was one of the three items of the imperial regalia. After Prince Yamato’s adventures had finished, the Grass-Mowing Sword was placed in the Atsuta Shrine near modern Nagoya. In the appendix to the thirteenth-century epic the Heike Monogatari, known as The Book of Swords, the anonymous author recounts another legend associated with the sacred sword. It concerns an attempt to steal the sword, and brings in a further element of martial accomplishment, namely unarmed combat.

The thief was a Chinese priest called Dogyō, who came to worship at the Atsuta Shrine. He stayed for seven days, at the end of which he stole the sword, wrapping it in the folds of his kesa, the priest’s wide, scarflike garment. But the Grass-Mowing Sword had a will of its own; it cut its way through the kesa and flew back to the shrine. Once more the priest took it, and wrapped it more securely, but again the sword made its escape. On his third attempt, Dogyō managed to wrap the sword in nine folds of cloth, which was apparently sufficient to prevent it from cutting its way through, and he got a considerable distance away from the shrine. At this point, the enraged spirit of Prince Yamato enters the story. He sent a fellow kami, Sumiyoshi Daimyōjin, to fight Dogyō for the sword. An interesting point about their subsequent combat is that the deity achieved victory by kicking the thief to death, an early example of atemi, the decisive striking techniques with fist or foot that have always been part of unarmed combat in Japan.⁶

The Rise of the Samurai

For Prince Yamato, or for the actual warriors whose exploits provide the basis for the Yamato legend, the word samurai, which is often used to describe a Japanese fighting man at any period, did not in fact exist. Samurai means one who serves, and although it first referred to domestic servants, the word soon implied military service, provided for a powerful overlord or even the emperor of Japan. The very appearance of the word indicates the enormous change in the military and political life of Japan that had taken place since the days of the early emperors.

By the seventh century ad, the imperial system had evolved from a line of warrior chieftains, for whom martial prowess was a necessary fact of life, to a ruling house whose hegemony was largely accepted. The imperial lineage claimed to wield divine authority, through the emperor’s descent from the sun goddess Amaterasu. At this time the greatest threat to the existence of the imperial line, and indeed of Japan itself, was perceived as being invasion from China. There was also the danger of the emishi, the tribes who lived in the north and east of Japan and were the last to accept the dominance of the Yamato line. To counter these threats, a conscript system was created. Theoretically, all adult males who were fit for military duty were liable for enlistment as heishi (soldiers). The resulting army, which spent much of its time on guard duty in remote areas of Japan, was heavily infantry-based, but backed up by mounted troops supplied by the wealthier landowners. These men were descended from the old provincial nobility, some of whom had once opposed the rise of the Yamato state. The creation of the conscript system shows both the resources possessed by the emperors and the authority they now wielded.

Military service was unpopular, but the arrangement sufficed for several decades until the threat from China began to fade during the eighth century. Security policies now had to concentrate on more mundane issues such as the capture of criminals and the suppression of bandits. The lengthy process of raising a conscript army was too cumbersome for dealing with such eventualities. What was needed was a rapid response force, primarily mounted, who could respond quickly when needed.

The gap was filled by hiring the forces of the old nobility, and this proved so successful that the use of conscripted troops rapidly diminished, and then was completely abandoned in ad 792.⁷ The noble contribution had always been an elite force, the officer class in the conscript armies, largely privately funded and privately trained. The men who served in these elite forces were the first samurai, but it is important to realize that these samurai were still firmly under the control of the emperor, just as the conscripted peasants had been. The first samurai, who were virtually imperial mercenaries, may have constituted private armies, but they did not conduct private warfare.⁸

However, several factors would make their mark over the next three centuries to produce the spectacle of samurai fighting samurai in wars of their own, or in wars carried out only nominally in the name of the emperor. First, there was a succession of younger imperial princes leaving the capital and heading off for the new frontiers of Japan to serve their family’s name and open up new territories. This may have widened the emperor’s authority, but it also had the potential to weaken it by dispersal. Second, there was the domination of the imperial family by the Fujiwara clan, who supplied a seemingly endless line of imperial consorts, causing great jealousy among other powerful families, who felt squeezed out. Two in particular greatly resented the Fujiwara domination, the clans of Taira and Minamoto. Both these families had imperial blood in their veins, through intermarriage with some of the above-mentioned distant princes, and both had built up spheres of influence far from the capital. The Taira were based in the west, on the shores of the Inland Sea, and the Minamoto to the east and north.

Prince Genji dressed in the fashion of the Heian period and carrying a bow.

The emperors had the occasional rebels against the throne to deal with, and the frontiers of the civilized imperial state were constantly being pushed out. Both these tasks were performed eagerly by the samurai of the Taira and Minamoto, who grew rich on rewards for this service. They grew closer to the imperial court until, by a process of imperial matchmaking, Taira Kiyomori (1118–1181) held great influence at court by virtue of being the emperor’s grandfather. So the center held, and the sun line survived, as it has to this day, as the oldest established ruling house in the world. In fact, it is somewhat surprising that the samurai clans did not assert themselves politically earlier than they did, but the bonds of imperial loyalty and the generosity of the rewards that the emperor bestowed were both considerable.⁹

The maku (curtains) from which the term bakufu derives.

Taira Shigehira, the classic samurai mounted archer.

But there was one other factor: the tendency that developed during the tenth century ad for an emperor to abdicate while still young and active, in favor of a child relative, thus freeing himself from the huge religious and ritual responsibility of kingship. The child emperor thus created was still honored, but was also extremely vulnerable to manipulation. No rebel in Japan would ever have sought to overthrow the emperor. Such a course of action was unthinkable, and was also totally unnecessary—the important thing was to control the emperor. It is the attempts by the Taira and the Minamoto to control emperors, or at least to control their nominees for the post, that form the background to the civil wars that exploded during the twelfth century. Two skirmishes, the Hōen and Heiji disturbances, named for the years when they were fought (1156 and 1160 respectively), were the curtain raisers to a major war that lasted from 1180 to 1185. It was called the Gempei War, from the Chinese reading of the names of the warring clans, the Minamoto (Genji) and Taira (Heike).

The Hōgen Rebellion, however, was fought in 1156 by two coalitions of warrior houses that included Taira and Minamoto warriors on each side. The subsequent 1160 troubles saw the first direct Minamoto/Taira clash, and the brutal way by which Taira Kiyomori, who had supplanted the Fujiwara in imperial favor, did away with his Minamoto rivals sowed the seeds of the major war that began in 1180. After some initial success by the Taira, their samurai were swept aside in a series of brilliant battles fought by the general Minamoto Yoshitsune, whose victories at Ichinotani (1184), Yashima (1184), and Dannoura (1185) enabled his elder brother Yoritomo to become military dictator.

Yoritomo took a title that is almost as familiar as samurai when he became Japan’s first shogun. The government of Japan thus passed from the system of abdicated emperors and imperial grandfathers to the newly created bakufu, or shogunate, which was based far from imperial Kyoto, in Kamakura. The term bakufu proclaimed its military origins, because it meant government from behind the curtain of the maku, the heavy ornamental curtains that marked a commander’s post on the battlefield. This set a pattern whereby Japan was to be dominated by the rule of the samurai for eight hundred years, although there was a brief early attempt at imperial restoration in 1221. Accounts of the fighting in this rebellion, the Shōkyū War, are included in the extracts that follow.

Before studying written accounts of samurai combat in this period, let us first examine the context in which such encounters were fought. The first point to note is that these contests were fought between men who were members of an elite: a status that depended as much on their ancestry as on their martial prowess. Martial skills, however, could sometimes compensate for being comparatively lowly born, as indicated by a story in the twelfth-century Konjaku Monogatari, which grudgingly praises a certain warrior in the following terms:

An excavated tanko, the early style of plate armor worn during the Nara Period.

This Noble Yasumasa was not a warrior inheriting the tradition of a military house. He was the son of a man called Munetada. However, he was not in the slightest degree inferior to such a warrior. He was bold in spirit, skilled with his hands and great in strength.¹⁰

The elite nature of the samurai is an important factor to remember when considering the historical sources for the period. Some, like the important Azuma Kagami, are in the form of diaries or official chronicles, but others are more like heroic epics, written for an aristocratic public who wished to read of the deeds of their own class, and preferably their own family’s ancestors. So, for example, the hundreds of foot soldiers who accompanied the samurai into battle are almost totally ignored. For this reason, these gunkimono (war tales) have to be treated with considerable caution as historical records. They are, however, invaluable for the light they shed on samurai values and beliefs, and in particular the ideals the samurai cherished about how they should behave in action.¹¹ Much of the description is concerned with the samurai acting as an individual and aristocratic lone warrior, whose brave deeds in single combat contribute to the overall victory. As will be explained below, this is a misleading construction, but it can provide very valuable information about the practice of the martial arts because the mode of combat and the use of various weapons are described within a framework of sound knowledge of the technical limitations of the arms and armor of the period.

Several of the most important gunkimono have been translated fully or partially into English. The earliest of the genre, the Shōmonki, which deals with the rebellion of Taira Masakado, was written about the year ad 954, and contains valuable early descriptions of combat.¹² The Konjaku Monogatari, which also includes Taira Masakado among its wide-ranging subject matter, has several sections of great interest, some of which are used here.¹³ Hōgen Monogatari contains vivid descriptions of the brief fighting of the 1156 rebellion.¹⁴ The later gunkimono, such as the well-known Heike Monogatari, are much less reliable in their descriptions of combat, and can indeed be very misleading. Karl Friday, in particular, has drawn attention to the deficiencies in Heike Monogatari, which is a work of polemics that achieved its present form as late as 1371. Among its stereotypes is an entirely fictitious contrast between the Minamoto as rough and ready warriors from the east, and the Taira as refined imperial courtiers.¹⁵

Samurai Arms and Armor

The samurai were fully armored and went into battle mounted on horses. By the twelfth century, the samurai wore armor of a characteristic design that was to have an important influence on the martial arts. It was made from small scales tied together and lacquered, then combined into armor plates by binding them together with silk or leather cords. A suit of armor made entirely from iron scales would have been prohibitively heavy, so a mixture of iron and leather scales was used, with iron predominating to protect the most vulnerable areas of the samurai’s body. This classic samurai armor was therefore of lamellar construction (armor made from small plates fastened together), the traditional defensive armor of Asia, rather than the plate and mail of European knights.¹⁶

The standard suit of armor of the classical samurai of the Gempei War was known as the yoroi. The body of the armor, the dō, was divided into four parts, giving the yoroi a characteristic boxlike appearance. Two large shoulder plates, the sode, were fastened at the rear of the armor by

a large ornamental bow called the agemaki. The agemaki allowed the arms fairly free movement, while keeping the body always covered, because the samurai did not use shields. Two guards were attached to the shoulder straps to prevent the tying cords from being cut, and a sheet of ornamented leather was fastened across the front to stop the bowstring from catching on any projection.

The iron helmet bowl was commonly of eight to twelve plates, fastened together with large projecting conical rivets, and the neck was protected with a heavy, five-piece shikoro, or neck guard, which hung from the bowl. The top four plates were folded back at the front to form the fukigayeshi, which stopped downward cuts aimed at the horizontal lacing of the shikoro. The samurai’s pigtail of hair was allowed to pass through the tehen, the hole in the center of the helmet’s crown, where the plates met, either with or without a hat to cover it, which would give some extra protection. No armor was worn on the right arm, to leave the arm free for drawing the bow, but a kote, a simple baglike sleeve with sewn-on plates, was worn on the left. This completed the costume of the samurai which had one overriding purpose: to provide the maximum protection for a man who was a mounted archer. This role was so important that the samurai referred to their calling as kyūba no michi, or the way of horse and bow.

The design of the traditional Japanese bow that the samurai wielded from his horse is still used today in the martial art of kyūdō. The bow was a longbow constructed from laminations of wood and bound with rattan. The arrow was loosed from about a third of the way up the length of the bow. A high level of accuracy resulted from hours of practice on ranges where the arrows were discharged at small wooden targets, from the back of a galloping horse. This became the traditional art of yabusame, which is still performed at festivals, notably in the city of Kamakura and the Tōshōgu Shrine in Nikkō. The archer, dressed nowadays in traditional hunting gear, discharges the bow at right angles to his direction of movement.

The Way of Horse and Bow

In ancient times, horses had been known only as beasts of burden, and the Japanese first came across war-horses during one of their early expeditions in Korea. During the first five centuries of the Christian era, Korea was ruled by the three rival kingdoms of Koguryo, Silla, and Paekche. Kinship ties with Paekche meant that this was a conflict in which Japan inevitably became involved, and in about ad 400 a Japanese army, sent to support Paekche and composed entirely of foot soldiers, was heavily defeated in battle by a Koguryo army riding horses. This battle was Japan’s first encounter