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    Meter in English: A Critical Engagement
    Meter in English: A Critical Engagement
    Meter in English: A Critical Engagement
    Ebook503 pages5 hours

    Meter in English: A Critical Engagement

    By David Baker

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    Renowned poets and experts in metrics respond to Robert Wallace's pivotal essay which clarifies and simplifies methods of studying poetry. Former United States Poet Laureate Robert Hass has called Wallace's essay a paradigm shift in our understanding of English prosody.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherUniversity of Arkansas Press
    Release dateJan 1, 1997
    ISBN9781610752640
    Meter in English: A Critical Engagement
    Author

    David Baker

    David Baker has an interest in air and space projects and has written a number of books and articles on both subjects, many covering the technical history and programme changes that affected engineering projects in these fields. In 1986, David was elected a voting member of the International Academy of Astronautics and has received a number of international awards over the years, including the American Astronautical Society’s Frederick I Ordway III award for ‘sustained excellence in space coverage

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      Book preview

      Meter in English - David Baker

      METER IN ENGLISH

      A CRITICAL ENGAGEMENT

      edited by

      David Baker

      The University of Arkansas Press

      Fayetteville

      1996

      Copyright © 1996 by The Board of Trustees of the University of Arkansas

      All rights reserved

      Manufactured in the United States of America

      00    99    98    97    96         5    4    3    2    1

      Designed by Gail Carter and Liz Lester

      The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48-1984.

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      Meter in English: a critical engagement / edited by David Baker.

                         p.     cm.

                   Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

                   ISBN 1-55728-422-9 (alk. paper).—ISBN 1-55728-444-X (pbk.: alk. paper)

                   1. English language—Versification. 2. Poetics. I. Baker, David, 1954–    .

            PE1505.M48    1996

            821.009—dc20

      96–27935

      CIP     

      Excerpts from Burnt Norton in Four Quartets, copyright 1943 by T. S. Eliot and renewed 1971 by Esme Valerie Eliot, reprinted by permission of Harcourt Brace & Company.

      Rhythm and Rhyme will appear in The Collected Poetry of Robinson Jeffers, Volume IV, edited by Tim Hunt, forthcoming from Stanford University Press. No portion of it may be reproduced without the express permission of Stanford University Press.

      John Logan: On Reading Camus in Early March copyright © 1989 by The John Logan Literary Estate, Inc. Reprinted from John Logan: The Collected Poems with the permission of BOA Editions, Ltd., 92 Park Ave., Brockport, NY 14420.

      Poetry reprinted with the permission of Simon & Shuster from The Collected Poems of Marianne Moore. Copyright © 1935 by Marianne Moore, renewed 1963 by Marianne Moore and T. S. Eliot.

      Poetry by Marianne Moore reprinted with the permission of Faber & Faber Ltd. from The Complete Poems. Copyright 1935 by Marianne Moore, renewed 1963 by Marianne Moore and T. S. Eliot.

      The Waking, copyright 1953 by Theodore Roethke from The Collected Poems of Theodore Roethke by Theodore Roethke. Used by permission of Doubleday, a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.

      The Waking by Theodore Roethke reprinted with the permission of Faber & Faber Ltd. Copyright 1953 by Theodore Roethke.

      ISBN-13: 978-1-61075-264-0 (electronic)

      Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows,

      And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows;

      But when loud surges lash the sounding shore,

      The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar:

      When Ajax strives some rock’s vast weight to throw,

      The line too labors, and the words move slow:

      Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain,

      Flies o’er th’ unbending corn, and skims along the main.

      —ALEXANDER POPE

      Contenting myself with the certainty that music, in its various modes of meter, rhythm, and rhyme, is of so vast a moment in poetry as never to be wisely rejected—is so vitally important an adjunct, that he is simply silly who declines its assistance—I will not now pause to maintain its absolute essentiality.

      —EDGAR ALLAN POE

      CONTENTS

      Introduction

      David Baker

      A Table of Metrical Feet

      PART ONE

      Meter in English

      Robert Wallace

      PART TWO

      Meter in English: A Response

      Eavan Boland

      Metrical Diversity: A Defense of the Non-Iambic Meters

      Annie Finch

      Meter-Making Arguments

      Dana Gioia

      Come, and Trip It: A Response to Robert Wallace

      Rachel Hadas

      Some Responses to Robert Wallace

      Charles O. Hartman

      Prosody: A New Footing

      Robert Hass

      Words Moving: Metrical Pleasures of Our Time

      Margaret Holley

      Our Many Meters: Strength in Diversity

      John Frederick Nims

      Meter and the Fortunes of the Numerical Imagination

      David J. Rothman

      Staunch Meter, Great Song

      Timothy Steele

      Verse vs. Prose/Prosody vs. Meter

      Lewis Putnam Turco

      Wallace’s Razor: Metrics and Pedagogical Economy

      Barry Weller

      Two Letters

      Richard Wilbur

      Real Meter in Imaginary English: A Response to Robert Wallace

      Susanne Woods

      PART THREE

      Completing the Circle

      Robert Wallace

      Bibliography

      Contributors

      Index of Proposal Discussions

      Index of Authors

      INTRODUCTION

      David Baker

      Poetry is an art of repetitions. Images and ideas repeat and combine into metaphors; metaphors in turn may recur and further extend into patterns of conceit, into symbols, into epic similes. A poet’s rehearsal of ideas may become his or her theme, and the recurrence of themes, or of a theme’s tropes, may develop into a convention. Rhyme is the repetition of sounds at the ends of lines, and within lines many other duplications of sound are recognized as alliteration, consonance, and assonance. When details accumulate in a pattern, we have the catalogue; when the beginnings of parallel phrases or clauses repeat, in pattern, we have anaphora; when a scheme of whole lines returns, we may have the refrain of a villanelle or a ballade. And when entire stanzas are repeated, the chorus is born, and the poem turns around again.

      Consider the accumulating power and grace of repetitions in these first three stanzas of Theodore Roethke’s great villanelle:

      I wake to sleep, and take my waking slow.

      I feel my fate in what I cannot fear.

      I learn by going where I have to go.

      We think by feeling. What is there to know?

      I hear my being dance from ear to ear.

      I wake to sleep, and take my waking slow.

      Of those so close beside me, which are you?

      God bless the Ground! I shall walk softly there,

      And learn by going where I have to go.

      The results of poetic repetitions are manifold: a returning phrase may enchant, a repeated line may emphasize, a pattern of rhymes or repetitions may hold itself longer in the memory. The recurrent sounds of poetry embody the music of the language itself. The final stanzas of Roethke’s The Waking enact the fascination as well as the imperative, the absolute instruction, of poetic repetition:

      Light takes the Tree; but who can tell us how?

      The lowly worm climbs up a winding stair;

      I wake to sleep, and take my waking slow.

      Great Nature has another thing to do

      To you and me; so take the lively air,

      And, lovely, learn by going where to go.

      This shaking keeps me steady. I should know.

      What falls away is always. And is near.

      I wake to sleep, and take my waking slow.

      I learn by going where I have to go.

      Rhythm is the one of poetry’s most haunting and abiding forms of repetition. In The New Book of Forms, Lewis Putnam Turco calls rhythm the movement of cadences in language. It is the pace, the pitch and fall, of language, the breathing, walking, tumbling, pulsing dynamic of our words interacting with each other. Rhythm gives poetry an essential component—the movement of music in the human voice. Edgar Allan Poe, in The Poetic Principle, describes poetry’s most essential province to be Beauty and asserts that the poet’s method of constructing the beautiful is to combine the aspects of language and music: I would define, in brief, the Poetry of words as the Rhythmical Creation of Beauty. This union of the body and meaning, of music and words, is what Roethke suggests, too: I hear my being dance from ear to ear.

      Meter is created when rhythm assumes and holds a recognizable pattern. It is, to be more precise, the abstract method by which we measure those regular, real patterns of rhythm. Meter’s Greek origin is, after all, metron: a thing by which to measure. Meter is one fundamental tool for poets as they seek to exploit the manifold possibilities of repetition. Some say that meter makes language’s cadences utterly familiar to the body, an essence as physical and primary as the heartbeat, which is itself (depending on the position of the cardiologist’s stethoscope) either a trochee, LUB-dub, or an iamb, lub-DUB. Others claim that meter is the ultimate defamiliarization of rhythm, by making highly regular, and thereby artificial, the naturally less even rhythms of our words. Meter is at once a source of beauty and of debate for poets and for the readers of poetry . . . and meter—flowing, lashing roaring laboring flying meter, as Pope says in An Essay on Criticism—is the subject of this symposium.

      HOW THE BOOK GOT STARTED

      In the summer of 1993 Robert Wallace circulated to a few friends the initial draft of an essay, Meter in English. Among those friends were Miller Williams, the director of the University of Arkansas Press, myself, and some of the contributors to the present volume. Wallace wanted to know what we thought about his ideas, whose central aspirations, he said, were clarity and simplicity: to clarify some of the methods of scansion, to simplify (or make more appropriate) some of the vocabulary of metrics, and to streamline our ways of thinking about the fundamental structure of meter in English. Even in its early, shorter draft, Wallace’s essay elicited from this small audience a vociferous response, one which ranged from considerable agreement to point-by-point and rousing discord.

      The current dialogue about metrics is eclectic, at best. Few critics or poets write about it at length, and those who do often disagree utterly about even the most basic terms, methods, uses, and meanings of meter. X. J. Kennedy has rather playfully referred to the last few decades, when free verse has been the primary prosodic method of most poets, as "the Howl-dominated Dark Ages of American poetry, and the New Formalists with their dedication to meter and rhyme have suggested that their school, along with the New Narrative poetry, may be the two significant movements in contemporary American poetry. At the same time, Los Angeles poet Kate Braverman, among others, has declared that Form is dead. . . . [Formalism] is a kind of intellectual game, but it doesn’t serve the purpose of women. It doesn’t serve the purposes of, oh, shall we call them issues of freedom that have defined this century."

      There is no doubt that issues of prosody and poetic form are not just personal, but yes, cultural issues. The choices we make as writers and as readers are grounded in systems of value embedded in our language itself. This should not be news to us. And yet the rich, inclusive possibilities of contemporary poetry may also be jeopardized by proprietary claims limiting its formal, its aesthetic, and its social range. Would our poetry be more representative, more flexible, without the spacious capacities of free verse? Would it be better without the formal tensions and intricacies particular to metrical verse? Either singular direction is the reductionist’s solution. Why shouldn’t a poet, as Dana Gioia has written, explore the full resources the English language offers?

      I suspect these kinds of concerns first informed Miller Williams’s idea that Wallace’s essay could serve more fully as the centerpiece of a new book about meter. Indeed, the passion of the original responding letters and the continued crossfire of debate and discussion resulted in our first notion that this book be composed of Wallace’s essay and the letters themselves. But it became clear to us that these letters—and subsequent others from additional interested writers—were only prologue to each potential respondent’s fuller, more studied expression of his or her convictions. Meter in English: A Critical Engagement is the result of the need we saw for a book of essay-responses, all based on issues of meter in English and all based, more particularly, on Wallace’s primary article Meter in English. Wallace’s initial goals of clarity and simplicity remained as guideposts in his own ensuing drafts and resulted in the ambitious essay which serves as part 1 of this book and the impetus for the rest of it.

      Part 2 of Meter in English opens up the critical engagement which gives this book its subtitle and its unique character. We wanted to offer a rich, diverse articulation of the state of metrical analysis today. Each contributor to part 2 received a copy of Robert Wallace’s Meter in English, along with two guidelines: that each contribution specifically address, in full or in brief, all ten of Wallace’s main propositions and that any more general discussion of meter should still remain focused on Wallace’s concerns. This component of the book is particularly exciting: every contribution was written for this book and is heretofore unpublished. I invited the contributors to shape and frame their work in whatever way they found most appealing or sensible—as a complete essay, as a series of separable responses to each of Wallace’s ten proposals, or as a combination of these two stylistic choices. Part of the flexible character of this symposium is embodied by the rhetorical variety of the contributions, from the formal to the casual, from the scholarly to the personal. Even with this range, Wallace’s essay serves as the common ground for the entire book.

      The variety of part 2 also stems from the authors’ widely differing specialties and backgrounds. While all fourteen contributors (a sonnet’s worth!) are accomplished prosodists and metrists, some are more nearly at the beginnings of their careers while others are long-distinguished. Several are or have been literary editors—of books, journals, anthologies—and many have written about meter and poetics in books of their own. Most, but not all, are practicing, indeed masterful, poets; most, not all, are or have been full-time teachers. Many have considerable experience as translators, from a great variety of languages, and often this experience lends a distinctive perspective on metrics. For instance, much of John Frederick Nims’s orientation is guided by his knowledge of Greek meters; so too Dana Gioia’s and Rachel Hadas’s experience in Latin. Represented here are experts in classical prosody, in Old and Middle English versification, in Renaissance metrics, in British, Irish, and American poetics; and while none of the contributors is, strictly speaking, a linguist, several bring extensive backgrounds in linguistics to their prosodic study. In short, our contributors are diversely prepared but singularly concerned about poetry and its metrical properties.

      The final section, part 3, is once again Robert Wallace’s work. It seemed right—in fact necessary—to end where we began, with the congruity of his single perspective, as a debate returns to the affirmative for its rebuttal. Indeed, Wallace’s afterword, Completing the Circle, is more extensive an argument than his Meter in English. Here he is able himself to engage and assess the specific and often adverse opinions of his respondents in their analyses of his ten propositions; he focuses sharply the lively issues of this discussion which, we hope, will continue beyond these pages. Here too he widens the scope, surveying what he sees as a crisis, the incoherence of the present understanding of meter.

      SOME OF THE ISSUES AND QUESTIONS

      Readers will find that one of the debates throughout these discussions revolves around the nature of meter itself, about what we mean when we say meter. As I mentioned previously, the root of meter suggests that a meter is a kind of measurement. But what is being measured, and by what means the measurement occurs—these are some of the sticky questions.

      Our colleague mathematicians have solved the issue of metrics for themselves. In mathematics, of course, a meter is not a loose and varying set of measurements as it is in poetry. It is quite exact. In eighteenth-century France a meter was first defined as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole, just over a yard in length to us, or approximately 39.37 inches. Today, more precisely, we measure a meter according to a frequency of atomic vibrations; since we know that light travels 299,792,458 meters per second, a standard single meter is defined as the distance a beam of light will travel during 1/299,792,458 of a second.

      The specific entity of a meter is quite different in poetry. But this illustration leads me to a useful, if rough, analogy. To determine what a meter is, mathematicians measure a quantity of time or, equally, a quantity of distance. They measure an amount of something. In the standard poetry handbooks, too, the measurement of quantities is one kind of poetic meter, inherited from and based on the quantitative patterns of classical prosody. In Greek poetry, for instance, a meter is the measurement of certain patterns of short and long syllables—that is, a meter based on the duration of time (and sometimes, on the related pitch) of each syllable’s utterance. We can see at least a rough illustration in English, where a short vowel sound often corresponds to a shorter utterance, as in , while a long vowel results in a lengthier duration, as in . Bite is a longer quantity than bit. But where Greek meter measures the length of syllables, English meter more usually measures the relative, audible stress—the accents and emphases—of those syllables.

      In addition to quantitative meter, the handbooks typically list syllabic, accentual, and accentual-syllabic as the four basic meters in English. These subsequent three classifications are not based on the durations of single syllables. A poem in syllables simply counts the number of syllables in a line; a poem in accentuals counts the number of heavy beats, or accents, in a line; and a poem in accentual-syllabics counts both the number of syllables and the number of heavy stresses.

      One of the most hotly debated issues in Meter in English: A Critical Engagement is Wallace’s contention that the accentual-syllabic method constitutes the only viable or true meter in our language. Fully half of his initial proposals, and much of the ensuing discussion in part 2, probe the reasons for and implications of this assertion. Wallace does not want to discard syllables as an important compositional method, but he wishes to exclude both it and accentuals from the category of real meters. Meter, to Wallace, must be auditory, and hereby he argues that one cannot hear any consistent or predictable pattern in an accentual arrangement of words in a line, much less a syllabic one.

      Meter is an even more basic element to Lewis Putnam Turco. It is, he argues, the single aspect which distinguishes all poetry, or verse, from all prose. To Dana Gioia meter must have a predictive quality: meter is not only a rhythmic method by which we can identify a pattern, in scansion, but also predict what rhythmic pattern will follow—hence his agreement that syllables is not a meter. John Frederick Nims holds that meter is a viable denotation not just at the level of the poem, or the line, but at each foot itself. Each of these and other theories herein describe both the flexible and the highly arguable nature of our shared subject.

      Wallace further extends his prosodic strategy by proposing that iambic rhythm is the exclusive basis of his one meter, accentual-syllabic. This component recalls Robert Frost’s similar assertion about rhythm that In English the meter is either strict iambic or loose iambic. And yet, taken with his proposals about the singularity of accentual-syllabic meter, Wallace’s conviction about iambics describes nothing less than a paradigm shift in metrics, a potentially dramatic redirection of our study of meter and prosody. This stance elicits some of the book’s most inflamed but educative debate. In defining anapestic, trochaic, and dactylic rhythms as useful metrical feet within the iambic accentual-syllabic norm, but not as meters in their own rights, Wallace both clarifies and simplifies the system. Some of his respondents are adamant to maintain the fuller range of equal meters. Some too disagree with Wallace’s proposal that a two-degree system of stresses in scansion is sufficient, indeed is preferable to a three- or four-value system. The reader will find everywhere the search for the line dividing valuable simplification and over-simplified reduction.

      A related point of order involves the marks our writers have employed in their scansions. When I received all of the initial drafts of these contributions, I saw that the contributors identified their preferred mark for a stressed syllable as either an ictus / or a virgule / and their generally preferred mark for the weak syllable as the breve . I wrote to everyone, then, asking whether all the contributors would agree to use consistent marks, and all agreed to apply the ictus to stresses. But a note here still seems useful. I think the discrepancy between the ictus / and the virgule / to indicate a strong stress derives, at least in part, from the typewriter’s insufficiency. The ictus is of course the classical mark for accents and strong stresses, but many typewriters and keyboards (like my own) do not make this mark available, while the virgule is present below the right little finger. Habit and ease may persuade or force some to employ this longer mark; still, a ready problem arises for its use to mark accents, since its traditional application is to divide lines of poetry when they are written out as prose, as in A poem should not mean / But be.

      In addition, both Charles O. Hartman and Susanne Woods employ this mark × rather than the to indicate an unstressed syllable. Both reminded me that the breve originally indicated, in quantitative verse, a short syllable rather than an unstressed one. Remaining consistent, both use the ictus to indicate a stressed syllable, abandoning the quantitative mark of the macron ¯ used to indicate a long syllable. (We still use these marks, and ¯, to show the short and long pronunciations of our English vowels.) In the essays of Hartman and Woods I have not changed the × to the , in order to be faithful to these writers’ preferred historical frame of reference.

      Dana Gioia employs two different sets of scansion marks, applying the standard ictus and breve when scanning by regular accentual-syllabics. But when he scans by dipodics—that is, pairs of feet considered together—he uses the macron, the breve, and a third mark to indicate the strongest stresses. Like Gioia, Timothy Steele and Susanne Woods do not find a two-degree system of stresses sufficient to mark the subtleties of poetic rhythm, and so employ numerical notations of 1 to 4 to indicate metric relationships of as many rhythmic degrees. Following Otto Jespersen’s method, they mark the heaviest stress with 4 (though Woods, in her book Natural Emphasis, uses Trager and Smith’s method of marking the heaviest beat as 1). At times Steele also uses a graphic system of mountains and valleys, a kind of contour map to designate the rising or falling of rhythms. These occasional variations in marking should be clear as readers see them applied, appropriately, in context.

      Some of the proposals in this book will seem central to one reader and not to another. Each reader will find merit where he or she will—in the large issues or in the particular, in theory or in application, and perhaps in them all. The same has been true for the contributors themselves, who variously focus on the issues most compelling to themselves. To be sure, Wallace’s propositions range from the terminological to the theoretical. But every serious reader of poetry will agree that even the simple, single choice of a word can make a world of difference.

      HOW TO READ THE BOOK, AND WHAT IT WILL AND WON’T TELL YOU

      A symposium, to the Greeks, was a drinking party where intellectual ideas were discussed. While I like to imagine that similar festive occasions might be born from this book, I know certainly that it comprises a vigorous discussion. Like our language itself, the practice and meaning of meter evolve with use and with developing theories of poetry, rhetoric, and critical theory. Just so, Meter in English: A Critical Engagement is not a closed argument but rather a forum for such discussion, debate, and sometimes heated contention among experts. It is designed to seek out and investigate these writers’ points of dissension about meter as well as to illuminate their important agreements in the making. Readers will find an abundance of both. Gerald Graff has urged us all to teach the problems of literary study to our students instead of presuming to teach them the answers only, as if answers are universal and complete. Meter is not a problem to be solved at all, but a set of formal applications to be chosen, adjusted, and constantly reviewed. Here, the points of loudest dissension are among the points we most need to study. The interplay of illustrations and critical analyses, from a wide range of poetic texts, provides an invaluable look at the different ways the contributors’ theoretical stances actually operate.

      There exist a number of useful handbooks and reference sources for poetry and metrics. Meter in English: A Critical Engagement does not intend to serve as such a handbook. It does not offer extensive listings, tables, or definitions with illustrations of those definitions. Here, instead, the reader will find many of the central issues of metrics probed in context as these writers undertake their critical exchange. In other words, the present book discusses what the handbooks imply, what they take for granted, and what kinds of arguable definitions and usages they sometimes take as generally accepted.

      Readers will find at the end of these essay-responses a bibliography of sources for their further reading in metrics. Again, this is a collective enterprise. Invited to nominate any titles they felt central to their own understanding of meter and to the present project, the respondents have appointed to this bibliography a range of sources, from general histories of prosody to critical studies of the metrical practices of particular poets. Readers will also find a table of metrical feet, following this introduction, and two indices at the back of the book. The index of proposals allows the reader to locate and follow the developing debate about each of Wallace’s ten propositions, while the index of authors identifies the location of any discussion of a specific critic or poet.

      Something that readers will find absent from Meter in English: A Critical Engagement is any extensive consideration of the merits of studying formal prosody and writing in meter, as compared to the relative merits of studying or writing free verse. That debate continues elsewhere. Too often the argument fixes itself at the predictable poles of a familiar dialectic: free verse is aligned with the Romantic values of self-discovery and rebellion, while metrical poetry is seen as more sympathetic to the neoclassical belief in the knowledge and forms of the established historical conventions. Alan Shapiro has intelligently and more fully examined some of these issues in his recent In Praise of the Impure. In Some Notes on Free Verse and Meter, Shapiro agrees that each prosodic system does indeed carry inevitable and implicit convictions:

      The poet writing in meter is always the belated one . . . the bearer of other lives. . . . And his metrical symmetries . . . are the persistent echoes of the gate of Eden closing shut behind him.

      The poet writing in free verse . . . claims for himself the Adamic privilege of starting over.

      Underlying every free-verse poem, Shapiro asserts, is the belief that the mind can return to the originating moment of its own emergence, while the metrical poem is borne from a mind that is unredeemably historical, and can only look back, as it were, with longing and relief, at what it had to give up to get where it is.

      For myself and for the purposes of this book, the issue is more like this: Many poets today write in meter, many poets today do not write in meter, and many do both; and while the cultural and aesthetic reverberations of such choices for poets are fascinating, the simple fact is that one’s decision to write in meter, or not to write in meter, is not the same as one’s decision to understand meter. After all, Meter in English: A Critical Engagement is for the readers of poetry, not the writers—or perhaps more accurately, for all readers of poetry, only some of whom are its writers.

      But, much more to the point, poets for millennia have employed meter as a method. The serious reader of poetry must always regard meter as a fundamental property of poetry, one of its central, defining devices—whether or not any particular poem at hand is metrical, whether poetry becomes more meter-based in the future, as some argue, or whether poets eventually will abandon that formal strategy altogether, as others predict. Each formal and rhetorical choice has its effects, its consequences, and its particular graces. To disregard the study of meter in poetry is like teaching students of abstract art that a study of figures is irrelevant.

      The contributors to this symposium do not especially argue against free verse. But of course the implicit and clear statement made here is that meter is not only a valid but an invaluable method in poetry—then as now.

      CONCLUSION

      The nature of poetry in English changed in the middle of the nineteenth century. A few scattered examples of open-form poetry existed in English before this time—the King James Psalms, a poem here and there by Christopher Smart or William Blake. These are rare examples, though, isolated exceptions to the steadfast metrical standard. But something tremendously important happened between the Walt Whitman of the 1840s, among whose early poems appear stanzas like these from Time to Come:

      O, Death! a black and pierceless pall

              Hangs round thee, and the future state;

      No eye may see, no mind may grasp

              That mystery of Fate.

      This brain, which now alternate throbs

              With swelling hope and gloomy fear;

      This heart, with all the changing hues,

              That mortal passions bear—

      This curious frame of human mould,

              Where unrequited cravings play,

      This brain, and heart, and wondrous form

              Must all alike decay . . .

      and the democratic, optimistic enthusiast for whom, only a decade later, poetic form would become an essential articulation of the future. His poetry assumed the rhetorical and visible shape of an audacious American liberty. What he wrote in 1874 could describe the shocking mettle of his 1855 edition of Leaves of Grass:

      [concerning] the measurement-rules of iambic, spondee, dactyl, &c., . . . even if rhyme and those measurements continue to furnish the medium for inferior writers and themes, (especially for persiflage and the comic, as there seems henceforth, to the perfect taste, something inevitably comic in rhyme . . .), the truest and greatest Poetry, (while subtly and necessarily always rhythmic, and distinguishable easily enough,) can never again, in the English language, be express’d in arbitrary and rhyming metre.

      It was time to declare the poetic independence of the still-young country. And always we must retain the imperative to newness and ingenuity in our poetry. This Whitmanian spirit—of rebellion, of equity—is what Kate Braverman taps into, I think, by her assertion that Form is dead.

      But of course form is never dead. All poetry is formal poetry. It has shape, and meaning, and nuance, and layers of technique. And eventually one age’s successful experiment will become another age’s daily practice. Surely we have arrived at and passed the historical moment when free verse is in itself a radical, progressive, and heretical prosodic choice. Indeed, many critics and poets today—from the Language Poets to the New Formalists—argue that free verse is our predominant orthodoxy.

      All poets must claim the language for their own, metered or free, and not allow the receding past merely to sustain its own political framework. In Owning the Masters, Marilyn Nelson Waniek has written about issues of tradition, form, and history: Form itself is communal. . . . Yes, writing in traditional form is taxing. But it is also liberating. . . . Why don’t we instead take possession of, why don’t we own, the tradition? Such has been the project of poets, and the audiences of poetry, from the beginning. We have come around to it again.

      ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

      I am grateful to Miller Williams, of the University of Arkansas Press, for his early belief in this project and for his guiding support. I am particularly grateful to the authors of these essays for their various, enthusiastic, and intelligent passions about our gathered subject of poetic meter, and grateful as well for their patience and help as we put this book together. To Bob Wallace, without whom this project would never have been born or grown, I owe special thanks for his wisdom, dedication, and friendship. In awarding me a Robert C. Good Faculty Research Fellowship, Denison University allowed me some welcome time to work and concentrate, for which I am grateful. And mostly, to Ann, my continuing love, and to Katie, who fills the air / with gladness and involuntary songs.

      A TABLE OF METRICAL FEET

      Here is a table of the metrical feet discussed or mentioned in this book. Several of these are not normally available in English, but are instead features of classical prosody, where quantitative measurements of short and long syllables—rather than of stressed and unstressed ones—make possible such triple and dipodic varieties. The metrical feet are called the

      PART ONE

      METER IN ENGLISH

      Robert Wallace

      In English, the poetry makes the rules, not the rules the poetry.

      —GEORGE SAINTSBURY,

      A History of English Prosody

      An outsider would be startled at the lack of consensus among poets and metrists about the nature of metrical verse in English. Those of us interested in meter have perhaps grown accustomed to the confusion, and therefore careless. The poetry matters, after all, not the theory. But it cannot be argued safely that our understanding is irrelevant to our practice nor, I hope, that our teaching is irrelevant to the future of poems written in meter.

      My aim, therefore, is to question our assumptions and differences of opinion. To make a beginning, I will go over what seems safe and familiar ground.

      It is the unit of line that distinguishes verse from prose or speech. Line introduces into the sentences of verse a further set of breaks or pauses complementary to those already present in the syntactical organization. When line-ends coincide with and so reinforce them, these syntactical breaks are in effect promoted, while others are in effect demoted. We call such effects, respectively, end-stopped lines and caesuras. Line-ends may also occur where there are no syntactical breaks or only very slight ones, thus in effect creating breaks or pauses. Such effects we call run-on lines. Together, these modulations control the special character of verse. How far such effects of line-end are aural

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