Paganism and Christianity in Egypt

PREFACE

THE little work which is now given to the public was produced by a scholar whose sudden death in February 1911, before he had completed his twenty-ninth year, came as a painful surprise to his many friends. After a training in Semitic languages at Cambridge, he entered the British Museum in December 1903, becoming an assistant in the department of Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities. From that time his attention was mainly given to Egyptian research (including a visit to Egypt), but he also found time to edit an important Syriac text the letters of Îshô–yahbh—which issued from the press in 1904. His friends and colleagues, Mr Leonard W. King and Mr H. R. Hall, have acted as editors of the present volume and have supplied the following summary of his other work during his service in the Museum. In October and November of 1905 he was engaged, in conjunction with Mr J. W. Crowfoot, in clearing out the XVIIIth dynasty temple at Wady Halfa, of which he published a description, with plan and photographs, in the Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch., Jan. 9, 1907, pp. 39 ff. This work was undertaken on behalf of the Sudan Government on the recommendation of Dr E. A. Wallis Budge. In 1909 he published a discussion of Plutarch’s treatise De Iside et Osiride in the Journal of Hellenic Studies, XXIX. pp.79 ff. He has also contributed reviews of Oriental books to The Church Quarterly Review, The Burlington Magazine, The Classical Review, The Journal of Hellenic Studies, and The Morning Post. He was a contributor to the Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, his most considerable article being that on the Coptic Church. At the time of his death he had just completed Part I of an official publication of the British Museum, entitled Hieroglyphic Texts from Egyptian Stelae &c. in the British Museum.

The present work was very nearly completed at the time of the author s death, but had not received his final corrections. It is known that he intended to write an additional chapter summarising his conclusions, but no trace of this has been found among his papers. Hence two sentences have been added within brackets on p. 219 in order to round off the chapter. A few additions have also been made in the rest of the volume and placed within brackets, and any references which were wanting have been filled in. The editors have been assisted in the reading of the proofs by two other of Scott-Moncrieff’s friends and colleagues, Messrs G. F. Hill and O. M. Dalton, and by myself.

Mr King has also been kind enough to supply the following notes on the archaeological interest of the book.

"Apart from its value as a handbook, the originality of the work, in our opinion, consists chiefly in two features. In the first place Scott-Moncrieff approached his subject from the Egyptian point of view. He had a first-hand knowledge of the ancient Egyptian religion and was thus peculiarly fitted to detect the changes from native belief, which were introduced in the Graeco- Roman cults of Egyptian divinities, and had so strong an influence on early Christian thought in Egypt. In the second place, as an archaeologist, he was able to form his own estimate of the bearing of the archaeological upon the purely literary evidence, and in several cases to use his data in a novel way. As an instance we may cite his critical discussion of Monsieur Gayet’s excavations of Christian graves at Antinoe during the years 1896—1900, and his correction of the late date assigned to them by their discoverer. Scott-Moncrieff was certainly right in using them as evidence of the character of Egyptian Christianity during a period at least a century earlier. Again, Ferrer’s publication of Christian objects from Akhmim is of greater scientific value, but the fact that they were obtained by native diggers necessarily leaves many problems of dating, etc. open to discussion. Scott-Moncrieff has pointed out the bearings of the principal Akhmim finds upon his subject, and his handling of the evidence will do much to clear up uncertainties and to suggest points on which fresh evidence will be welcome.

In his descriptions and summaries of the early Gnostic literature he has been able to make interesting suggestions with regard to the origin of some of the magical words of power. And his summary of the earlier literary and documentary evidence, bearing on the beginnings of Christianity in Egypt, should prove a useful introduction to the subject and a guide to the literature.

The book bears everywhere the impress of its author’s keen, fresh mind and attractive personality. It should prove useful and stimulating to many students of early Christian literature, bringing them into touch with factors in the early development of Christian ideas and institutions which are not easily discerned by those whose reading is confined to Greek and Latin authors. Scott-Moncrieff was one who in a short time accomplished much: and while we mourn that his career was so suddenly interrupted, we cannot be too thankful for what he has left us.

N. McLEAN.

CHRIST’S COLLEGE,

       CAMBRIDGE.

  March, 1913.

CHAPTER I.THE EGYPTIAN RELIGION AT THE CLOSE OF THE PTOLEMAIC ERA

THE history of Christianity during the two centuries following the apostolic era is everywhere obscure, and nowhere more so than in Egypt, for, although it is true that we have in the early patristic literature may glimpses of the growth of the new faith and its rapid increase throughout the provinces of the Roman empire, we know hardly anything about the conversion of the peasantry and lower strata of society outside the great Hellenistic centres. Prebyters, bishops, martyrs, and apologists, all imbued with the spirit of Hellenism and educated under Hellenic influence, are the main personalities from whom we derive our conception of the progress of Christianity. Yet it should not be orgotten that in Asia Minor and Egypt, hellenism was only a veneer covering lower strata which were essentially oriental and had inherited civilizations and religions far more ancient than anything Greek. In Asia Minor, especially in the great towns near the Mediterranean, Greek influence had permeated deeply the life of all classes, and a large number of the religious cults had become hellenized, but this was not the case in Egypt, who at the time of her incorporation into the Roman empire maintained her national characteristics and above all her ancient religion hardly touched by Hellenic influence. Even Alexandria, which was perhaps the most perfect type of the later Greek city and had been for three hundred years the court of the Ptolemies and the centre of Hellenic philosophy and learning, was deeply imbued with Egyptian religious ideas, paying great Veneration to such deities as Serapis, Isis and Osiris. And the further the traveller who had taken ship in Alexandria sailed up the Nile, the less noticeable the influence of the Greeks became. Soon he would come to towns and villages where indeed the administrative machinery set up by the Ptolemies was carried on in Greek, but where Greek ideas and Greek methods were still foreign. On either side of the river he would find towns dominated by vast temples controlled by powerful priestly gilds, and a people given over to an elaborate religion which seemed to the Greek merely a superstitious veneration for certain animals. Many of the temples and the cults connected with them were of very great antiquity and the priests would tell the travelling stranger legends of the ancient greatness of Egypt. For here in the valley of the Nile was a people, heir of the oldest civilization in the world, worshipping its ancient gods and continuing its immemorial customs little influenced by Greek or Roman activity, and having only two things in common with the other provinces of the empire: taxes were paid and the emperors were officially worshipped. Such was Egypt in the time of Augustus Caesar. Nevertheless, in 250, the edict of Decius against Christians revealed the fact that Christianity had spread far and wide, not only among the inhabitants of Alexandria but everywhere else in Egypt, especially among the native population whose faith in its own gods had never hitherto been shaken. How the new religion increased and the old beliefs fell into decay, and the effect of the new faith on a stubborn and conservative people, forms one of the most interesting chapters in the history of religion.

When, as the result of the battle of Actium and the defeat of Cleopatra, Egypt passed into the possession of Octavianus Caesar, the country had been for three centuries under Hellenic rule. The city founded by Alexander the Great and made magnificent by the first Ptolemies had become the first Hellenistic city of the world, for Alexandria with its Museum and Library was the centre of Greek learning and scarcely second to Athens herself. Its position as the harbour of export for the corn trade of Egypt and the products of Africa made it a city of enormous commercial activity, and its streets were thronged with merchants of every nationality, Greeks, Jews, Egyptians, and all the peoples of Syria and Asia Minor. Nevertheless its geographical position prevented any rapid hellenization of Egypt itself. Lying at the extreme northern point of a country which may best be described as a long riband of cultivated land formed by the Nile in the midst of surrounding deserts, it occupied the worst possible position for enlarging its sphere of influence. It is, therefore, not a matter of surprise that at the end of the Ptolemaic era the native Egyptians still maintained their national characteristics to a large extent intact, in spite of a Greek administration and a large influx of foreigners. This was particularly the case with their most pronounced national trait, their devotion to their religion. It has often been the custom of Egyptologists to look on the Ptolemaic period as one of decline, as a basse epoque, but it becomes more and more evident that in some ways it was a period of great national revival, especially in religious matters. The Ptolemies not only gave the country firm and settled government, but, knowing well the great power wielded by the priests, proclaimed themselves the benefactors of the national religion. In consequence, not only were the revenues of the old religious centres such as Thebes, Memphis and Bubastis restored to something of their former wealth, but vast building projects were undertaken and carried out during the reigns of successive monarchs, as at Dendera,-Edfa, Philae and elsewhere; so that after the lean and stormy years of Persian domination the great gilds of priests found themselves once more in a position of wealth and security. In return for this patronage and support the priests showed the utmost loyalty to the Greek kings, as we know by such documents as the Decree of Canopus and the proclamation on the Rosetta Stone. Divine honours were paid to them and everywhere they were represented on the temple walls wearing the prescribed garments of the old kings when worshipping the gods, bearing the royal protocols of their native predecessors, and adoring and making offerings to the ancient deities of the land of Egypt. Where the priests led the people followed, and though revolts of the natives broke out during the reigns of Ptolemy IV and Ptolemy V, the Egyptians seem on the whole to have been well content under Greek rule so long as they were free from invasion and able to worship their gods after the manner of their forefathers.

Being thus in a position of security and wealth, the great priestly colleges turned their attention to the complicated doctrines and rituals of their ancient religion. The erection of new temples throughout the country stimulated not only their skill as architects and craftsmen, but also their researches into the religious legends and lore of the past. They were once more able to conduct the worship of the gods with fitting pomp and ceremony, and this led them to make investigations into the old religious literature in search of authority for their doctrines and usages. The consequence was that the elaborate rites of the old religion were carried on during this period in what was deemed by the priests the manner prescribed from time immemorial by generations of their forefathers. In reality the religious ceremonies described by the Ptolemaic inscriptions must have been even more elaborate than the great sacred processions and ceremonies of the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties, as the Ptolemaic priests in their antiquarian zeal seem to have left no stone unturned in their search for ritualistic minutiae and correctness. But it was nevertheless significant that all the ceremonial connected with the various cults was described in detail on the temple walls for the first time. Hitherto this had not been necessary. Now the people of Egypt had forgotten, or were beginning to forget, the meaning of these ceremonies, and the priests themselves had to be informed by the more learned of their order, with whom knowledge alone lay. It is thus that we have the first glimpse even early in Ptolemaic times of the rift which gradually grew greater between the priestly schools of the great religious centres and the common people; as time went on, the tendency became more and more marked for the priests to become learned societies with whom alone rested the knowledge of the doctrines of the old religion, while the population at large, although indeed keeping their old beliefs, became worshippers of a few favourite gods and open to the influence of hellenism.

This cleavage had become clearly marked at the beginning of the Roman epoch. Although it seems evident that in the great temples the priests still carried on the worship of the gods with all the due rites and ceremonies prescribed by past ages, and although the people flocked to watch the great religious processions and took part in them on great occasions such as the visit of one deity to another, it is nevertheless probable that the general population understood little of the inner meaning of all these rites. Nor were the explanations and details inscribed in hieroglyphics on the walls of much assistance, for the hieroglyphic script was no longer understood by the ordinary scribes and people who could read, the demotic script having long since taken its place for every day purposes. Indeed, the hieroglyphs of the Ptolemaic period had plainly ceased to be the vehicle of ordinary speech, for the priests took delight in making them as fantastic as possible, so that it would have puzzled a good scribe of the middle or new empire to make head or tail of them.

So it came about that, in spite of the religious activity that had taken place throughout Egypt under the Ptolemies, the religion of the people generally began to shew those signs of decay which ultimately led to the rapid degeneration of the second and third centuries and paved the way for the speedy growth of Christianity. The study of this popular religion and of its waning hold over the people of Egypt is of considerable importance when discussing the problems connected with the early days of Christianity, and, as archaeologists in recent years have done a great deal to throw light on the subject, it will be as well to examine it in some detail.

In Roman times, as formerly, the most salient feature of the religion of the Egyptians seems to have been the worship of the gods of the dead and the belief that it was possible for the dead to live again an eternal existence in the world of spirits. They based their belief in this on the legends which centred round their principal god of the dead, Osiris, and fortunately we have an account of the legend as it was generally accepted in Roman times in Plutarch’s work de Iside et Osiride. Plutarch’s narrative is exceedingly interesting, for, although his interpretation of the legend is typical of the mysticism of the Romanized cult of Isis which had little in common with its Egyptian original, nevertheless the legend itself varies very little from what is known about the older traditions and beliefs concerning Osiris.

Plutarch begins his narrative of the Osiris myth with an account, which is obviously Egyptian, of the legends connected with the god’s birth. He then goes on to relate that Osiris became king over the Egyptians and taught them the arts of civilization. His brother Typhon, however, the god Set of the Egyptians, who seems to have typified the terror of the desert and the powers of evil generally, entered into a conspiracy with the queen of Ethiopia and seventy-two others against him. The queen secretly measured the body of Osiris and made a handsome and highly ornamented coffin to fit it. Osiris was then asked to a banquet and by stratagem induced to get into the coffin as it fitted none of the guests present. Immediately he had got inside the conspirators shut the lid, fastened it down with nails and poured molten lead over them. The coffin was carried down to the river and drifted out by the Tanitic mouth to the sea, whence it was finally borne on the waves to Byblos. Isis, the sister and wife of Osiris, on hearing the news was plunged in mourning. Her first care was to rear Anubis, the child of Osiris and Nephthys, and she then proceeded to search for Osiris whom she eventually traced to Byblos. The king of Byblos had