Fibres to Fabrics

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© 2014 Bev Ashford. All rights reserved.

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Published by AuthorHouse: 06/24/2016

ISBN: 978-1-4969-8467-8 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-4969-8468-5 (e)

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Contents

Classification of fibres

Terminology:

Chapter 1: Natural Fibres

Animal

Wool

Silk

Hair

Biofibres

Vegetable

Cotton

Linen

BastFibres

Hemp

Jute

Litrax Bamboo

Nettle

Ramie

Leaf Fibres

Banana

Piña

Sisal

Seed Pod Fibres

Kapok

Coir

Mineral

Asbestos

Chapter 2: Man-Made Fibres

Spinning a Fibre

Natural Polymers

Regenerated Cellulosics

Viscose

Lyocell

Modal

Alginate

Bamboo

Peat

Cellulose Esters

Acetate

Latex

Rubber

Synthetics Petrochemicals

Polyester

Polyamide

Elastane

Polyvinyl

Acrylic

Modacrylic

Chlorofibre

PVC

Fluorocarbons

Polytetrafluoroethylene

Olefin

Polypropylene

Polyethylene

Aramids

Kevlar

Nomex

Inorganic

Glass fibre

Rock wool

Polycarbonate

Ceramics

Metals

Microfibres

Nano-fibres

Table of Fibre Properties

Chapter 3: Yarns

Spinning

Yarn Count

Types of Yarn

Sewing Threads

A Brief History of Spinning

Chapter 4: Fabric Construction

Introduction

Weaving

Traditional Cultural Weaving

Knitting

Non-Woven

Decorative Fabrics

Chapter 5: Fabric Finishes

Table of Fabric Finishes

Chapter 6: Colouration

Dyes

Printing Techniques

Chromatic Materials

Traditional Surface Decor

Chapter 7: Fabric Testing

Standards

Sizing

Labelling

Product Specification

Testing methods

Care Labelling

Chapter 8: Modern Technology

Biomimetics

Biotechnology

Smart Textiles

Performance Materials

Functional Textiles

Passive Textiles

Active Textiles

Terminology:

Terminology:

Polymer

This compound is a combination of large molecules made from a chain of smaller, repeating chemical units called monomers.

Natural Polymers

These polymers are mainly short-length fibres.

Synthetic Polymers

These polymers are produced by a process called polymerization to make a long chain of linear polymers. Polymerization involves combining chemicals that are held together during the process in the following ways:

Polymers belong to one of three groups:

➢ Elastomers

These polymers stretch and return to their previous shapes (e.g. Lycra).

➢ Thermosetting

These polymers are hard and have cross links. They will not soften when heated. Therefore, they are not related to textiles but are related to resistant materials.

➢ Thermoplastics

These polymers consist of long chains that are not cross linked and can be softened and reset (e.g. polyester, polyamides, acetates and acrylics).

Chapter 1

Natural Fibres

Animal: wool, silk, alpaca, angora, camel, cashmere, horsehair, mohair and vicuna.

Biofibre: spider silk.

Vegetable: cotton, linen, hemp, jute, bamboo, nettle, ramie, banana, piña, sisal, kapok and coir.

Mineral: asbestos.

Natural Fibres – Animal

WOOL

There are over two hundred breeds of sheep, and over forty of those breeds are used within the textile industry. Of those breeds, there are over two hundred grades, and those grades are categorized into four groups:

Merino – produced by merino sheep and is the best quality wool. The variety originated in Spain, but it is now also produced in Australia, America, New Zealand and Africa.

Class 2 – these are traditionally the British wools but now it is produced throughout the world. Breeds of sheep such as Bampton, Blackface, Dorset, Kent, Southdown and Welsh Mountain are utilized. The staple length varies from 5–20 cm with a large number of scales per centimetre and good crimp.

Class 3 – originated in the United Kingdom. It has a staple fibre length of 10–45 cm but is coarser with fewer scales per centimetre and less crimp. Breeds such as Leicester, Cotswold, Cheviot and Shetland are available.

Class 4 – these are often from half-breed sheep with fibres 2–40 cm long, which are coarse, hair-like, very few scales per centimetre and little crimp and therefore smooth and lustrous. These are often less desirable because it has little resilience and strength, and therefore used for carpeting, rugs and low-grade cloth.

Fleeces are classified by their age, amount of weathering of the animals and whether they are taken from live or dead animals. All of these elements can affect the quality of the fibre.

Lamb’s wool – is taken from a lamb 6–8 weeks old. It is fine and soft but not very strong.

Hogget wool – is taken from sheep 12–14 months old and is their first shearing. The fibres are fine, soft, strong, resilient and tapered. They are often used for warp yarns.

Wether wool – is taken after the first shearing (usually after fourteen months) and is often dirty.

Pulled wool – is taken from sheep that are slaughtered for meat. The wool is pulled from the pelt, which makes it inferior because the roots have been damaged by chemicals and extraction. Also, sheep reared for meat production often do not have good fleeces.

Dead wool – is taken from a sheep that has died (not slaughtered) on the farm. The fibre has not recently been sustained with nutrients which cause the fibre to lose some resilience. It is used mainly on low-grade cloth.

Cotty wool – is taken from sheep exposed to severe weather conditions or sheep lacking nourishment. It is matted (felted) and brittle which makes it a poor grade.

Taglocks – is produced from torn, ragged or discoloured fleece. Usually, it is sold separately for low-grade cloth.

Microscopic Views

Longitudinal View of Wool

Carl Zeiss Microscopy

Longitudinal View of Merino

The outer scales overlap and cover many spindle-shaped cells. This structure allows movement backwards and forward, which provides the fibre with elasticity and resilience. The outer scales trap air, which provides warmth; but if the scales snag against one another felting occurs.

Labelling Wool

Logo’s courtesy of The Woolmark Company

Wool Mark

Products with this label must be made with 100% new wool

Wool Mark Blend

Products with this label contain a minimum of 50% new wool

Wool Blend

Products with this label contain 30 – 49% new wool

Properties

• Absorbency. Wool is hygroscopic; water droplets will remain on the surface due to the natural oils that are retained within the fabric. However, after a period of time, moisture will seep through. The wool can absorb about 20% of its weight in water, but it will not feel damp. Although it is absorbent, it will not allow wicking. As it is highly absorbent it can be dyed easily.

• ResiliencyandElasticity. Wool has great resilience and elasticity, which means that it has excellent draping qualities, good shape retention and creases will disappear after a period of time. A fibre can be stretched by 25% times its original length without breaking which makes it less likely to tear and giving freedom of movement to the wearer. This property arises due to the ease of slippage of the scale structure and the natural crimp of the fibre.

• Strength. Wool is the weakest of the natural fibres and the durability will be determined by the grade of wool; the more durable the wool the less resilience and texture the fabric will have. Wool can be strengthened by using a tight twist in the spinning process or plied yarns.

• Conductivity. Wool fibres do not conduct heat because the gaps between scales trap the air to maintain the temperature. A yarn that has a low twist will increase the warmth of the product.

• Non-Flammable. Wool is flame resistant. If fibres or fabric are lit they will smoulder for a short period of time before self extinguishing.

• Susceptible. Wool is easily attacked by the larvae of moths and carpet beetles; the hatched grubs feed off the fibres and leave holes in the fabric. Wool fibres are also weakened by perspiration, strong alkalis, and strong sunlight, but there the fibre possesses some degree of UV protection. Wool is very susceptible to shrinkage – more so in woollen than worsted products; the looser construction of woollen yarns causes such shrinkage. Also, wool can be itchy and cause allergic reactions in people with sensitive skin.

• Sustainable. Wool is a renewable, sustainable resource. It is also biodegradable and excellent for recycling; garments are sold to specialist firms that reclaim the fibres and use them to make yarns and fabrics.

Finishes

(For more information see Chapter 5 on Finishes).

• Singeing and steaming for hard finishes on worsted products.

• Mothproofing to prevent the grubs from attacking the fabric so extending the life of the product.

• Shrink Resist and shrink-proof – a variety of techniques are used to prevent the fibres and fabrics from shrinking.

• Resin finishes protecting the scales of the fibre. These finishes are linked to shrinkage and the aftercare of wool because they allow the material to be machine washed.

• Silicon finishes for weatherproofing.

• Permanent press for ease of aftercare and shape retention.

• Napping to increase the wool’s warmth and/or give it a textured surface.

Fabrics

Most Common: billiard cloth, broadcloth, crêpe, flannel, gabardine, serge, suiting and tweed.

Less Known: Astrakhan, batiste, cavalry twill, challis, Cheviot, homespun, nun’s veiling, paddock, pilot cloth, Poiret twill, Saxony and whipcord.

Uses

Men’s and women’s suits, coats, skirts, jumpers, hats, gloves, scarves, upholstery, carpets, blankets, insulation etc.

Production of Wool

SILK

Silk is at the luxury end of the market because it is expensive; in fact, it requires approximately 3,000 cocoons to make a kimono and 110 for a tie. This is the only filament, natural fibre and therefore has natural lustre as light reflects off its long surfaces. It was first discovered in China in approximately 2600 BC and three thousand years later, it spread into Europe. Silk comes in two varieties: wild or cultivated; the former is the most expensive because the cocoons have to be harvested from a wide area, which is an arduous process. Wild silk comes from the Antheraea Mylitta moth, and the silk worms survive by eating the leaves of mulberry, oak, asan, arjun, som and soalu trees. The diet affects the colour of the silk fibre that the worms produce which range from copper brown to golden yellow all having an irregular surface. Often, moths emerge from their cocoons before the silk is harvested, which means the silk cannot be reeled as one continuous piece but shorter length fibres known as spun silk.

Cultivated silk from the Bombyx Mori moth feeds off mulberry leaves and is produced in silk farms. The cocoons’ colours range from yellow to white and are much easier to harvest. They are cultivated in confined space and can be collected before the pupae emerge, which results in a continuous filament that reflects light well.

The main countries that produce silk today are China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea, Thailand, India, Uzbekistan, Brazil and Romania.

Microscopic Views

Longitudinal View

Carl Zeiss Microscopy

Properties

• Absorbency. Silk is an absorbent fabric that can hold 10-30% of its own weight in moisture, which allows it to be dyed and printed on easily. However, when wild silk is dyed it becomes dark and dull due to the minerals present.

• ResiliencyandElasticity. Continuous filament silk can be stretched 15-20% before it breaks and will slowly return to its original length, however, short, staple-length fibres have less resilience. This slow return to original length will eventually give fabrics reasonable crease resistance. Due to the pliability and suppleness of the fibre, silk has good draping properties.

• Strength. Silk is the strongest natural fibre due to its long length, elasticity and resiliency. Spun silk is not as strong as reeled silk.

• Conductivity. As silk is a protein fibre, it will not conduct heat and, therefore, it is appropriate for winter garments. Silk can be woven with very fine yarns that increase its strength, make it sheer and allow body heat to transmit through its open construction which keeps wearers cool during warmer months.

• Flammability. Silk will burn, melt slowly and splutter when a flame is applied to it. Burning silk smells like burning feathers.

• Resistance. The smooth, soft texture of silk makes it a non-slip material. Generally, it is resistant to mildew unless it is left for protracted periods of time in damp or humid conditions or unless it comes in contact with alkalis or organic acids. Wild silk tends to maintain moisture, which makes it a non-static material.

• Susceptible. Although silk is the strongest natural fibre, it loses up to 20% of its strength when it becomes wet. Thus, extreme care must be taken during the laundering process; the use of specialized detergents and hand washing is recommended. Silk is adversely affected by bleaches, concentrated alkalis, mineral acids and perspiration which deteriorates and discolours the fabric. Sunlight weakens silk faster than cotton; thus, silk upholstery should be protected properly. Direct heat of an iron above 165⁰c will melt the fabric; it is advisable to use a warm iron whilst the fabric is damp. Silk can be damaged by the larvae of clothes moths and beetles. Cultivated silk tends to have static cling as it is a poor conductor of electricity.

• Sustainable. Silk is a renewable, sustainable resource. However, obtaining reeled silk often results in the death of silk worms, which can cause issues. Research is being conducted in China to overcome the silk worm’s dependence upon the mulberry leaf, improve the strength and fineness of silk, increase its viral resistance and produce coloured fibres. The use of enzymes in the production process is more environmentally friendly e.g. protease enzymes used in degumming and sandwash effects on silk.

Finishes

(For more information see Chapter 5 on Finishes).

• Scouring or degumming to remove the proteins of sericin and fibroin, which allows the silk to be reeled.

• Weighting, this is a finish unique to silk. Raw silk is purchased by weight, which includes the proteins present in the cocoon so making fabrics much lighter in weight in relation to the amount of silk used. Weighting occurs during the dyeing process when a metallic substance of stannic chloride followed by sodium phosphate is applied to a less compactly woven fabric to hold the weighting. This means that less silk was used in the making of the fabric which lowers the cost to the consumer. The weighting also gives the fabric a crisp, firm feel and more lustre. (Fabrics must be labelled with their weighting percentage). This process decreases the elasticity of silk and increases the effect of sunlight deterioration on the material.

• Calendering to increase lustre. Embossed calendering for example moiré.

• Water resistant for use on rainwear.

Fabrics

Most Common: brocade, chiffon, Crêpe de Chine, damask, dupion, habutai, moiré, organza, pongee, satin, shantung, shot silk, taffeta, tulle and tussore.

Less Known: crépon, faille, gabardine, gauze, cashmere silk, Muga cloth, peau de soie, twill and velvet.

Uses expensive, luxury garments (e.g. wedding dresses, dresses, suits, shirts, ties, blouses, underwear, lingerie and kimonos); soft furnishings e.g. bedding, surgical sutures, artificial arteries, specialized clothing for children with eczema, parachutes etc.

Production of Silk

HAIR

ALPACA

Mainly from the Puno area of Peru, the alpaca has fairly fine, soft hair, which can be up to 60 cm in length and ranges from black to brown to white in colour.

Properties

• Insulator

• Lightweight

• Durable

• Good strength

• Soft drape

• Good lustre

• Resists rain and snow

• Good texture

Uses

Luxury garments (suits for men and women, dresses), blankets, bedspreads, hats, scarves, gloves and pile fabric.

ANGORA

Longitudinal View

Carl Zeiss Microscopy

A breed of rabbit that has guard hairs approximately 7.5 cm long and an undercoat that is 2 cm in length (the latter fibres are not used). These are very fine fibres often blended for use in knitted textiles.

Properties

• Lightweight

• Soft

• Lustrous

• Durable

• Therapeutic (helps with blood circulation, arthritis, rheumatism, kidney problems, muscle tension etc.)

Uses

Thermal underwear, blankets, joint warmers, jumpers, cardigans, knitted skirts, hats, scarves and gloves. It can also be blended to create coats, for example, to reduce costs.

CAMEL

From the Bactrian camel of Turkey, Mongolia, Russia, China and Australia the fibres come in two forms: the guard hair, which is coarse and inflexible and the undercoat, which is soft and strong. The fibres can measure up to 16 cm in length, and they are usually extracted when the camels are moulting (in late spring). It is difficult to bleach the fibre, so it is usually left to its natural colour: golden brown to red brown. As it is a very expensive fibre, it is often blended with wool.

Properties

• Lightweight

• Strong

• Waterproof

• Soft

• Fine

• Insulating

Uses

Traditionally used in overcoats and dressing gowns, but it is blended with wool for skirts, suits, gloves, etc. The guard hair is used for backing carpets and waterproof coats for cold climates. It can be used in suits, sweaters, hats, gloves and scarves. It can also be felted for Mongolian yurts, carpet backing and coats for herdsmen.

CASHMERE

Longitudinal View

Carl Zeiss Microscopy

Cashmere comes from the Kashmir mountain goats. They live mainly in Tibet, but they can also be found in Afghanistan, Iran, the United States, New Zealand and Australia. China is the worlds largest producer of raw cashmere, and the finest cashmere is produced in Mongolia. The downy undercoat fibres are very fine, strong and soft. They are approximately 9 cm long, and they are gathered during the spring (March to May), when the goats moult or are shorn. However, some of the guard hair, the outer coat, may be gathered by hand by combing, which pulls the tufts out. The fibres, which come in various shades of grey, brown and white, have a strong, natural crimp that provides better adhesion in the spinning process and, therefore, produces very fine yarns.

Properties

• Superbly Insulating

• Very soft handle without bulk

• Lightweight

• Doesn’t Scratch

Uses

Luxury goods in knitwear (e.g. jumpers, baby wear, coats, jackets and underwear). Coarser cashmere is used for rugs and carpets.

HORSE HAIR

Using the tails of live horses, which provide the best quality of fabric, the fibres range from soft to coarse. The tail fibres can be as long as 1 metre, and the mane is used occasionally. Black horsehair is over dyed to ensure that the fabrics have a deep, black sheen. White horsehair can be used to provide an ivory colour or it can be bleached and then dyed to a variety of colours. Grey horsehair is a mix of brown tones, and it is used in its natural state to create a variegated cream/grey fabric. Fabrics produced are often made with cotton warp and horsehair wefts, which are not very wide measuring between 56cm and 65cm.

Properties

• Highly durable and elastic

• Shrink-Resistant and Crease-Resist

• Good flexibility

• Stiff (to overcome the stiffness in weaving, wet fibres are often used)

Uses

Upholstery and interlining for tailoring. Traditionally used for ropes, fishing lines, sieves, brushes, horse reins and blankets.

MOHAIR

From the Angora goat the mohair fibre has very few scales and therefore most suitable for worsted fabrics. The fibres can be up to 30cm in length giving a slight sheen to the fabrics.

Properties

• Silky and Lustrous (due to the length of the staple fibres)

• Strong

• Durable

• Lightweight

• Insulating

• Absorbent but also releases moisture readily, making it ideal for summer as it will release perspiration

• Receptive to Dyes to produce rich colour

• Elastic (up to 30%)

• Good drape

• Shrink-Resistant and Felt-Resistant as there are fewer scales

Uses

Suits, scarves, blankets, upholstery, dresses and jumpers.

VICUNA

The Incas referred to Vicuna as the fabric of the gods. It is the most luxurious and expensive of the hair fibres, and it commands over £200 per metre. The vicuna is a small animal related to the llama; it lives high in the Andes of Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina, at an altitude of 4,000 – 5,000 metres, and is a protected species. Each animal produces approximately one pound of wool per year. The fibres are very fine (eight times finer than human hair), soft and approximately 5cm in length. It takes twenty-five to thirty vicuna fleeces to produce one overcoat, which is why it is so expensive. Due to the luxuriousness of the fibres, garments