Afghanistan: History, Diplomacy and Journalism Volume 1: History, Diplomacy and Journalism

AFGHANISTAN

History, Diplomacy and Journalism

Volume 1

Dr. M. Halim Tanwir

Title: Afghanistan

Sub title: History, Diplomacy & Journalism

Author: Dr. M. Halim Tanwir

Journalist & Historian

(Research & Reconstruction Institute of Afghanistan) RRIA in Holland (NL)

First edition/ 2012 (1391).

halim.tanwir@gmail.com:

Afghanistan.rria@gmail.com

www.tanwir.com

+31-36-5300093 / +31-6- 43423836 / +31-6-18962840

Copyright © 2013 by Dr. M. Halim Tanwir.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2012923022

ISBN: Hardcover 978-1-4797-6091-6

Softcover 978-1-4797-6090-9

Ebook 978-1-4797-6092-3

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Rev. date: 02/18/2013

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CONTENTS

Preface

Chronological History Of Afghanistan (From 50.000 Bc To 1863 Ad.)

Chapter 1

The Tenure Of Governance Of Amir Sher Ali Khan

1863-1878 (1257-1224 Hs)

Chapter 2

Reign Of Abdul Rahman Khan Strangulation Of Press

1880-1901 (1258-1279 Hs)

Kingdom Of Amir Habibullah Khan

Revival Of Journalism(1901-1919/1279-1298 Hs)

Chapter 3

Kingdom Of Amanullah Khan

Tenure Of Reign Of Habibullah (Known As Bacha-E-Saqaw)

19 January 15 October 1929 26 Jadi 1307-23 Mizan 1308

Chapter 4

Tenure Of King Mohammad Nadir

Reign Of King Mohammad Zahir

Constitutional Period The Second Round Of Press Freedom

Chapter 5

The Tenure Of Mohammad Daoud

Chapter 6

Coup Of Communists (7 Saur 1357) Start Of Disaster In Afghanistan

Invasion Of Afghanistan By Soviet Union (Russians)

Chapter 7

Islamic Movement Of Afghanistan

Preface

The book (Afghanitan: History, Diplomacy and Journalism) you are studying is a summary of My research and work through the continous years. My aim was to research about the occupation of Afghanistan by Great Britain, Russia and America in the recent centuries & resistance & defeat of Afghan nation journalism and factional publications in Afghanistan and to make research and analysis by using cultural and journalistic method about the historical occurrences from the rise of press up to the contemporary period (twenty first century) to author and publish it. In reality, this book covers the cultural possession of Afghanistan from the end of 19 century 1878/`1257 up to the 2014, America and NATO forces withdraw from Afghanistan.

The book of history, diplomacy and journalism of Afghanistan is the output of communication experiences and notes of mine from the time I was a student of journalism at the university and up to the current time that I have been in and outside my country—the press also moved through different directions and left the coverage to the history and community as a memorial. I as a writer have observed numerous of situations and dimensions of this direction and write about the events. So I wanted to write some part of the experiences and add them to the notes of this book. The historical changes of Afghanistan led to unfortunate tribulation, upheavals and transitory periods when the Britten invaded three time between (1819 losing of Sind provicie) and first occupation of Britten in 1939 till third Englo-Afghan war 1919), the coup of communists on7th Sawar 1357hs (28 April 1978) was imposed on our nation and not much time had passed while the black page of Russian invasion (27 December 1979) and the US invation and NATO allies after 11 September 2001 was added to our history.

The history of combat of Afghan community against Russians and their puppet regimes opened a new front and new page in our history.

The Mujahideen of Afghanistan during their fourteen-years struggle overthrew the superpower of former Soviet Union and its system of communism that was not even predictable by the Westerners. In spite of shortages and chaos they were suffering the holy warriors (Mujahedeen) of Afghanistan in the part of the history in their fourteen years resistance against Russian sparked their combat and played an historical role in abolition of the dictators system of communism. But of their not thinking about the future and lack of program of development in rehabilitation of the civil society caused to burn themselves in the flames of that fire. The change in the system with existence of the chaotic administration of Mujahedeen and tact of the individuals who were depending on aliens made the civil war more intensive and extensive in fact. The civil war in Afghanistan is also considered to be a product of political defect and regional conflict and rivalry of the enemy countries. Existence of a system under the title of Resistance force of Mujahedeen that was necessary to come into being and the freedom loving movements with a religious thought was supposed to take place in Afghanistan went through the strangulation period during the internal fighting among the different political parties that recorded darker events in our contemporary history. I as writer had journey to inside Afghanistan where I talked with different leaders, commanders, scholars and politicians from different parties and hereby collocted historical documents that I added some of the stories and news (information) to this historical collection.

Dark and petrified of the Taliban in Afghanistan, pushing back the progress of the society for many years. Bloody fire fight in Afghanistan was more vulnerable, Afghan intellectuals abroad arrived, Afghanistan was internationally isolated state. And coming of Osama bin Laden in Afghanistan, Al Qaeda has a wider scope. The Taliban needed economic aid, began to rise to Osama bin Laden.

September 11, 2001 was a turning point in international policy towards Afghanistan. America appealed to the Taliban to surrender Osama smell. This proposal was rejected by the Taliban and the US forces on 7 October 2001 began its invasion of Afghanistan and the Taliban was defeated on the same day.

Bonn conference on Afghanistan’s interim government led by Hamid Karzai, the beginning of a new era in the country. 130 thousand America and NATO military forces and the existence of a 12-year battle with the opposition, including the work of the election administration and civil process in Afghanistan is contemporary Historical events Afghanistan states.

One of the major achievements of this period, freedom of expression and the development of journalism and public policy. But changing social structure, the lack of a coherent bureaucratic procedures and lack of law enforcement made up social corruption in Afghanistan. America and NATO are facing economic instability, had decided in 2014 to start his forces out of Afghanistan. But his military bases signing strategic moves in Afghanistan. America as an advocate for peace in the region and by 2025, its interests in Central Asia will be scheduled.

Tensions in the region Such as radical Islamism, the development of Iran’s military and economic interests of the West in Afghanistan and the region, including topics of US that Afghanistan will endure all these problems.

The book of (Afghanistan: History, Diplomacy and Journalism) not only does state the fact about mass media of propaganda (publicity) but it also provides information, on mass communication about the historical events, political personalities, political parties and journalism about fact writing. I wanted to analyze the contents of publications of the parties in the context of each historical period and to present it with analysis and interpretation in different dimension of the book to the academic institutes, universities, research centers and readers for purpose of specialization based on the longing desire of people. But the internal events and coverage in the axis of journalism prevented me from this specialized research. This book is considered as a mixture of facts in historical exposure to the public view.

I am willing that I will achieve one day the wish of specializing in the journalism of Afghanistan in universities of Afghanistan for awareness and educating of journalists and students of universities. One of the fundemental factors of having been plundered and taken as stogy to other countries of cultural, historical and social wealth of ours were lack of a single or central administration, tendency and national commitment and patriotism. Nowadays, Afghanistan has not been only deformed as a result of political and military abnormalities while it has become target to the direct cultural interference and incision of other countries and all our cultural ownerships were entitled to others and the books, prominent personalities, scholar and poets of Afghanistan were claimed for by others the impacts of this cultural metamorphosis of alien counties might not have been felt in our country, but the danger of this incursion (interference) is bigger and worse to Afghanistan than the military invasion of Russians.

As its name indicates this book that reiterates the historical events documented by the research work of competent historians of the world and the extensive research based on the history materials that were also available in the Afghanistan research institute in Holland and documented by the references and fact of pamphlets of international parties is written. Much effort has been taken to reflect the events as they were and occurred. Because writing a history is a responsible and risky work and trusteeship (deposit) that should be conveyed intact to the future generation. The historian should be honest (trustworthy) and tells what happened. A tiny mistake of historian means issuing order of killing of whole people of society or nation of one period of the world. Based on the thought and consideration of history, I tried a lot to be honest (trustee) in writing the stories of events (fact) that from one side, not to be unfaithful to the decedents (passed generation) and to be also indicated to the nation of Afghanistan hereby to write a book to remain eternally. In this book the events that had been written from the mid of 19th century up to the end of 20th century, the historical events and occurrences are aides to the recognition (identification) of journalism and role of press and pamphlets in propaganda (publicity) learning and entertainment of people that are briefly written. But these events could be indicative of historical realities in our society. For more detail please refer to! "Afghanistan in 19th century, written by the author. In writing of events of this book I tried, to write down the dates of historical days simultaneously.

For the ease of research workers and readers I placed the references at the end of each section. Likewise, I wrote the index of names of people and pamphlets of parties at the end of book with order of alphabetical letters. I am grateful in advance to all academies, cultural institutes and centers, cultural scholars and personalities, interested friends committed to Afghanistan to help me in development of this research to protect the historical and cultural ownership forever in this history.

Dr. M. Halim Tanwir

Chronological History of Afghanistan

(from 50.000 BC to 1863 AD.)

50,000 BCE-20,000 BCE

"peoples probably roamed Afghanistan as early as 100,000 years ago. The earliest definite evidence ofhuman occupation was found in the cave of Darra-i-Kur in Badakhshān, where a transitional Neanderthal skull fragment in association with Mousterian-type tools was discovered; the remains are of the Middle Paleolithic Period, dating to about 30,000 years ago." (encyclopidia Britanica)

• Archaeologists have identified evidence of stone age technology in Aq Kupruk, and Hazar Sum. Plant remains at the foothill of the Hindu Kush mountains indicate, that North Afghanistan was one of the earliest places to domestic plants and animals.

3000 BCE-2000 BCE

• Bronze might have been invented in ancient Afghanistan around this time. . . . two sites in Afghanistan probably related to the elaborate copmlex of agricultural communities which supported the Indus Valley Civilization. (Afghanistan, Luis Dupree, edition 1980, p. 266)

• First true urban centers rise in two main sites in Afghanistan—

Mundigak, and Deh Morasi Ghundai.

• Mundigak (near modern day Kandahar)—had an economic base of wheat, barley, sheep and goats. Also, evidence indicates that Mudigak could have been a provincial capital of the Indus valley civilization.

• Deh Morasi Ghundai (Hill) is one of the prehistoric role of Afghanistan. "Deh morasi represents a small semisedentry village with a traditional economic base of weat/barley agriculture and sheep/goat/cattle transhumance’ near(south of moderen Kandahar). (Afghanistan, Luis Dupree, edition 1980, p. 266)

• Ancient Afghanistan—crossroads between Mesopotamia, and other Civilizations.

2000 BCE-1500 BCE

• Arian tribes in Ariana (Ancient Afghanistan)

• The City of Kabul is thought to have been established during this time.

• Rig Veda have been created in Afghanistan around this time.

• Evidence of early nomadic iron age in Aq Kapruk IV.

• Bactrian civisation in Dashty Dheberghan settlement.

• Iron age: in Tilla tapa (north of Afghanistan)

600 BCE—(There is some speculation about this date)

• Zoroaster introduces a new religion in Bactria (Balkh)—(Zoroastrianism—Monotheistic religion) (about 522 BC)—Zoroaster dies during nomadic invasion near Balkh.

522 BCE-486 BCE

• Darius the Great expands the Achaemenid (Persian) empire to its peak, when it takes most of Afghanistan., including Aria (Herat), Bactriana (Balk, and present-day Mazar-i-Shariff), Margiana (Merv), Gandhara (Kabul, Jalalabad and Peshawar), Sattagydia (Ghazni to the Indus river), Arachosia (Kandahar, and Quetta), and Drangiana (Sistan).

• The Persian empire was plagued by constant bitter and bloody tribal revolts from Afghans living in Arachosia (Kandahar, and Quetta)

329-326 BCE

• conquering Persia.

• Afghanistan is invaded by Alexander the Great. Alexander conquers Afghanistan, but fails to really subdue its people.(356-323)

• Constant revolts plague Alexander.

• Seleucid Empire (331-175) in west of Afghanistan.

323 BCE

• Greeks rule Bactria (Northern Afghanistan)

250 BCE

• Parthian Empire (east of Afghanistan)

• Indo-Greek Empires (Menander) in South & East of Afghanistan.

170 BCE-160 BCE

• Bactria—Parthia

• Nomadic invasions (Indo-Seythians) & (Indo-Partians) in South & West Afghanistan.

• Nomadic invasions Sakas (Seythians) in North Afghanistan

50 AD

• Kushan empire rule, under King Kanishka (1st-3rd century)

• Graeco-Buddhist Gandharan culture reach its height.

• Gandahara school in East of Afghanistan.

• Hadda school in(100-200 AD) in south of Afghanistan.

220 AD

• Kushana (Yuezhi)empire fragments into petty dynasties.

400 AD

• Invasion of the White Huns (Hephthalites). They destroy the Buddhist culture, and leave most of the country in ruins.

425-550

• Independent Yaftalee rule in Afghanistan.

550 AD

• Persians reassert control over all of what is now Afghanistan.

• Revolts by various Afghan tribes.

652 AD

• Arabs introduce Islam in Afghanistan.

• Turki Shahi in south Afghanistan

962-1030

• Islamic era established with the Ghaznavid Dynasty (962-1140)

• Afghanistan becomes the center of Islamic power and civilization.

1030—

• Mahmud Ghazni dies.

• Conflicts between various Ghaznavid rulers arise and as a result the empire starts to crumple.

1140—

• Ghorid leaders from central Afghanistan capture and burn Ghazni, then move on to conquer India.

1219-1221—

• Invasion of Afghanistan by Genghis Khan

• Destruction of Irrigation systems by Genghis Khan, which turned fertile soil into permanent deserts.

• The Mongols reach Afghanistan (1221)

1271

• Marco Polo crossed Afghan Turkistan

1332-1370

• Descendants of earlier Ghorid rulers reassert control over Afghanistan.

• Timurid Empire (1336-1405)

1370-1404

• The rule of Timour-i-Lang (Tamerlane)

1451—

• An Afghan named Buhlul invades Delhi, and seizes the throne. He finds the Lodi dynasty.

1504-1519

• Babur, founder of the Moghul dynasty takes control of Kabul

1520-1579

• Bayazid Roshan (Afghan intellectual) revolts against the power of the Moghul government. Roshan was killed in a battle with the Moghuls in 1579—but his struggle for independence continued.

1613-1689

• Khushhal Khan Khattak (Afghan warrior-poet) initiates a national uprising against the foreign Moghul government.

1708

• Mir Wais (forerunner of Afghan independence) makes Kandahar independent of Safavid Persia that had ruled it since 1622.

1715—

• Mir Wais dies peacefully, and lies in a mausoleum outside of Kandahar.

1722—

• Mir Wais’ son, Mir Mahmud, invades Persia and occupies Isfahan. At the same time, the Durranis revolt, and terminate the Persian occupation of Herat.

• The rule of Afghans (Mahmood Afghan & Ashraf Afghan)in 1719-1722 South & West of Persia.

1725—

• (April 25)—Mir Mahmud is mysteriously killed after going mad.

• Afghans start to lose control of Persia.

1736—

• Nadir Shah (head of Persia) occupies southwest Afghanistan, and southeast Persia.

1738—

• Nadir Shah takes Kandahar.

1747—

• Nadir Shah is assassinated, and the Afghans rise once again. Afghans, under the leadership of Ahmad Shah Abdali retake Kandahar, and establish modern Afghanistan.

1747-1773

• Rule of Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani).

• Ahmad Shah consolidates and enlarges Afghanistan. He defeats the Moghuls in the west of the Indus, and he takes Herat away from the Persians. Ahmad Shah Durrani’s empire extended from Central Asia to Delhi, from Kashmir to the Arabian sea. It became the greatest Muslim empire in the second half of the 18th century.

• (1750) Khurasan—> Afghanistan.

1773-1793

• Rule of Timur Shah

• Timur Shah

• Capital of Afghanistan transferred from Kandahar to Kabul because of tribal opposition.

• Constant internal revolts

1793-1801

• Rule of Zaman Shah

• Constant internal revolts

• (1795) Persians invade Khurasan (province)

1801-1803

• Rule of Mahmood

• Constant internal revolts

1803-1809

• Rule of Shah Shujah

• (1805) Persian attack on Herat fails.

• Internal fighting

1809-1818

• Mahmood returns to the throne.

• War with Persia—indecisive victory

• Internal fighting

1819-1826

• Sons of Timur Shah struggle for the throne—Civil War—anarchy—

• Afghans lose Sind permanently

1826—

• Dost Mohammad Khan takes Kabul, and establishes control. (Mohammad Zai Dynsty)

1832-1833

• Persia moves into Khurasan (province), and threatens Herat. Afghans defend Herat successfully.

1834—

• (May)—Afghans lose Peshawar to the Sikhs; later they crushed the Sikhs under the leadership of Akbar Khan who defeated the Sikhs near Jamrud, and killed the great Sikh general Hari Singh. However, they failed to retake Peshawar due to disunity and bad judgment on the part of Dost Mohammad Khan.

1836—

• Dost Mohammad Khan is proclaimed as Amir al-mu’ minin (commander of the faithful). He was well on the road toward reunifying the whole of Afghanistan when the British, in collaboration with an ex-king (Shah Shuja), invade Afghanistan.

• Amir Dost Mohammad Khan

1839-1842

• First Anglo-Afghan War

• After some resistance, Amir Dost Mohammad Khan surrenders to the British and is deported to India.

• Shah Shuja is installed as a puppet king by the British. (1839-1842)

• Shah Shuja

• April 1842—Shah Shuja killed by Afghans.

• Afghans passionately continue their struggle against the British.

• Akbar Khan—Afghan hero—victorious against the British.

• In January 1842, out of 16,500 soldiers (and 12,000 dependents) only one survivor, of mixed British-Indian garrison, reaches the fort in Jalalabad, on a stumbling pony.

1843

• After the annihilation of British troops, Afghanistan once again becomes independent, and the exiled Amir, Dost Mohammad Khan comes back and occupies the royal throne (1843-1863).

1845—

• Afghan hero, Akbar Khan dies

Resources:

1. Afghanistan, Luis Dupree, edtion 1980.

2. Encyclopidie Britanica

3. hidden Afghanistan

4. collupse of Safvid dynsty & returns & Rules of Mahmood Afghan. Dr Willem Floor.

Chapter 1

The tenure of governance of

Amir Sher Ali Khan

1863-1878 (1257-1224 hs)

Sher Ali Khan was one of the sons of Dost Mohammad Khan, who was born in 1824 (1202 hs). The sons of Dost Mohammad Khan as heads of regions (areas) transformed the political format and social structure of the country to anarchy (tribal reign), and the Mohammadzai dynasty laid foundation for chaos and disorder (anarchy). However, before them, the sons of Timor Shah also caused chaos in Afghanistan. The selfish (ambitious) rivalry of Dost Mohammad Khan’s sons was a result of fourteen marriages of their father. They resorted to every action for seizing power that provided a ground for disintegration (partition) of great Afghanistan. Even though the conflict among the sons of Timor Shah caused fighting (civil war) and start of destruction in Afghanistan, existence of Dost Mohammad Khan and his dependence on aliens provided the chance for presumption (boldness) of Russia, England, and Iran; after that Afghanistan became smaller and smaller, and the empire of Ahmad Shah Abdali, who could revive territory of former Afghanistan (Khurasan) with his victories, collapsed and was followed by defeats.

Five Years’ Fighting Among Mohammadzai Brothers

The first tenure of governance of Amir Sher Ali Khan was different from the second tenure. Because five years bloody civil war raged that could be assessedis first tenure of kingdom from 1863 to 1866 (1242-1245 hs) and second reign from 1868 to 1879 (1247-1258 hs) were in fighting and suppression of his brothers and his opponent family. When Dost Mohammad Khan passed away in Herat, selection of Amir Sher Ali Khan as crown prince caused great problems. His other brothers showed opposition to kingdom. The competition of reign between Sher Ali Khan from one side and Mohammad Afzal Khan with Mohammad Azam Khan on the other side who was older than Sher Ali Khan reached the peak and ended with bloody fighting.

1. Fighting of Kurm: In this fight, Mohammad Azam Khan was defeated and escaped to India in 1863 (1242 hs).

2. Fighting of Takhta Pole in ‘Mazar Sharif’: Sher Ali Khan in this fight seized Mohammad Afzal Khan and compelled him to surrender. Abdul Rahman Khan, the son of Afzal Khan, escaped to Bukhara. Sher Ali Khan put his brother in prison in 1864 (1243 hs).

3. Fighting of Sayedabad Wardak: Sher Ali who had lost his kingdom gathered soldiers in Kandahar and decided to attack Kabul that resulted in a bloody fight between his soldiers and allied soldiers of Mohammad. Azam Khan and Abdul Rahman Khan resisted in Sayedabad of Wardak, and more than five thousand people were killed. Sher Ali Khan was defeated in this fight and escaped to Ghazni in 1765 (1244 hs). He was also defeated in ‘Ghazni’ and escaped to ‘Kandahar’, and from there he escaped to ‘Herat’. The reign of Kandahar was taken by the incompetent sons of Azam Khan. Afzal Khan was released from the prison, and he declared kingdom in Kabul in May 1866 (1245 hs). Afzal Khan died on 7 October 1867. Abdul Rahman was alienated by his uncle Azam Khan.

4. Fighting of Bazarak in ‘Panjsher: One thousand and five hundred people were killed in this fight between the forces of Sher Ali Khan and Abdul Rahman Khan. The commander of army of Sher Ali Khan, whose name was Faiz Mohammad Khan, and the governor of ‘Balkh’ were also killed. Sher Ali Khan was defeated and escaped to ‘Herat’ in 1867 (1246 hs).

5. Fighting of Kandahar: The sons of Mohammad Azam Khan intentionally started this fight while they did not have the support of people, and their deeds and acts caused hatred of people towards them. This fight took place after the death of Mohammad Afzal Khan in Kabul and enthroning of Mohammad Azam Khan in October 1867 (1246 hs). In this fight, Sher Ali Khan defeated the sons of Azam Khan.

6. Fighting of Shashgow: Upon defeat of forces of Mohammad Azam Khan, Abdul Rahman Khan with another army moved from ‘Kabul’ towards ‘Ghazni’, and bloody fighting started in ‘Ghazni’ between the enemy forces that resulted in the defeat of forces of Azam Khan and Abdul Rahman Khan. Abdul Rahman Khan escaped to Bukhara, and Mohammad Azam Khan went to Iran and passed away in ‘Birjand’ in 1868 (1247 hs).

Reforming Programme and Journalism!

The foundation of reforming programme was laid relatively at the end of Sher Ali Khan governance, in the last ten years, which was the product of thoughts of Sayed Jamaluddin Afghani. Contrary to his father’s slavery-based acts, Sher Ali Khan made advantages of the thought and way of thinking of S. J. Afghani indirectly, although he did not tolerate the existence of S. J. Afghani in Afghanistan. He undertook construction of ways, strengthening of economic foundation, development of trade, journalism, and press and international relations.

In this period, the internal security was relatively secured, and the implementation of the reform programmes were executed by Sayed Noor Mohammad Shah, premier in Sher Ali government. The follower of S. J. Afghani, Sayed Noor Mohammad Shah, was prudent and careful in political dialogues and relations with the stockholder countries on the issue of Afghanistan. He tried to, from one side, restore and protect the national unity and integrity and from other side prevent the political pressure of English, Russian, and Iran.

The tenure of Sher Ali Khan could be called a historical interval and interpreter of dreams of reform programmes, although the development direction of these foundation and programmes was very slow. The fundamental factor of these administration vanities was mistakes of Sher Ali Khan in political affairs and the security of the country, so he could not succeed in implementing these programmes.

Journalism is considered to be one of the fundamental affairs of that period of Sher Ali Khan. S. J. Afghani, before leaving Afghanistan, had proposed publishing of newspaper throughout the country. The newspaper Shams-ul-Nahar was the first official newspaper of Afghanistan that was published, although the publication of Kabul was specially published by S. J. Afghani before Shams-ul-Nahar. The first printing house was also established in ‘Bala Hisar’ of Kabul in tenure of Sher Ali Khan and started printing of newspapers, books, and letters and state’s manifestos.

Before this period, especially in the tenure of Dost Mohammad Khan, the letters and manifestos were printed in India by English according to their view and would be publicised and disseminated in Afghanistan that would have been beneficial for imperialism.

In this period, the establishment of communication, Department of Post Office and printing of post for the first time, and solving of tax problems of people were the reform affairs of that time.

Political Way of Sher Ali Khan

Declaration of Kingdom

As it had been common to give report about every decision of the Afghan king to the English, the declaration of kingdom and its approval by English was also considered necessary. Sher Ali Khan was well aware of the fact that the English under no circumstances wanted an independent and powerful Afghanistan, and they most welcomed persons such as Shah Shuja and Dost Mohammad Khan. As the relations of Sher Ali Khan were relatively closer to Russians than English, a lot of pressure was exerted that caused a political blow to Sher Ali Khan in the declaration of kingdom.

In the first period of his kingdom, Sher Ali Khan was in a shaky position with three dimensions, such as diplomatic relation with the English, the method of relation with the Russians, and strengthening of his power in opposition and reconciliation with Mohammadzai families. When Sher Ali Khan declared his kingdom in December 1863 (Jadi 1242) to the English, he faced the deliberately careless response and lack of recognition of the English that was considered a blow to his political personality and opposition with independence of Afghanistan. Instead of mobilising and deploying the soldiers to take steps for independence of Afghanistan with military means, he adopted a conservative position towards English and trampled the vision of freedom wanting of the people.

As the English were tirelessly endeavouring to create difference and conflicts and break down forces of people, from one side, the people could not rise against English, and from the other side, they (English) could easily disintegrate Afghanistan. Careless behaviourwas the reason used by the English to show the kingdom of Sher Ali Khan unimportant, and they kept him as a political hostage to achieve all objectives.

Exile of Sayed Jamaluddin Afghani

One of the biggest mistakes of Sher Ali Khan was exile of S. J. Afghani, a thinker and combatant. This decision was taken when the political and economic problems of Afghanistan were getting worse and Afghanistan under the pressures of Russian and English was compelled to be partitioned. In the beginning of his kingdom, Sher Ali Khan showed trust in S. J. Afghani and let him a way to office (administration or royal office).

Sayed Jamaluddin Afghan anti-colonial revolutionary thought, against Great Britain, Russia and authoritarian governments that concerns Sher Ali Khan.

Sher Ali Khan used the British and Russians to be a compromise. So they can confirm his kingdom.

The English, as perceived the thought and view of S. J. Afghani, tried to create difference of views among the statesmen of the state (high-ranking state employees) hereby to prepare ground for banishing S. J. Afghani from the key affairs of state. The assigned persons of English who were reliable co-workers of Sher Ali Khan explained existence of S. J. Afghani as a big danger for his Kingdom’s survival. Two of the English agents such as Mohammad Rafiq Lodi, advisor, and Mirza Mohammad Hassan Khan ‘Dobiraul Molk’, senior secretary of king, with the cooperation of their other supporters hatched a conspiracy that Sayed Jamaluddin with his views and thought would cause uprising of people against the King and this would cause a danger for prince crown (Abdullah Jan), a desired son of the King, and they also said that S. J. Afghani would become successor of the King one day. So the existence of such an adventurous person was not beneficial for the state. Sayed was to be either imprisoned, submitted to English, or exiled.

Similarly, those close to Sher Ali Khan made him suspicious that S. J. Afghani previously had good relations with his (Sher Ali’s) elder brother Mohd. Azam as he (Afghani) as a teacher educated him and as a premier gave political advice and now he (Afghani) might again cooperate with him in toppling the King.

S. J. Afghani wanted national unity and integrity of Afghanistan and was opposed to anarchy and fighting among the Mohammadzai brothers. He even advised Mohammad Azam Khan to give allegiance to Sher Ali Khan for the sake of national interests of Afghanistan, safeguarding of national unity, and political autonomy (independence) of the country and hereby to put an end to the family fighting. As Sayed Jamaluddin perceived the opposition of Sher Ali against himself, he agreed (consented) to leave Afghanistan. During his farewell he submitted a ten-article reforming programme to the King, and he desired that the King would successfully implement that programme.

Recruitment of Indian English Military Advisors

Sher Ali Khan at the meetings or in privatewith people, to express their opposition to the policy on Afghanistan held in Great Britain. But he tried to put the affairs with both Russia and English by observing the balance and to maintain its position. By adopting such a position he committed faults in the state affairs. One of these mistakes was the recruitment of British Indian military advisors; this issue not only negatively affected the opinion of people but also caused internal conflicts and provided more chance for English’s second political military interference in Afghanistan.

When Sher Ali took step to establish a military school, two pro-English agents and employees in royal office, Wali Mohammad Lati and Mohammad Aslam Khan, by means of their relation (contact) with English, tried to receive agreement of the King in recruitment of English-Indian military advisors.

Amir Sher Ali was careless and credulous in his policy. He faithfully trusted Indian Muslims as brothers, so his administration became the centre of activities of English agents. Qazi (judge) Qadir, the famous agent, got hand in the judicial and administrative affairs of Afghanistan, and Indian officers got influence in the army of Afghanistan (1).

Sayed Noor Mohammad Shah, the prime minister, was opposed to this decision, but the royal elite who were most of the nephews and members of Mohammadzai family had a lot of influence in thought and actions of the king. The agents of English were recruited in high military posts and assumed authority of the military of Afghanistan. One of those was Rahim Bakhash who obtained a high rank general (Sepah Salaar) from the King.

After the military and political influence of English were completed in administration of Afghanistan, the English exerted political pressure on Afghanistan:

A. Intensifying of family conflict and emergence of internal fighting and creation of disunity between Sher Ali Khan and elder son of Mohammad Yaqub Khan.

B. Creation of political strangulation and emerging of oppositions by provoking of English agents such as Secretary Bakhtyar.

C. Recruitment of members of the family! The family of King financed by English as agents: they were Wali Mohammad Lati, Ismail Khan, Mehrdel Khan, Abdullah Khan, Sultan Ahmad Khan, Sardar Aslam Khan, and Mohammad Hassan Khan, senior secretary, who were all nephews of Sher Ali Khan and they were financially and politically supported by English.

The English were informed of all political (diplomatic) relation and decisions of Afghanistan, and with the agreement that took place in the meeting of Berlin between English and Russia in 1883 (1252 hs) on the issue of Afghanistan, they wanted complete dominance or partition of Afghanistan and they did not want to give political independence to Afghanistan.

In the summit of ‘Simla’ in 1883 (1253 hs), the English declared that the state of Afghanistan had to receive advice in its foreign diplomacy from English. As the English expected Afghanistan to come under its colony, it (English) did not want to restore the independence of Afghanistan.

D. Giving of ‘Sistan’ to Iranians: when Sistan was occupied by Iranians and fighting between Iran and Afghanistan took place, the English interfered as mediator. In an agreement with Iranians, Sir Frederic Goldsmith with a pre-devised collusion with the thought of partition of Afghanistan resolved for advantage of Iran in 1872 (1252 hs) and submitted Sistan to Iran (2).

Suppression of Uprising of Momand People

In June 1864 (Jawza 1243 hs), the people of ‘Momand’ (Afghan southern tribe) were gathered together under the leadership of Sultan Mohammad Khan Momand, the son of Sadat Khan Mujahid, who revolted against English, and the uprising was extended to other parts as well.

The English who did not give attention to Sher Ali Khan considered the uprising of Momand a big danger to their imperial power. They made contact with the king through their agent Wali Mohammad Lati. The English wanted suppression of that uprising. Sher Ali Khan considered this contact a good chance for creation of his relations with English; he sent soldiers to Mohmand and martyred a big number of the rebels, and the leader of the rebels escaped to ‘Bajawar’.

Selection of Prince Crown Abdullah Jan

One of the mistakes of Sher Ali Khan was declaration of his small son as prince crown that caused conflict among his family, demolition of political system of the country, exile of S. J. Afghani, and preparation of ground for the influence of English in Afghanistan.

The elder son of the king Yaqub Khan went to Herat and provoked the people against the King, and the bloodshed and fighting became extensive. As Yaqub Khan owned a weak determination, he surrendered himself to his father, and Sher Ali Khan put him in prison. After his release, his determination became weaker, and he was transformed into an afraid chicken-hearted and he had lost the competency of state holding.

Perceiving the psychology of Yaqub Khan, the English enthroned and had him sign ‘Gandomak’ agreement as a historical and national traitor in 30 May 1879 (9 Jawza 1257 hs).

During his kingdom, in his foreign meetings and agreement with foreign countries especially with Russia and English was the recognition of Abdullah Jan as a crown prince. Because he was more influenced by the thoughts of his last wife, and this was a weak point of Sher Ali Khan in his family. and the English took political advantage of this.

When Abdullah Jan suddenly died in September 1878 (Sunbulah 1257 hs), all desires of Sher Ali Khan died, and he retired to seclusion.

Taking advantage of this situation, the English got prepared for the second invasion of Afghanistan. The English agents in the military and the elite agents close to the King masterminded subversive activities and inciting emotions of people prepared the grounds and hereby made the political situation confusing and restless. Sher Ali Khan who credulously trusted in Russians for years went to Mazar Sharif to absorb assistance of Russians in Bukhara.

Trust in Russians

The other mistake of Sher Ali Khan was his credulous trust in the promises and negotiation of Russian delegations. Simultaneously the Russians indicated their invasion into Turkmenistan, Tajik, and Uzbekistan as a humanitarian measure to prevent the English influence and assured Sher Ali Khan that they did not intend to invade Afghanistan. Amir would be calm with this deceit of Russians. An Agreement of partition of Afghanistan had taken place between Russian and English in Berlin. The English were also in search of domination and usurping of a southern part of Afghanistan.

According to Ghobar, a historian, Sher Ali always trusted the Russians and said that they did not tell lie and they fulfilled their promise. So he made mistake in his contemplation (3).

As the Russians occupied ‘Khiwa’ that was an integral part of Afghanistan in 1874 (1254 hs), Sher Ali Khan responded indifferently. The English had complete information about foreign diplomacy of Afghanistan. They expressed concern about Afghanistan’s relations with Russians. The viceroy of India, Lord Lytton, had told that if Sher Ali did not accept the conditions of English and did not avoid relations with Russians, the English state with the cooperation of Russians would remove Afghanistan from the world map (4).

After the capture of ‘Koqhand’ in 1875 (1254 hs) and occupation of ‘Khiwa’ and ‘Marw’ cities by Russians, the relations of empire of Ottoman Turkey and Russian became deteriorated. The delegation of Turkey came to Afghanistan and asked Sher Ali Khan to get united in the anti-Russian movement with Turkey. But Sher Ali Khan rejected the proposal and declared his neutrality (5).

Ghobar writes as follows:

The English were indirectly involved in international political activities. One of those was a person in delegation of Turkey sent to Kabul and he was trying hard to convince Sher Ali Khan to answer positively to the English state and to avoid having retaliations with Russians. Because at that time the Tsarist government of Russian was a harsh enemy of Turkey. In a fighting that took place between Turkish and Russians in 1878, the Russians reached near Istanbul . . . But English in unity of Austria and Germany compelled Russians to revise the agreement (San Tasifav) in congress of Berlin (July 1878). Russians intended to find threatening tools (causes) for English so that they diverted attention to Afghanistan. Representatives of Turkey were sent to Kabul to sabotage this effort of Russian . . . As the said representatives found the position of Afghanistan toward English similar to the position of Turkey toward Russian returned from Afghanistan in despair. (6).

In order to improve relations with Afghanistan, Russians sent delegations to Kabul to show Russian-Afghanistan friendship to English.

In spite of lack of interest of Sher Ali Khan, General Stalietov prepared a draft for negotiations between the two sides that read as follows: ‘Recognition of Abdullah Jan prince crown, establishment of cultural and economic relations and channelling military assistance to Afghanistan in special circumstances.’

The English also wanted Sher Ali Khan to accept their delegation, but as Sher Ali was mourning the death of his son Abdullah Jan did not want to negotiate with the English. When Sir Louis Cavagnari was travelling with members of delegation from Khyber to Kabul was not given permission of entry to Afghanistan by the officials of Afghanistan. This action caused anger of the English, and as a result, protesting letters were exchanged between Sher Ali Khan and the English. So this chance was a good excuse and pretension for second invasion of Afghanistan by English.

On 21 November 1878 (3 Qaus 1256 hs), English attacked Afghanistan from three sides. Sher Ali Khan declared holy war against the English throughout the country. But he did not try in mobilising and deploying soldiers and went to Balkh to solicit assistance from Russians. He sent letters to Gen. Kaufmann to St. Petersburg and requested military assistance. Russians suggested that the two sides hold negotiation and did not respond positively to the request of Sher Ali.

The King wrote a letter to the English and suggested negotiation, but the English rejected and continued advancing their troops. The King again decided to travel to Russia, and when he reached Mazar Sharif where he wanted to cross Amu Darya (Oxus), he was prevented by Russians.

The people of Afghanistan with patriotism united against the invaders and declared their unity from day to day. And they were opposed to the opportunistic activities of Sher Ali Khan. The king who had become very desperate died in ‘Balkh’ in 21 February 1879 (2 Hoot 1256 hs).

The people, for selection of their future leadership, released the son of Sher Ali Khan from prison and declared him the king of Afghanistan. But he was a coward with weak determination and was incompetent, granting every part and province of the country to the members of his family. Such of his actions together with conspiracy of the English caused confusion and strangulation, civil war, and anarchy and tribal governments. The English took advantage of this opportunity, with the cooperation of their agent Wali Mohd. Lati by getting advantage from the psychological state and cowardice of Yaqub Khan, and signed the shameful agreement of ‘Gandomak’ and submitted the territories of Kurm, KhayberDara, Landi Kotal, Sebi, and Pashin to the English on 30 May 1879 (9 Jawza 1257 hs).

The administration of Afghanistan was practically controlled by Cavagnari, the ambassador of the English to Afghanistan who was working in ‘Bala Hisar’ instead of Yaqub Khan.

Yaqub Khan merely prepared the ground for further invasion of Afghanistan by English.

The people who had become enthusiastic and emotional in fighting a holy war against the English expressed their hatred and seclusion against Yaqub Khan. They attacked ‘Bala Hisar’ and incinerated Cavagnari with his people there (3 September 1879/11 Mizan 1257 hs).

This incident caused a serious reaction of English in Afghanistan and deployed a lot of forces and launched an attack from three sides, Jalalabad, Kandahar, and Paktia, on Afghanistan. The English imprisoned him along with his ministers and exiled them to India, who remained there until they died. The English destroyed Bala Hisar and plundered ammunition depot to took revenge from Afghans.

S. J. Afghani

The Founder of Modern Journalism in Afghanistan

S. J. Afghani was the founder of modern news writing (journalism) in Afghanistan in the years of his youth. He started social reform and rehabilitation work in the poor and imperialism-stricken countries. The foundation of his work was laid in his motherland Afghanistan, in the Kingdom of Sher Ali Khan. Although he was under the pressure of government’s opportunists who accuse Afghani as a supporter of Amir Azam Khan. Besides all these opposition propaganda, he tried to control the thought of Sher Ali Khan and make Afghan a civil society.

S. J. Afghani for the first time published a paper under the title Kabul. This paper was written with pen and was dedicated to reforming of Afghanistan, and later on printing facility was made available.

The research workers have written documents regarding this, and they wrote that, ‘Some believe that in tenure of Amir Sher Ali Khan a publication by name of (Kabul) reviewed and edited by Sayed J. Afghani as editor in chief of the publication was published’ (7).

Mayel Herawi in a pamphlet (description and introduction of newspapers and magazines.)wrote that, ‘ . . . In state printing house also mentioned publication of Kabul’ (8).

Abdul Rauf Benawa wrote in the magazine of Kabul that at the end of 1868 in tenure of kingdom of Amir Sher Ali Khan a newspaper by name of Kabul was published.

The Islamic researcher Bakdanov wrote in the Islamic culture as follows: ‘Here in, regarding the Kabul Newspaper that would be published in the last six months tenure of Sher Ali Khan (end of 1868) was not mentioned’ (9).

No sample has remained of the Kabul newspaper, but it could be considered the start of journalism in Afghanistan with the initiatives of S. J. Aghani.

The newspaper Shams-ul-Nahar was the first publication that remained in the press history in Afghanistan. It was published in 1873 based on the initiative and plan of S. J. Afghnai proposed to Sher Ali Khan when he (S. J. Afghani) was exiled. One of the students and followers of him who was a thinker and writer in the Herat city where they met was Ghulam Mohammad Tarzi. The other followers in this city were Mahmood Tarzi, editor in chief of the newspaper Serajul Akhbar Mullah Abdullah, Mullah Mohammad. Omar, and Mullah Mahmood.

In the city of Kandahar, big combatants and writers in Pashto and Dari languages such as Burhanuddin Balkhi, Qazi Abdul Salam, Talmeez Sufi, Qazi Sado Din, Mullah Abdul Haq, and Qazi Ghulam are mentioned as the followers of S. J. Afghani in the history. Mullah Mushk Alam and Mullah Nasrullah who learned from way of thought of him. They could have mobilised their combat against the invasion of the English and settled the tribal differences between Hazara and Pashtoon. They left the story of the great deeds as a memorial in the second Anglo-Afghan war.

S. J. Afghani was writing poems in India. Simultaneously the articles of S. J. Afghani were published under pen names in the Indian press.

S. J. Afghani in Egypt (1870), for one and half months, could not find residence permission. He mobilised the thoughtful youths of Cairo for a combat against the English by means of press, and it had a great impact on the opinion of people. As he himself wrote about the role of press in the newspaper Urwatul Usqa: ‘The diseases of nations and communities have been cured with dissemination and publication of newspapers and magazines, that led to awakening of nations. But due to the deep and extensive ignorance and negligence only this work was not sufficient’ (10).

S. J. Afghani was banished from Egypt, but he left his thought and perspective there and went to Istanbul, Turkey, and got familiar with the scholars of that country. He obtained the right of teaching in the educational institutions of ‘Dar-ul-Fonoon’ in that country, and he also changed the teaching methods of that place according to the contemporary time. Thousands of people would get together in the meetings of S. J. Afghani and would be attracted by his saying and writing. S. J. Afghani who also had a good command of Turkish language brought even the officials of Turkey Empire under the influence of his thoughts. But the envoy of some traditional spirituals in Turkey whose interests encountered a danger spread propaganda against S. J. Afghani’s modernity and revival theory and termed it apostasy.

As a result, Abdul Hamid Pasha forcefully sent him out of Turkey.

In his second journey to Cairo, S. J. Afghani left positive impacts on Islamic world and press because he, in addition to obtaining right of teaching in Alazhar university, started teaching and writing articles from the poor inhabitant territory in worthless hat place in Cairo, and he started teaching Talwih-ul-Usool (obvious element) to the youths.

The poor hat of S. J. Afghani had become the place of gathering of bright-minded youths, university students, literates, and Egyptian scholars, and every day hundreds of people benefited from his speeches and thoughts.

S. J. Afghani who had a lot of interest in the fate of Afghanistan wrote his first book History of Afghanistan in Arabic, that is descriptive of historical proceeding and his thoughts about the affairs of Afghanistan.

In Cairo, Sayed started the description of the most significant religious programme of freedom of Arabic from Imperialism of the English, restoration of political independence of Egypt from the deception of imperialism, unity of Muslim nations throughout the world, and the civilised principles of Islam (teaching principles) for the thoughtful strata of Arab.

He was a pattern of combat and brilliant teacher. He laid foundation for returning to civil society and modernity of Islam. He would always emphasise on the unity of Muslims and liberation for suppressed people, and eliminating the imperialism and oppressive forces of colonialism.

S. J. Afghani was a single, virtuous, humble, and praying person. He would sleep a little. He would not eat more than once a day. He had very fast memory and would talk with reasoning (11).

Ahmad Ramin, one of S. J. Afghani’s students in Egypt, wrote as follows: ‘He was an enthusiastic and revolutionary person, enthusiastic and frenzy in wanting the rights of deprived people. Everywhere he went he would kindle and produce thought and would be requested by people to give presentations that would cause anger and anxiety of the government . . .’ (12).

One of the Egyptian writers wrote as follows:

The flam that Sayed Jamaluddin lit hundreds of years ago in Egypt, has not been extinguished yet, and still are sincere in his reminding and existence. He ended his most fruitful life and national concessions and the brighter life full of magnificence for us he led our most thoughtful people. He is considered moral father, energetic mobiliser of doomsday and revival of Muslims . . . (13).

Another writer writes as follows:

He became source of thinking in the fighting of Russian—Ottoman Turkey and fighting of Englo-Afghan. We advantage from history of Afghanistan, he published the book of history of Afghanistan in Arabic in forms of articles and later on in a historical collection. His view regarding Afghanistan was to such an extent that it attracted view of English politician to himself. English embarked by restricting him. But S. J. Afghani in spite of suffering hardships and punishment in Kabul, Istanbul and Bombay selected circle for teaching from the Egyptian who studied law to educate and make competent his friends in every tasks and to outwardly put himself in seclusion and manage all the activities inwardly (14).

S. J. Afghani Started teaching philosophy and sciences (religious book) in Egypt, and his students became eternal stars in literature, philosophy, Islamic book, and art in Egypt and the world. He laid foundation for cultural and social revolution. In the meantime, the colonialism and their puppet regimes tortured, imprisoned, and banished his students in Egypt, India, Turkey, Libanan, Syria, Iran, and Afghanistan. But these soldiers of monotheism school fought brilliantly as the sun against the darkness.

Some of the distinctive and prominent students of S. J. Afghani are Sheikh Mohammad Abduh, Mohammad Rashid Rida Ibrahim Laqayee, Adeed Ashaq, Fathee Zaqhlool, Ibrahim Halbawi, Mahmood Saai, Albadwaee, Ibrahim Almoyalji, Salim Ghanhori, Sanoh (Abu-Nedzara), and Mohammad Moyalhar. There were also a number of Egyptians and Syrians in the circle of his obedience.

One of the people who was a member of circle thought by S. J. Afghani up to the time of becoming a king of Egypt was King Tawfiq Pasha, the son of Ismail Pahsa Khedew.

S. J. Afghani in his press activities in Egypt would write articles for the newspaper Al-Ahram that was newly established, but this was not considered enough by those thirsty for thoughts of S. J. Afghani. The longing lovers and students of him and other scholars of Egypt established different newspapers in Egypt, such as Al-Tejara (trade) and Al-Sharq (East) to provide the thought of Afghani to all people.

Sanu (Abu-Nezara) and Salim Ghanhori, the apostle of S. J. Afghani, published newspapers under the name Abu-Nizara (Son of looking) and Kawkab-u-Sharq