Defining Student Success: The Role of School and Culture

Defining Student Success

The Rutgers Series in Childhood Studies

The Rutgers Series in Childhood Studies is dedicated to increasing our understanding of children and childhoods, past and present, throughout the world. Children’s voices and experiences are central. Authors come from a variety of fields, including anthropology, criminal justice, history, literature, psychology, religion, and sociology. The books in this series are intended for students, scholars, practitioners, and those who formulate policies that affect children’s everyday lives and futures.

Edited by Myra Bluebond-Langner, Board of Governors Professor of Anthropology, Rutgers University and True Colours Chair in Palliative Care for Children and Young People, University College London, Institute of Child Health.

Advisory Board

Perri Klass, New York University

Jill Korbin, Case Western Reserve University

Bambi Schieffelin, New York University

Enid Schildkraut, American Museum of Natural History and Museum for African Art

Defining Student Success

The Role of School and Culture

Lisa M. Nunn

Rutgers University Press

New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Nunn, Lisa M., 1975-

Defining student success : the role of school and culture / Lisa M. Nunn.

pages cm. — (Series in childhood studies)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-8135-6362-6 (hardback) — ISBN 978-0-8135-6361-9 (pbk.) — ISBN 978-0-8135-6363-3 (e-book)

1. High school environment–United States–Case studies. 2. High school students—United States—Case studies. 3. Prediction of scholastic success—United States—Case studies. I. Title.

LB1620.5.N86 2014

373.18—dc23 2013033864

A British Cataloging-in-Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

Copyright © 2014 by Lisa M. Nunn

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. Please contact Rutgers University Press, 106 Somerset Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08901. The only exception to this prohibition is fair use as defined by U.S. copyright law.

Visit our website: http://rutgerspress.rutgers.edu

For Garrett

Contents

Acknowledgments

Introduction: Three High Schools with Three Distinct Ideas about School Success

1. Alternative High: Effort Explains School Success

2. Fearing Failure at Alternative High

3. Comprehensive High: Effort Is Helpful, but Intelligence Limits School Success

4. Separate Worlds, Separate Concerns: AP versus College-Prep Track at Comprehensive High

5. Elite Charter High: Intelligence plus Initiative Bring School Success

6. Competitive Classmates at Elite Charter High

7. Beyond Identity: Consequences of School Beliefs on Students’ Futures

Afterword

Appendix A: Identity Theory and Inhabited Institutionalism

Appendix B: Methodology

Notes

Bibliography

Index

About the Author

Acknowledgments

This book would not have been possible without the high school students, teachers, and principals who were willing to share their experiences with me. Thank you for your candor and your trust. If you ever need a favor in return, please look me up.

As this is a book about school environments, I would be remiss not to acknowledge the graduate school that shaped me and my work. The sociology department at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), has a culture of nurturing relationships between faculty and graduate students, and I benefited enormously from the environment there. Amy Binder is a true mentor and friend, encouraging my work and pushing my thinking in new directions. I owe many insights in this book to her challenging questions. John Evans kindly and patiently developed my scholarly potential. His wisdom and guidance have seen me through many an intellectual puzzle (and a few social ones too). I thank Akos Rona-Tas for his unflagging enthusiasm for my work. He helped me craft both a stronger project and a stronger me. I thank Bud Mehan for his support, generosity, and infinite expertise.

I owe many debts to people who have contributed to this book by reading drafts, offering comments, debating with me in hallways and coffee shops, and sharing their knowledge and ideas. I heartily thank Tim Hallett and Ruben Gaztambide-Fernandez for their excellent suggestions and helpful critiques. Steph Haggard, Mitchell Stevens, Mary Blair-Loy, Michael Evans, Stephanie Chan, and Erik Fritsvold have provided invaluable insights at various stages of the project. I thank Peter Mickulas at Rutgers University Press. In addition, I took part in many fruitful and inspiring conversations at Sociology of Education Association conferences, culture and society workshops at UCSD, and Ocelot Writing Group meetings as well as in the sociology of education classes I teach. Thank you, students, friends, and colleagues.

The sociology department at UCSD funded my work on this project with graduate research grants. My new institutional home, the University of San Diego, also funded this work with a faculty research grant. I am grateful to Michelle Camacho and Judy Liu for mentorship and support that have allowed this book to come to fruition.

For their love and encouragement, I thank my family: Monica Beith, Scott Beith, Nick Beith, Trevor Beith, Maria Evans, Rick Evans, Nick Moraitis, Betty Goldfield, Alan Goldfield, Bil Goldfield, Kelly Goldfield, and little Alana Goldfield. Thank you for your devotion to me. I dedicate this book to Garrett Goldfield, who reminds me everyday that true happiness is possible.

Introduction

Three High Schools with Three Distinct Ideas about School Success

Deshawn, a high school freshman, sits with me for an interview during his lunch break.¹ It’s a Tuesday in January, but Deshawn is not at school. Instead, he is at his internship, where he works from 10:00

A.M.

to 2:00

P.M.

on Tuesdays and Thursdays, busing tables, running the cash register, and learning the ropes of food service at a popular lunch café in a busy suburban shopping and business district. Deshawn hopes to become a chef one day, and he sees this internship as a good step toward attaining his dream career.

His school, a place I call Alternative High, not only supports balancing school with internship work but actually mandates it. School days are scheduled on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays only. Students are required to spend time in the world of work (usually unpaid) on Tuesdays and Thursdays. The goal of the internship program is to allow students to gain real-world knowledge and experience so that after graduation they have a clearer sense of what college and career paths they might like to pursue. In addition, they can tout their internship experience on their résumés when they apply for jobs.

From Deshawn’s perspective, the arrangement is working well. As a teenager in a low-income, single-parent home, he certainly appreciates the free lunches after his shift. But he also takes his job experience seriously. He is confident that high school and job success go hand in hand, and he sees his internship as part of that relationship. I want to become an executive chef, he tells me, so that I can really do what I like. And so at home, I just try a lot of different things. I don’t really go out [to eat in restaurants] because of money. Money issues, you know? I don’t really go out there. But if it was like a box or something, I can do it. You know, I am learning from boxes. And I try to do as much of the cooking as I can because I am trying to determine if I do want to be an executive chef or not, or a pastry chef. You never know.

In his daily life Deshawn has very limited access to resources, but Alternative High has designed its mission around preparing him and other low-income urban youth for bright futures. The school prides itself on providing opportunities for students to discover their talents and passions and build futures around them. Deshawn takes advantage of these opportunities. Even though he is not actually learning any chef-level cooking skills, he is an eager intern and works hard at the lunch café. His attitude can be seen as a personal commitment to the ideal of hard work. Yet as I argue in this book, looking only at students’ individual characters is shortsighted. We need to look at students’ school environments if we want to comprehensively understand how their ideas and behaviors relate to the concept of success. In other words, to understand Deshawn’s dedication to the low-skill labor of busing tables and running a cash register, we need to recognize that his high school actively fosters an ethic of hard work. At Alternative High, hard work is heralded as the essential ingredient for success in life. According to Deshawn’s principal, "if the culture and the school environment [are] there, then students can get all As and [they] will have options as far as careers are concerned."

As the lunch rush dwindles to a handful of customers, Deshawn sits down to talk with me. Against a backdrop of clanking dishes, I ask, Why do students go to school?

To learn how to work in our environment, he responds. We usually learn how to be productive and how to be very businesslike in school. And after we have received a good amount of education, we are able to be really into our own working field. And we would probably be successful in that because of our education. And after college, usually you do get a good job because of the fact that you stayed in school rather than going and doing your own thing, you know.

Throughout our interview, he reiterates the idea that the purpose of school is to prepare students for the world of work. Rather than claiming that students learn facts and knowledge that will help them in their future careers, he emphasizes that school teaches students behaviors that they will need to be successful in their future jobs. One of the most critical behaviors, according to Deshawn, is turning in one’s work on time: In a real job you have to know how to meet deadlines; you have to do that. That’s the reason why I need to go to school, so I know how to meet deadlines. And that’s basically what we are doing. We’re trying to get all the work in right, and meet it—meet the deadline.

Like many Americans, Deshawn is confident that hard work is the key to success. For him, this is as true in high school as it is anywhere else. His principal agrees: "When a task is given, you need to do your very best at completing the task. Completing the task may say, ‘I got an A on this task because I did the check-off.’ [She mimics checking items off a list.] You will have children who won’t complete their work and may not get an A, B, or C. Getting less than a C simply means that you didn’t manage your time, you weren’t organized, and you didn’t ask for help."

Notice that Deshawn’s principal does not indicate that a lack of intellectual ability might be the reason—or even part of the reason—for why a student earns low grades. Similarly, when I ask Deshawn, What does it take for a student to earn good grades in your school? he responds, A lot of dedication. Importantly, like his principal, and like many other students I interviewed at Alternative High, Deshawn does not believe that a person has to be particularly intelligent to do well in school. Instead, he believes that paying attention in class and completing homework are all it takes to earn good grades. You don’t have to necessarily be smart, he explains, because the teachers teach you plenty enough to do what you need to do on your own. And it’s a matter of whether you listen or not. Because, well, they can be smart, but if you don’t turn your work in, you know, you are not going to be graded for your smartness. He later volunteers: I really respect a person who can get their work turned in.

Deshawn’s ideas about school success are typical of the students I interviewed at Alternative High, where I found a strong, consistent belief that everyone is smart enough to meet the demands of schoolwork. Anyone can do it, the students told me. It’s all a matter of whether or not a person tries. Their attitude is common in U.S. society: some scholars refer to it as achievement ideology, while others call it American dream ideology.² Yet according to this ideology, hard work is only one way to achieve success. Natural or God-given talents offer another route. These two resources—effort and talent—are the focus of this book. Throughout, I distinguish among cultural ideas about success in which a person draws on talent to achieve goals, relies on hard work to achieve them, or uses a combination of the two. In terms of school success, I focus on high intelligence as students’ most salient natural talent.

Deshawn’s understanding of school success as being dependent on effort rather than intelligence is rooted in the particular way in which success is understood at his high school. Different schools create their own versions of larger cultural ideas, modifying and adapting those that are prevalent in wider U.S. society. These distinct understandings of school success have consequences for students. In the three high schools I have chosen to study, I focus on two types of consequences. First, I look at the ways in which students construct an identity for themselves—what I call their success identity. I find that, as students describe themselves, they draw heavily on their own school’s definition of success. Thus, if Deshawn were to attend a different kind of high school, his ideas about both school success and himself would likely be different.³ Second, I look at students’ futures in higher education. Each school’s belief about success is aligned with a particular tier of higher education. Finally, I argue that school-level beliefs about success serve as a mechanism for reproducing the existing social order in American life.

Like others at Alternative High, Deshawn uses behavioral criteria to judge how successful he is and to anticipate how successful he will be later in life. He asserts that his grades are based on these behaviors: Usually my teachers come up with the report card for me with how good I’ve acted. . . . My way of doing things is really, like, strict. I put a lot of strict things on myself just to get things done ahead of time. And that usually helps the teachers understand that I am doing my job and I should get a good grade for that.

Notice that Deshawn does not claim that his grades are based on whether or not he masters the material in his assignments. Nor, he says, are good grades the result of high intelligence. Hard work and meeting deadlines explain who is successful and who is not: end of story. I ask him if he thinks it is easier to get great grades in school if a person is highly intelligent. He adamantly disagrees: The person that’s not so smart, you know, could be working harder than the intelligent person because the intelligent person might have their ego so high that they think a teacher knows them, that they don’t have to turn in their work or something. In fact, he suggests that intelligence is irrelevant to success in school: If you don’t turn your work in, you know, you are not going to be graded for your smartness.

The second school in my study, which I call Comprehensive High, fosters a different understanding of what it takes to succeed in school. Although Comprehensive High students also emphasize the importance of effort, they present a more complicated picture of what effort means. I ask Flor, a junior, "If a student tries hard enough, can she make all As in school?"

She responds, "No. Because I am trying really hard in chemistry right now, and I’m not even getting a B. I’ll listen, but I just don’t understand anything he’s talking about. . . . Even if you do try, you might not get what you want."

Students at Comprehensive High echoed this idea again and again in interviews with me. Their understanding of school success included the notion that hard work has its limits. You have to be intelligent in a subject in order for your effort to pay off because you have to be able to understand the concepts. Students often described this limitation in terms of having weak points. A weak point is a subject or two that a person is simply not very good at. In a class that is your weak point, you cannot expect excellent grades, no matter how much effort you put forth. The students I talked to at Comprehensive High accepted this as a fact of life.

Flor and I are drinking lattes in a popular coffee shop in a strip mall across the street from Comprehensive High. The atmosphere is crowded and noisy, but Flor does not seem to mind the bustle. She listens to my questions and answers each one thoughtfully. School has just let out for the afternoon, and the stress of her school day lingers over her as she talks. Flor explains that school success comes easier for students who are naturally intelligent, and she feels that students who are working hard toward good grades should not be blamed for achieving less school success: If you want to get there, and you’re trying but you just don’t get there, then it’s not like it’s your fault that you can’t get there.

Nonetheless, like most of the students I talked to at Comprehensive High, Flor does not downplay the importance of putting forth effort. As an example, she tells me about her own problems last semester. Her grades were disastrous: she received Ds in three of her six classes. Flor explains, I wasn’t expecting anything good, and so I know I got those grades for a reason. I got really lazy. It was the beginning of the semester, and I didn’t do any of my homework, and so towards the end of the semester—or middle of it—I knew I had to do all of my homework and stuff, but then it was too late to raise [the grades] up dramatically. Since then, she has turned over a new leaf. Now she aspires to be successful in high school and go on to college. Yet although she is proud of her newfound effort and improved success in school, she does not expect to earn As, no matter how diligent she is. She simply does not think she is intelligent enough: "I’m not dumb or anything. It’s just that, like, if I tried, I’d probably pull off being a B student—if I really tried."

Flor’s principal also believes that a combination of effort and intelligence is necessary for school success. When I ask her, What does it take for a student to earn good grades at your school? she replies, What we hope teachers would say [is] you need to be here. Attendance is huge. You need to participate in the class, ask questions, and be actively engaged. You need to complete the assignments you’ve been given. I would say those are probably the three things that would lead to success for the student.

At first, her remarks sound as if she is promoting straightforward effort, as the principal at Alternative High was. But when I ask her if a student should be able to earn all As if she tries hard enough, the Comprehensive High principal tells me firmly, Oh, I disagree. Totally. If they don’t master the content, they aren’t going to pass the class. She draws on the term academic ability when she refers to the intellectual capabilities necessary for mastering course content, and she repeatedly emphasizes that grades are supposed to be a reflection of ability: Hopefully, most of the grades that students are issued by the teacher have to do with their academic ability much more than their attitude or behavior. Yet she acknowledges that effort is certainly involved in getting good grades. Behaviors such as participating in class, being engaged, and completing assignments play a role in student success, but as far as a teacher issuing a grade, it is supposed to be purely on academics.

I also studied a third school, which I call Elite Charter High. My interview with Daphne, a sophomore there, offers a telling example of the ideas about success that it fosters. Daphne and I sit down together one evening on large couches in the living room of her family’s spacious two-story home. She has made sure to complete her homework early and has returned from martial arts practice in time to accommodate our interview. Her younger siblings are sequestered with her parents in another part of the house, so the room is quiet and calm. Daphne seems relaxed as she explains to me the purpose of school: to enrich yourself, to open your mind to more things. This attitude is very different from Deshawn’s, who believes that school teaches students to be businesslike and meet deadlines.

Like many other students I interviewed at Elite Charter High, Daphne connects learning to a person’s natural intelligence. When I ask her how we can recognize someone who is intelligent, she replies, Well, in school: grades. They prove [it] easy. She goes on to describe how intelligence manifests in a person: If they show a passion for something, then definitely they will have the knowledge of that, and there is intelligence there. . . . [If] they question—that’s a big one—thinking about it can intrigue them enough that they ask about it, then they have the interest and they want to increase their knowledge of that, so there is intelligence there.

According to Daphne, people who are intelligent feel passionate about learning and are therefore motivated to pursue knowledge: It’s the trying to learn. If you believe in yourself, you go through it; then your intelligence will show more. . . . Trying to bring yourself to the higher level. Trying to bring yourself up instead of just staying at a plateau or going down. The human wants to strengthen themselves. In her view, intelligence is connected to an internal desire to learn, grow, and develop.

For many students I talked to at Elite Charter High, this general motivation to learn enhances school success. Because such students are excited about their schoolwork, they devote energy to it, which yields good grades on report cards. Thus, the school’s cultural wisdom about success includes a distinct type of effort, characterized as initiative. Effort is not simple hard work, as it is at Alternative High and Comprehensive High. At Elite Charter High, successful students take an eager interest in learning. They take initiative.

I ask Daphne, What does it take for a student to earn good grades in your school?

She answers, Self-motivation, which she explains as definitely trying. Good study habits. Spending time doing the homework, getting it done. Presenting it in a needs-to-get-done fashion, no procrastination—where it is just like getting it done, not waiting until the middle of class to do it. Although Daphne’s response sounds a bit like Deshawn’s explanation of what it takes to earn good grades at Alternative High, her focus on internal drive speaks to the different understandings of success at each school. Daphne tells me that if a student is not getting good grades, the reason is likely a motivation problem, but her description of motivation is rooted in a desire to learn, not simply to complete assignments on time, as Deshawn emphasizes. She says, "It is a matter of finding what works for you. Like