Social and Economic Life in Second Temple Judea

Social and Economic Life in Second Temple Judea

Social and Economic Life in Second Temple Judea

Samuel L. Adams

© 2014 Samuel L. Adams

First edition

Published by Westminster John Knox Press

Louisville, Kentucky

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Except as otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., and are used by permission.

All photos reprinted with permission from Guide to Biblical Coins by David Hendin, copyright © 2010 David Hendin.

The maps, The Growth of Herod’s Kingdom, 40–4 BCE and The Satrapy ‘Beyond the River: The Levant under Persian Administration, are © copyright Carta, Jerusalem. Used by permission.

Book design by Sharon Adams

Cover design by Dilu Nicholas

Cover illustration: Ruth Gleaning. James Tissot (1836–1902 French)

Jewish Museum, New York, USA © SuperStock/SuperStock.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Adams, Samuel L., 1970–author.

 Social and economic life in Second Temple Judea / Samuel L. Adams

       p. cm

   ISBN 978-0-664-23703-5 (alk. paper)

 1. Jews—History—586 B.C.–70 A.D. 2. Jews—Social life and customs. 3. Jews—

Economic conditions. 4. Jews—Social conditions. 5. Judaism—History—Post-exilic period, 586 B.C.–210 A.D. I. Title.

   DS121.65.A33 2014

   933'.4903—dc23

2013049521

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992.

Most Westminster John Knox Press books are available at special quantity discounts when purchased in bulk by corporations, organizations, and special-interest groups. For more information, please e-mail SpecialSales@wjkbooks.com.

Contents

List of Figures

Acknowledgments

List of Abbreviations

List of Ancient Sources Quoted

Introduction

1. Family Life and Marriage

Basic Household Structures

Household Size and Larger Population Estimates

Life in the Household

Marriage

Finding a Partner

Marriage Gifts and Dowry Arrangements

The Economics of Divorce

Summary

2. The Status of Women and Children

Roles and Responsibilities of Women

The Status of Widows

Children

Roles and Responsibilities of Male Offspring

Roles and Responsibilities of Daughters

Responsibilities toward Parents

Inheritance

Debt Slavery

Summary

3. Work and Financial Exchanges

Occupations

The Challenges of Farming

Animal Husbandry

Other Occupations

Financial Exchanges

Borrowing and Lending

Interest

The Practice of Surety

Bribery

Summary

4. Taxation and the Role of the State

Taxation in an Advanced Agrarian Economy: Anthropological Perspectives

Persian Period

Ptolemaic Period

Seleucid Period

The Hasmoneans

Roman Period

Summary

5. The Ethics of Wealth and Poverty

Ethics of Wealth and Poverty in the Wisdom Literature

Contradictions in the Book of Proverbs

Skepticism in the Books of Job and Ecclesiastes

Ben Sira and Social Ethics

Second Temple Instructions and Question of an Afterlife

Apocalyptic Eschatology, Economics, and Social Ethics

4QInstruction and the Dead Sea Scrolls

The Epistle of Enoch and the Gospel of Luke

Wisdom and Apocalypticism

The Question of Social Location

Summary

Conclusion

Bibliography

Index of Ancient Sources

Index of Subjects

Figures

1. Persian period gold daric

2. Satrapy of Beyond the River

3. Ptolemy II, AR tetradrachm, struck at Gaza (225/4 BCE); bust of Ptolemy I/Eagle

4. Ptolemy II, AR tetradrachm, struck at Joppa; bust of Ptolemy I/Eagle

5. Demetrius I, AR tetradrachm struck at Akko-Ptolemais; head Demetrius I/Tyche on throne

6. Alexander Jannaeus, AE prutah; Paleo-Hebrew/two cornucopias

7. Alexander Jannaeus, AE prutah; anchor/sunwheel within diadem

8. The growth of Herod’s kingdom, 40–4 BCE

Acknowledgments

This study emerged from an ongoing interest in economic issues in the ancient world, and initial research began in the midst of the global financial crisis that started in 2008. I am grateful to Jon Berquist for helping me formulate the topic and for his kind encouragement. John Collins read through the manuscript and offered his usual array of helpful suggestions. I continue to be thankful to have him as a mentor. Here at Union Presbyterian Seminary in Richmond, Virginia, my dean, Stan Skreslet, and president, Brian Blount, have supported my research and teaching. Megan Strollo has been my excellent research assistant for this book, and she offered substantive feedback in the process. I thank Westminster John Knox for publishing this volume, with deep gratitude to my editor, Marianne Blickenstaff. Her knowledge of the field and passion for this topic have energized my work. Bridgett Green at WJK guided me through the final steps of the process, along with Dan Braden, and I have appreciated their helpful suggestions. Special thanks also to members of the Society of Biblical Literature unit on Economics in the Biblical World, especially my co-chair Richard Horsley, Roland Boer, Catherine Murphy, and Roger Nam. This unit has been a fruitful venue for conversation on the topic. Finally, my wife, Helen, and two children, Virginia and Charlie, are my greatest joy and source of support. I dedicate this book to Virginia and Charlie, whose creativity and love for family continue to inspire me.

Abbreviations

Ancient Sources Quoted

Except as otherwise indicated, translations of ancient sources are from the following works:

Bible: New Revised Standard Version (NRSV), with its verse numbers. Alternate parenthesized or bracketed numbers show versification of the Masoretic Text (MT).

Josephus and other Greek sources: Loeb Classical Library editions (LCL) (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press).

The Mishnah: Herbert Danby, The Mishnah: Translation from the Hebrew with Introduction and Brief Explanatory Notes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933).

Qumran-related texts: Florentino García Martínez and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition, 2 vols. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997–98).

Introduction

And there were those who said, We are having to borrow money on our fields and vineyards to pay the king’s tax.

Nehemiah 5:4

This short verse from Nehemiah addresses a seemingly mundane set of circumstances: taxation, borrowing, and the challenges of farming. The complaint that a particular group lodges to Nehemiah, the governor in Judah working under the Persians (fifth century BCE), does not offer lofty theological concepts or purple prose. Yet the issues at stake in this verse were pivotal for those trying to preserve their households under trying conditions. How would these persons retain their land? Were the lending arrangements fair, or did exorbitant interest rates place them at great risk? What was the nature of their tax obligations? Would God protect the righteous believer or allow such a person to reach desperate straits? Such questions are actually far from mundane: they point to critical realities for those living in Judah during the Second Temple period.

Those who study the Bible are becoming increasingly attentive to the significance of economics when examining ancient texts and the cultures that produced them. Although exegetical studies often touch on economic matters, it is also necessary to focus specifically on the economics of the historical context that ancient sources address or from which they arise. From the restoration of the temple in the sixth century BCE to the context out of which the Jesus movement arose, it is difficult to overstate the importance of economics for understanding the cultural dynamics of ancient Judah. In a stratified economy, with difficult farming conditions and a succession of foreign rulers, wealth and poverty concerns pervaded every aspect of life.

This book examines the socioeconomic landscape of Judah/Judea in the Second Temple period, from the end of the Babylonian exile to the destruction of the temple by the Romans (532 BCE to 70 CE). No previous study has focused specifically on economics when analyzing this time frame, and the current discussion will engage in a close reading of key sources, consideration of relevant archaeological evidence, and theoretical analysis. By taking up topics like marriage gifts, borrowing and lending, and taxation, our discussion will provide an overview of economic life, with fresh insights from relevant biblical texts, including passages and entire books that do not receive enough attention in this regard (e.g., Ruth, Ezra–Nehemiah).

Discussion will proceed according to theme, with special attention to family life and the status of women and children, along with marketplace practices and taxation. Our thematic focus will allow for innovative analysis and conclusions. For example, interpreters often take the sayings on wealth and poverty in Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Ben Sira as a timeless set of abstract principles, rather than as a response to actual dynamics on the ground. Yet when the author of Ecclesiastes rails against bribery (Eccl. 7:7) or Ben Sira urges his listeners to stand as guarantors for their neighbor’s loan (Sir. 29:14), these sapiential figures are responding to financial realities and the expectations of their sacred tradition. The thematic arrangement also allows us to consider the implications of living under a succession of foreign powers. Burdensome taxation policies and stratification confronted most Judeans during this period; in every chapter this study details the financial impact of colonization.

Our study will begin at the household level and work outward to the larger marketplace and state level. Chapter 1, Family Life and Marriage, will survey basic issues like household structure, family size, and population levels during the Second Temple period. We will highlight the importance of the patriarchal kinship grouping, or house of the father, that persisted into this period. The bulk of this chapter will take up the topic of marriage and its economic implications. Our discussion will point to the endogamous understanding of marriage (i.e., marrying within one’s kinship group) in many of the extant sources and conflicts that developed over proper matches. Economic issues are often at the center of decisions in this regard (e.g., Ezra 9–10). This chapter will also address the custom of marriage gifts as a component of the betrothal process and how divorce might have worked during this period. Information about marriage customs appears in the biblical texts and also in such extracanonical sources as the Elephantine papyri and the Babatha archive.

Chapter 2, The Status of Women and Children, will consider the roles for women and their offspring in the household structure and how they contributed to the viability of their kinship group and the larger economy. Focus on this topic has increased dramatically in recent decades, and our discussion will address both the primary sources and insights from crosscultural analysis. We will highlight the duties of women in food preparation and their responsibilities in sustaining family members, along with a host of other issues. This chapter will also address the situation of widows in the social structure, including the critical question of whether they could inherit property. In this regard a pertinent issue is how much levirate marriage (i.e., marrying the brother of one’s deceased husband) continued as a custom during the Second Temple period. The second half of the chapter will consider the status of children. Sons usually adopted the work of their father, in most cases assisting with farming duties as they matured. Those from more elite, literate households had greater opportunities, including the possibility of a scribal career or a priestly office if they came from the right family. With regard to daughters, this topic has received little attention in studies of the period. This chapter will argue that most daughters had to maintain a more public existence than sources such as Ben Sira and Philo allow, since the majority of households could not afford to keep their female children in seclusion. The discussion of women and children will also consider the task of honoring one’s parents and the economic implications of this requirement. Finally we will examine inheritance questions, including the possibilities for daughters in this regard, and the experience of debt slavery for children.

Chapter 3, Work and Financial Exchanges, will move beyond the household level to the larger marketplace. First, we will survey the most common activities, with specific attention to the responsibilities of agriculturalists in Judah. Most households engaged in farming pursuits under trying conditions, creating a somewhat predictable but challenging rhythm to their year. Other activities included animal husbandry, pottery making, and more elitist pursuits like that of the scribe, priest, or large landowner. The rest of this chapter will examine public transactions. During the Second Temple period, the use of coinage became more commonplace, even though bartering remained the predominant form of exchange. Interest charges, including the practice of vouching for the loan of another (surety), receive attention in the sources from this period, as does the practice of bribery. Here the discussion will highlight wariness about loans and becoming a guarantor, especially in the Wisdom literature. A culture of reciprocity characterized many exchanges, with persons seeking either social advancement or the maintenance of their kinship group and reputation. In our discussion of financial exchanges, we will consider the influence of the regulations in the Pentateuch on such matters as interest and bribery.

Chapter 4, Taxation and the Role of the State, will adopt a more diachronic approach. First, the topic of taxation will be examined in light of social anthropology. Many theoretical studies have found continuities across different cultural contexts in terms of taxation, especially when methods of farming are similar. After establishing some common trends in settings like that of postexilic Judah, we will proceed with a historical analysis from the Persian period to the Roman period. Of particular importance will be the difficulty most persons faced in meeting revenue obligations to imperial rulers, local governors and officials, and the priestly establishment. Exacting requirements continued throughout the Second Temple period and not just during the reign of major figures like Darius I (550–486 BCE; reigned 522–486) or Herod the Great (73–4 BCE; reigned 37–4). This chapter will consider key passages in the biblical texts and extracanonical writings that address taxation, including the critical writings of Josephus (37–95 CE).

Finally, Chapter 5, The Ethics of Wealth and Poverty, will study the ethics of material holdings in certain Second Temple texts, most notably the Wisdom and apocalyptic literature. Is it acceptable to become a wealthy individual in these sources? Can divine judgment reverse the effects of poverty? The sapiential texts from this period offer a variety of propositions on financial holdings, not all of them consistent. In some passages, wealth functions as a reward for virtue and blessing from God, while other sayings highlight wisdom as preferred over material possessions and the corrupting influence of money. Most sapiential books, including Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Job, and Ben Sira, do not have an eschatological framework for adjudicating the consequences of human behavior in relation to economics. According to these texts, a righteous individual who has struggled with poverty cannot hope for heavenly reward to reverse the unfairness of earthly existence. Here our discussion will point to a profound shift on this point in some of the later sapiential and apocalyptic texts of the Second Temple period. In certain passages from the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Enochic books, and the New Testament (esp. the Gospel of Luke), the promise of a blessed afterlife allowed for an otherworldly judgment scene that could reverse the plight of the righteous poor and the unfair advantages of any rich persons who had cheated. Apocalyptic ideas created a new horizon for examining wealth and poverty and how God might evaluate human conduct in this area.

Before proceeding with this discussion, a few terminological and historical matters require clarification. First is the issue of proper terminology for the people who are the focus of this study: those who lived in Judah during the Second Temple period or considered themselves part of this entity. Such terms as Israelite, Judean, and especially Jewish often appear interchangeably in discussions of this type, and this can lead to confusion. In particular, the use of Jewish to refer to the inhabitants of Judah during this period is a complex matter. As Shaye J. D. Cohen and other commentators have pointed out, Judean is a more accurate designation.¹ The English usage of Jewish often indicates a practitioner of Judaism, a contemporary religious tradition.² Of course the roots of this tradition stretch back well before the Babylonian exile (586–532 BCE). In sources from the Second Temple period, however, terminology in this regard usually has more of an ethnic or geographic connotation. Greek Ioudaios derives from Hebrew yĕhûdî (pl. yĕhûdîm), which describes an inhabitant of Judah/Judea or someone who is to be identified with that group (i.e., a Judean). Cohen explains that only after the Maccabean revolt (167–160 BCE) does Greek Ioudaïsmos (usually translated as Jewish) appear in 2 Maccabees (first century BCE) and have a more cultural and religious connotation.³ The extant evidence suggests that outside rulers from this period, such as the Persians and Seleucids, understood the usage of yĕhûdî or Ioudaios to indicate a specific people, alongside other ethnic-geographic entities (e.g., Egyptian). Consequently, in this volume the discussion will generally employ the term Judean rather than Jewish when referring to the inhabitants of the region under consideration, especially when discussing events before the Maccabean revolt.⁴ Another defensible way of proceeding in this regard is to refer to the postbiblical literature, especially texts and ideas that arose after the death of Alexander the Great (323 BCE), as characteristic of Early Judaism, a tactic that we also will take at several points in the discussion.⁵

Similar caution is in order when referring to the religious identity of Judeans and how their religion changed during this formative period. Studies of this type often proceed as if religious dynamics can be distilled from political, social, and economic factors. The distinction between secular and religious that often occurs in contemporary discourse does not generally work when describing events in antiquity. As Brent Nongbri explains in an important new book, those living in the ancient world did not understand their religion as a separate sphere of human existence. The idea of ancient Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Greek, or Judean religion largely developed after the European Enlightenment. These ancient civilizations had intricate, fascinating portraits of the divine, but we risk projecting our own modern taxonomies onto the ancient world by seeking to separate the religious from the ethnic, cultural, or economic. Nongbri urges the need for restraint on this point: Religion is a modern category; it may be able to shed light on some aspects of the ancient world when applied in certain strategic ways, but we have to be honest about the category’s origins and not pretend that it somehow organically and magically arises from our sources.⁶ Such a cautionary note does not mitigate the rich theological perspectives in the many texts that date from the Second Temple period. The fact that the sources do not reflect a gulf between religion and other forms of human experience actually highlights the profound nature of faith perspectives in these ancient texts. One of the aims of this study is to demonstrate that economics, politics, and complex beliefs in a higher power interact frequently in the biblical sources and other works, and one should not attempt to separate these strands too neatly.

Another pertinent issue is the treatment of sources prior to or beyond the period under consideration. Although one can define the Second Temple period with major historical bookends (the return from exile around 532 BCE and the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE), it will be necessary to probe earlier and later evidence in order to assess social and economic life. For example, one cannot understand the perspective on economics in the book of Nehemiah without considering the import of antecedent legislation in the Pentateuch. Nor do the woe oracles in the Epistle of Enoch (1 En. 92–105) make sense unless one recognizes the employment of this literary form in eighth-century-BCE prophets like Amos. Along similar lines, the rabbinic texts often shed light on sources from the Second Temple period. The references in the Mishnah and the Talmud help us to contextualize the understanding of marriage in such documents as the contracts from Elephantine or the book of Tobit.⁷ Similarly, many of the New Testament books postdate the destruction of the temple in 70 CE, and yet these sources are helpful for understanding economic life in Judea under the Romans.

Along similar lines, we will analyze texts where the date of composition remains uncertain. Disagreement over the exact period for certain sections in the Pentateuch is one example (e.g., the Holiness Code in Lev. 17–26), as are the dates for the books of Proverbs and Ruth. With regard to the Wisdom literature, there is widespread agreement that the sayings in Proverbs came together before and after the exile. Scribal sages worked under Israelite kings (e.g., Prov. 25:1, proverbs of Solomon that the officials of King Hezekiah of Judah copied), but the collection continued to take shape after the exile, especially during the Persian period (the same is true for the Pentateuch).⁸ The period for the book of Ruth is also uncertain, although recent studies have forcefully argued for a postexilic date.⁹ Our discussion will point to the creative manner in which Ruth wrestles with pentateuchal legislation as a counter to the more rigid perspectives in books like Ezra and Nehemiah, suggesting the Persian period as the most likely composition date.

In assessing all of this material, we will point to persistent stratification in Judah, with most households engaging in farming pursuits under challenging conditions. Persons of privilege, especially those who curried favor with local officials and foreign rulers, stood to benefit from their connections, while most of the population lacked access to such possibilities. Lopsided lending arrangements and taxation demands exacerbated the challenges of living in the region, and many sources from this period reflect considerable tensions between rich and poor. In the midst of this challenging economic climate, we will highlight the relationship between economics and the social visions of the Hebrew Bible and New Testament (and other important texts). Those who placed their faith in the God of Israel understood economic issues through the lens of fidelity to the commandments. Second Temple sources indicate an ongoing debate over how to live in the world, with all of its hierarchies and financial challenges, and remain faithful to the call for benevolence that the tradition demanded.

Footnotes

1.     S. J. D. Cohen, The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 69–70.

2.     The use of Jewish can also indicate an ethnic and/or cultural group, including nonobservant Jews.

3.     See 2 Macc. 2:21; 8:1; 14:38. Even this point is disputed. Steve Mason, Jews, Judaeans, Judaizing, Judaism: Problems of Categorization in Ancient History, JSJ 38 (2007): 457–512, argues that Ioudaïsmos in 2 Maccabees is still more of an ethnic designation.

4.     This designation becomes more complex when discussing those in Diaspora, but Cohen and other scholars retain Judean as an ethnic label rather than a religious one even when referring to persons in other areas (e.g., Elephantine). See Cohen, Beginnings of Jewishness, 75–76.

5.     John J. Collins, Early Judaism in Modern Scholarship, in The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism (hereafter DEJ), ed. John J. Collins and Daniel C. Harlow (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010), 1–2, distinguishes between the preexilic practices of ancient Israel and the Early Judaism that emerged after the exile, especially after the reign of Alexander the Great. The Early Judaism designation functions as a welcome corrective to an earlier scholarly tendency to refer to this period as Late Judaism (Spätjudentum), implying a decline from the more pristine traditions of the Prophets.

6.     Brent Nongbri, Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 153. One can and should make generic distinctions in examining literature from this period, and in certain sources cultic activities receive far greater attention (e.g., the priestly laws of Leviticus). Yet Nongbri’s caution is a welcome reminder that even generic categories like Wisdom literature were not seen as secular in the ancient world.

7.     Most commentators put the editing of the Mishnah around 200 CE.

8.     Richard J. Clifford, Proverbs, OTL (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1999), 6.

9.     P. H. W. Lau, Identity and Ethics in the Book of Ruth: A Social Identity Approach, BZAW 416 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2011), surveys the content of Ruth and how it relates to the dynamics of both the preexilic and postexilic landscape; he argues convincingly that the Persian period is the most likely date of composition.

1

Family Life and Marriage

The family stood at the center of life in Judah, before and after the exile. A long-standing kinship system played a fundamental role in determining settlement patterns, social hierarchies, and the distribution of wealth. The various literary genres in the Hebrew Bible, along with the New Testament and extracanonical evidence, reflect the centrality of the family in the social structure and its significance for a person’s well-being. The importance of household structures persisted, even through exile and when foreign powers took control of Judah. The possibility of healthy offspring, financial stability, a good reputation, and in some cases survival remained much higher if an individual had a place in an established household with a living patriarch.¹ Those who found themselves on the periphery, such as widows and orphans, faced many disadvantages, which often led to desperate circumstances.

Family life is both a critical and elusive topic in the study of the Second Temple period. Those living in Judah had to adapt to a succession of colonial powers and such developments as an increase in coinage and trade. When examining this period, it is necessary to consider the relationship between households and external dynamics, including the challenge of adjusting to imperial rule, changing social institutions, urbanization, and an array of taxation demands. Yet the specifics of household life, especially in relation to economics, are largely unknown to the modern interpreter. The Persians and their successors did not always maintain careful archives, and little inscriptional evidence from Judah dates to these centuries.² The rabbinic literature provides a more thorough picture of financial dynamics in this regard, but one cannot simply apply these writings to an earlier era without analysis of the Second Temple sources and other evidence. Biblical books and extracanonical sources, such as the contracts from Elephantine and the Zeno papyri, shed light on the socioeconomic landscape during this period, but from the outset we recognize the guesswork in exploring this topic, particularly in relation to the subsistence farmers who made up the majority of the population.

The present chapter will address the economics of family life during the Second Temple period, with special attention to basic demographics and the financial aspects of marriage.³ Key factors, such as the permanent loss of national sovereignty, the revenue needs of colonial powers and local officials/priests, and challenging farming conditions had an impact on families during this period, and these topics will receive attention throughout our study. Archaeological and inscriptional evidence will be helpful for this inquiry, including documents that did not originate in Judah (e.g., family concerns in the contracts from Elephantine). Throughout our discussion, we will consult the biblical texts from this period for clues about economics and family life. One should not sweep aside as irrelevant the books with fictional details (e.g., Ruth), advice that transcends a particular era (e.g., Proverbs and Ben Sira), or content with a clearly historiographic intent (e.g., Chronicles). The careful reader often finds incidental information and implicit commentary on financial matters in these and other sources. Many passages, such as the prohibition against intermarriage in Ezra 9–10, offer important hints about the pecuniary aspects of family life. Much of this chapter will take up the topic of marriage, and we will demonstrate that one cannot detach the economic aspects of betrothal and marriage customs from other dynamics at work, including theological issues.

Before proceeding, it is worth noting that the terms family and household are not exactly synonymous. A family can be defined as a group of kin-related people … who may or may not reside together and whose primary function is to reproduce members biologically.⁴ The household, on the other hand, is a residential arrangement of persons who live together in one or more structures, who carry out daily activities necessary for the maintenance and social reproduction of the group living within a specific space associated with the residence, and who interact with other households.⁵ In this context household means not just biological relatives; it could also include slaves, concubines, and other retainers who assist with productivity. There can be overlap between the categories (i.e., an entire family can be situated in one locale as a household), but failure to notice this distinction often leads to confusion.

BASIC HOUSEHOLD STRUCTURES

Our first task is to consider household structures in the Second Temple period, including the import of residential patterns for economic life. Throughout the ancient Near East, a network of interdependent kinship groups and tribal associations connected most households, and these ties usually mattered more than any national loyalties. In a major study on this topic, J. David Schloen presents a patrimonial household model to explain the organizing principle of societies. According to his analysis, the social order consists of a hierarchy of subhouseholds linked by personal ties at each level between individual ‘masters’ and ‘slaves’ or ‘fathers’ and ‘sons.’⁶ Within this system, a person’s identity and success hinged on participation in a functioning household, with its hierarchical network of relationships and larger kinship group.

Terminology in the Hebrew Bible and beyond illustrates the significance of this patrimonial household model, including the many references to the house of the father (Heb. bêt āb) as the basic structure for family life.⁷ This house of the father term indicates a family unit with various kinship ties and a patriarch at the head of a hierarchical grouping. This system was patrilocal in the sense that young females who married became members of their husband’s household and also patrilineal since family identity and inheritance usually passed from the father to his son(s). The house of the father structure frequently included