The History of Marriage and Divorce: Everything You Need to Know

Copyright © 2019 Harry L. Munsinger, J.D., Ph.D.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or by any information storage retrieval system without the written permission of the author except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

This book is a work of non-fiction. Unless otherwise noted, the author and the publisher make no explicit guarantees as to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and in some cases, names of people and places have been altered to protect their privacy.

Archway Publishing

1663 Liberty Drive

Bloomington, IN 47403

www.archwaypublishing.com

1 (888) 242-5904

Because of the dynamic nature of the Internet, any web addresses or links contained in this book may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid. The views expressed in this work are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher, and the publisher hereby disclaims any responsibility for them.

Any people depicted in stock imagery provided by Getty Images are models, and such images are being used for illustrative purposes only.

Certain stock imagery © Getty Images.

ISBN: 978-1-4808-8213-3 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-4808-8212-6 (e)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019913038

Archway Publishing rev. date: 9/10/2019

Contents

Chapter 1 The Goals of Marriage and Divorce

Chapter 2 History of Marriage

Chapter 3 Economics of Marriage

Chapter 4 Natural Selection, Religion, and Marriage

Chapter 5 Feminism

Chapter 6 Modern Marriage

Chapter 7 History of Divorce

Chapter 8 Divorce and Religion

Chapter 9 Divorce Law

Chapter 10 Economics of Divorce

Chapter 11 Causes of Divorce

Chapter 12 Conclusion

Chapter 1

The Goals of Marriage and Divorce

T he goals of marriage include sex, financial support, social status, political connections, emotional fulfillment, personal attachment, romantic love, procreation, child-rearing, companionship, and inheritance rights. The goals of divorce involve dissolving a broken marriage, dividing assets, arranging spousal and child support, and planning custody and access to children. Marriage rituals and divorce procedures have varied widely over time and among cultures, but some system of pair-bonding has existed throughout human history in all known cultures except the Na people of China. ¹

Anthropologists and historians have found evidence of mated and single parents among ancient hunter-gatherer tribes, primitive groups living in remote areas of the modern world, and almost all ancient and modern civilizations. Ancient hunter-gatherer tribes had no known formal marriage system, but later societies generally developed formal social, religious, or legal systems that controlled and verified marriage and divorce.

There are two main patterns of marriage: monogamy and polygamy.

Monogamy and Polygamy

The most common pattern of marriage is serial monogamy, whereby couples marry, produce children, divorce, remarry, and produce more children.² Among the few societies where divorce is forbidden, marriages are annulled, legal separations are granted, and couples informally desert broken marriages and form new relationships.

The major alternative to serial monogamy is polygamy, whereby individuals marry several spouses. Polygamy is legal in many countries, but generally only rich men take advantage of the option, while most men and women marry one spouse or stay single.

Arranged Marriages

Historically, most marriages were arranged by the family.

For centuries, most marriages were arranged by families to meet economic, social, or political goals rather than for romantic love. In contrast, most modern marriages are based on romantic love.³ These modern marriages are breaking up at an alarming rate, and conservative authorities worry that the institutions of marriage and family are being damaged by the high incidence of divorce. Critics believe that premarital sex, impersonal sexual hookups, trial marriages, cohabitation, same-sex marriages, and children born to single mothers show that traditional marriage is changing—and not for the better. Earlier generations expected most adults to marry, husbands to work, and wives to manage the home and raise the children. A generation ago, around 85 percent of Western women married, while today only about 50 percent of Western women under thirty-five years of age are married.⁴ Many women are having children out of wedlock.

Marriage and reproduction are becoming independent events in many countries.⁵ More than 40 percent of children in America are born to single mothers, while 60 percent of French children are born to unwed women. Studies show that children are developmentally disadvantaged when they lack two parents in the home. Marriage and reproductive patterns are more traditional in Asian and Middle Eastern countries. In Japan, for example, 2 percent of births occur among unmarried women. India and China also have low rates of births to unmarried parents.

Over the last fifty years, four major changes have occurred in the way people marry and divorce: who controls the marriage decision, the purpose of marriage, civil unions, and no-fault divorce. For generations, families arranged their children’s marriages based on economic, social, and political considerations. Pretty young girls were married to wealthy men who could bring social status, riches, and power to the bride and her family. Today most marriages are agreed upon by the parties themselves, and couples are marrying later in life or not at all. The median age of marriage for women in America is now over thirty years. In earlier generations, women were usually married by twenty years of age.⁶ Fewer persons are marrying these days because they are cohabiting or forming civil unions instead. Civil unions confer some of the rights and responsibilities of marriage and were originally intended as an alternative to same-sex marriage. Today heterosexual couples are forming civil-union partnerships rather than getting married, because they prefer not to make the commitments marriage demands, even though there are health and economic advantages to being married.

Benefits of Marriage

Numerous studies show that married couples are healthier, wealthier, and happier than single or divorced individuals.⁷ However, until recently it wasn’t known whether this positive effect was caused by being married or because healthy, wealthy, and happy individuals marry more often than sick, poor, and unhappy people do. To answer this question, researchers statistically controlled for the health, economic status, and psychological well-being of married spouses. They still found a significant benefit to being married. These results indicate that being married has a positive effect on health, wealth, and happiness independent of the fact that healthy, wealthy, and happy people marry more often.

Mate selection is also changing. In previous generations, it was common for individuals to marry a first cousin or other close family member. Charles Darwin married a first cousin and later lamented that inbreeding created evil effects among his children.⁸ Today marriages between close relatives are rare, because most countries discourage them. Also, fewer people marry cousins today because lower birthrates are limiting the availability of first cousins as potential mates. When women had an average of five surviving children, females could expect to have around twenty-five male cousins. However, when the average birthrate is under two, females can expect to have only three or four male cousins, making it much less likely a consanguineous marriage can happen.

Modern individuals are selecting mates with similar educational attainment, social status, and personal values. Couples who marry the right person report their union produces happiness and emotional fulfillment, while unlucky couples report that marriage is a disappointment and they are unhappy with their mates. Significantly fewer couples are tying the knot these days, and of those who do, approximately 45 percent divorce at least once during their lives. Among couples who remarry after a divorce, the second and third marriages are even more likely to fail. And highly educated women are less likely to marry, stay married, or produce children.

Fewer Chinese Women

A unique marital problem is happening in China today because of an earlier government policy of allowing only one child per family.⁹

Because of the one-child policy enforced throughout China for more than a generation, many poor Chinese males are unable to find mates. Asian families generally prefer male offspring, so when families were restricted to one child, many couples aborted female fetuses, abandoned female babies, or placed them for foreign adoption and waited for a male child. An unintended consequence of this policy is that a significant number of young Chinese men have little chance of marrying, because there are too few females in their age group.

Under natural conditions, approximately 105 males are born for every 100 females. Because of higher natural attrition among young males, by the time these children become adults, the sex ratio is approximately 100 males for every 100 females. In China today, because of the one-child policy and the preference of Chinese families for male offspring, the sex ratio is approximately 115 young adult males for every 100 young adult females. This means young Chinese females can marry better-educated and wealthier males than they previously could, while many poor and uneducated Chinese males have difficulty finding mates. Desperate Chinese families are importing women from other countries for their sons to marry.

Another modern problem is that many children are being raised in single-parent homes, which has negative consequences for children.

Divorce and Children

We know that children, and especially boys, are adversely affected by a parental conflict associated with a divorce. Studies show that being raised in a single-parent household is associated with developmental problems, whether the single-parent home was created by divorce or out-of-wedlock childbirth.¹⁰ Growing up with only one parent damages children, and this is particularly true when the parents’ divorce was adversarial and created significant conflict. Children raised by one parent are more likely to be delinquent, drop out of school, use drugs, and experience emotional problems compared with children raised in a two-parent home.

But is this better outcome for children from intact families the result of having two parents in the home or because better-educated, richer, and happier couples stay married? To answer this question, researchers statistically controlled for education, wealth, happiness, and age differences between married and single households with children. They found that having married parents in the home confers a benefit on children compared with having divorced parents or living in a single-parent home. Having two parents in the home is better for children than being raised in a single-parent home, whether the single-parent status is caused by divorce or having a child out of wedlock. These results also suggest that better educated, wealthier, and happier single parents raise better-adjusted children than poor, unhappy, uneducated single parents.

Forming a Stable Marriage

Economists David Gale and Lloyd Shapley proposed a mathematical solution to forming stable marriages.¹¹ They asked men and women to rank their preferences for mates and then had men propose to their first choice. Women were told to keep the proposal from the man they preferred and reject all other marriage proposals in this first round. Each woman was also advised not to accept the first offer of marriage unless the man was the top-ranked mate on her list, because a higher-ranking male might propose later. Any man who was rejected by his first female choice was asked to propose to the second-ranked female on his list of available mates. Women again retained the proposal they preferred in this second round and rejected other marriage offers. The mating procedure was continued until all males were paired with the highest-preferred female who accepted them.

This may not be the most romantic process, but it’s guaranteed to mate every male with the highest-ranked female who will accept his proposal. Females are at a modest disadvantage under this system; they might fare better if they could propose to males instead of having to wait for marriage proposals. This is because some males might not propose to highly desirable females, fearing they would be rejected. This procedure has a certain appeal to those who believe everyone should be married.

However, there’s a flaw in this mating system. The economists assumed human preferences don’t change, while we know they do. Relatively stable marriages form using this procedure, but people are living longer, and they change their preferences, get divorced, go through the marriage selection process again, and form another relationship based on their new marriage preferences. This process creates the typical pattern of serial monogamy. We have seen that the institution of marriage has changed over the last several generations. What about divorce—has it evolved as well?

Purpose of Divorce

The purpose of divorce is to separate couples whose marriages have broken down, divide their assets, and develop a parenting plan to nurture and support their children. Experts believe that early hunter-gatherer tribes encouraged couples to mate and allowed them to separate, so long as their children were protected. Among ancient civilizations such as those in Mesopotamia, Israel, Greece, and the Roman Empire, divorce was generally available to couples whose marriages were broken. Either the husband or wife could initiate divorce in many of these ancient societies. Early Mesopotamian, Jewish, and Greek civilizations allowed divorce for adultery, desertion, or barrenness, and Roman citizens needed no reason at all to divorce. After the Catholic Church became the state religion of Rome, divorce and remarriage were gradually restricted and then forbidden. It was not until the Protestant Reformation during the sixteenth century that divorce again became available in Western Europe.¹²

Under ancient Catholic law, annulments could be purchased by wealthy or powerful families who wanted to terminate a marriage. The fee for an annulment is lower today, but Catholic doctrine still discourages divorce. Some Catholics divorce anyway.

Divorce Patterns

A striking feature of modern societies is how easy it is to dissolve a marriage. Luxembourg has the world’s highest divorce rate at 87 percent, followed by Spain at 65 percent, France at 55 percent, Russia at 51 percent, and the United States at 46 percent. India has the world’s lowest divorce rate at just over 1 percent. The average global divorce rate has increased from 12 to 44 percent in the last sixty years.¹³ Despite the fact that marriage experts decry the high divorce rate among