Pharmacology Demystified

INTRODUCTION

One of the most important roles of the nurse is to administer medications. Understanding how a drug interacts with the human body will help a nurse administer drugs safely to patients.

Pharmacology Demystified shows you:

•  How drugs work

•  How to calculate the proper dose

•  How to administer drugs

•  How to evaluate the drug’s effectiveness

•  How to avoid common errors when administering drugs

•  And much more.

You might be a little apprehensive learning pharmacology, especially if you have little, if any, experience with drugs. Pharmacology can be mystifying. However, it becomes demystified as you read Pharmacology Demystified because your knowledge of basic science is used as the foundation for learning pharmacology.

As you’ll see in Chapter 1, each element of pharmacology is introduced by combining just the pharmacology element with facts you already know from your study of basic science.

Pharmacology is different than other basic science that you’ve learned—but not so different that you won’t be able to quickly build upon your present knowledge base. All you need is a working knowledge of basic science—and Pharmacology Demystified—to become knowledgeable in pharmacology.

By the end of this book, you’ll have an understanding of drugs that are used to cure common disorders. You’ll know how they work, their side effects, adverse effects, and when they are not to be administered to patients. Furthermore, you’ll learn how long it takes the drug to take effect and how long the therapeutic effect lasts.

A Look Inside

Pharmacology can be challenging to learn unless you follow the step-by-step approach that is used in Pharmacology Demystified. Topics are presented in a systematic order—starting with basic components and then gradually moving on to those features found on classy web sites.

Each chapter follows a time-tested formula that first explains the topic in an easy-to-read style and then shows how it is used in a working web page that you can copy and load yourself. You can then compare your web page with the image of the web page shown in the chapter to be sure that you’ve coded the web page correctly. There is little room for you to go wrong.

CHAPTER 1: AN INSIDE LOOK AT PHARMACOLOGY

The mere mention of drugs brings all sorts of images to mind. However, these impressions are based on our experience as patients. Healthcare providers have a different view because they see drugs as an arsenal to combat disease. A drug is more than a pill. It is a compound of chemical elements that interacts with the body’s chemistry causing a chain reaction of events. Healthcare providers need a thorough understanding of a drug’s action in order to effectively prescribe and administer the drug to the patient. Therefore you begin in Chapter 1 learning the basic concepts of pharmacology.

CHAPTER 2: DRUG ACTION AND DRUG INTERACTIONS

Drugs are not magical. They follow proven scientific principles to interact with cells in your body to bring about a pharmaceutical response—cure your ills. In this chapter you’ll learn about the scientific principles that seem to miraculously make you better when you feel rotten all over. You will learn how drugs stimulate your body’s own defense mechanism to stamp out pathogens that give you the sniffles or cause serious diseases.

CHAPTER 3: PHARMACOLOGY AND THE NURSING PROCESS

Remember from your last hospital stay being awakened from a deep sleep by a nurse saying, time to take your medicine. The nurse didn’t enjoy disturbing you. It was part of standard nursing procedures used to administer medication. You’ll learn about those procedures in this chapter so you too can wake up your patients to give them medication.

CHAPTER 4: SUBSTANCE ABUSE

Drugs can wipe out microorganisms that attack our body. However, some drugs can be abused resulting in an individual becoming dependent on the medication. Substance abuse is the most publicized aspect of pharmacology—and the one least understood by patients and healthcare professionals. This chapter explores drugs that are commonly abused and discusses how to detect substance abuse.

CHAPTER 5: PRINCIPLES OF MEDICATION ADMINISTRATION

Administering medication can be downright dangerous unless you follow time-tested procedures that assure that the patient receives the right drug in the right dose at the right time using the right route. In this chapter, you’ll learn how this is done and how to avoid common errors that could harm your patient.

CHAPTER 6: ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION

The way a drug is administered to a patient is called a route. Your job is to administer medication using the best route to achieve the desired therapeutic effect. This depends on a number of factors that include the type of medication and the patient’s condition. In this chapter, you’ll learn how to administer drugs.

CHAPTER 7: DOSE CALCULATIONS

Although a prescriber specifies a dose of a medication for a patient, a different dose may be on hand requiring you to calculate the actual dose. With intravenous medication, the prescriber usually orders a dose to be infused over a specific period of time. You must calculate the drip rate to properly set the IV. This chapter shows you how to calculate doses of medication.

CHAPTER 8: HERBAL THERAPY

Herbal therapy is used to treat the common cold, infections, diseases of the GI tract, and about anything else that ails you. Herbs are naturally grown and don’t have the quality standards found in prescription and over-the-counter medications. You’ll learn about the therapeutic effect of herbal therapies in this chapter and the adverse reactions patients can experience when herbal therapy is combined with conventional therapy.

CHAPTER 9: VITAMINS AND MINERALS

Vitamins and minerals build a strong, healthy body, so you’ve been told when you were growing up. It is true. A balanced diet provides the vitamins and minerals you need to stay healthy. However, many patients don’t have a balanced diet and therefore experience vitamin and mineral deficiencies. In this chapter, you’ll learn about vitamins and minerals and how to provide vitamin therapy and mineral therapy for your patients.

CHAPTER 10: FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE THERAPY

Some diseases and treatment of disease can cause an imbalance in the body’s fluids and electrolytes needed for muscle contraction and other functions. Administering electrolyte therapy to the patient restores balance. You’ll learn how this is done.

CHAPTER 11: NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT THERAPIES

Nutrients are given to patients who are at risk for malnutrition caused by disease and by treatment given to cure the disease. Nutrients are also given to strengthen the patient following a trauma such as surgery. In this chapter, you’ll learn about nutritional support therapies, how to prepare them, how to administer them, and how to avoid any complications that might arise.

CHAPTER 12: INFLAMMATION

Fortunately, most times the pain goes away and the inflammation subsides relatively quickly and doesn’t interfere with daily activities. In this chapter, you’ll learn about the process of inflammation and the medications that are prescribed to reduce the redness, swelling, warmth, and pain that is associated with inflammation.

CHAPTER 13: ANTIMICROBIALS—FIGHTING INFECTION

The immune system produces antibodies that seek out, attack, and kill microbials. However, this natural defense isn’t sufficient for some patients leaving them with a runny nose, headache, and fever. They need to call in the cavalry. The cavalry is medication that kills the invading microbial. You’ll learn about antimicrobial medication in this chapter.

CHAPTER 14: RESPIRATORY DISEASES

The common cold can be annoying. However, some respiratory diseases—such as emphysema—are debilitating and can slowly choke the life out of a person. In this chapter, we’ll explore common respiratory diseases and learn about the medications that are used to manage the symptoms of the disease.

CHAPTER 15: NERVOUS SYSTEM DRUGS

The nervous system is our Internet over which sensory impulses travel the neural pathways to the brain where they are interpreted and analyzed for an appropriate response. Sometimes disease or other disorders cause the impulse to go astray or be misinterpreted. Drugs can be prescribed that restore the function of the nervous system. You’ll learn about those drugs in this chapter.

CHAPTER 16: NARCOTIC AGONISTS

Make the pain go away. That’s what most of us want when we hurt. However, pain is subjective and can be difficult for healthcare providers to manage with the appropriate medication. This chapter explores pain and how healthcare providers assess and manage pain. You’ll also learn about narcotic and nonnarcotic analgesics and how they are used to treat pain.

CHAPTER 17: IMMUNOLOGIC AGENTS

When the immune system is compromised through diseases including HIV, the body loses its ability to fight off microorganisms and destroys its own abnormal cells, leaving the patient to experience more episodes of infection that can ultimately lead to death. In this chapter, you’ll learn about the therapies used to assist the immune system combat preventable diseases and you’ll also learn about medications that inhibit the growth of HIV.

CHAPTER 18: GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM

Problems with the gastrointestinal system can be vomiting, ingesting toxins, diarrhea, constipation, peptic ulcers, and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Each is treatable with the proper medication. In this chapter, you’ll learn about common gastrointestinal disorders and the medications that are frequently prescribed to treat these conditions.

CHAPTER 19: CARDIAC CIRCULATORY MEDICATIONS

When blood vessels become clogged and the heart is unable to pump blood sufficiently, the body loses its ability to distribute oxygen, nutrients, and hormones and remove waste products placing the patient in grave danger. Fortunately, there are medications that can be taken to treat and prevent cardiovascular disorders. In this chapter, you’ll learn about drugs that affect the heart and keep the cardiovascular system humming.

CHAPTER 20: SKIN DISORDERS

Acne, dry skin, a rash, and injuries such as cuts, scrapes, puncture wounds, and burns are some disorders that affect your skin. Some of these are more annoying than endangering to your existence. This chapter discusses using medications to relieve most of the disorders.

CHAPTER 21: ENDOCRINE MEDICATIONS

Hormones are messengers that influence how tissues, organs, and other parts of your body function. An overproduction or underproduction of hormones can cause the body to function improperly. Hormones are brought back into balance by using endocrine medications, which are discussed in this chapter.

CHAPTER 22: DISORDERS OF THE EYE AND EAR

Common eye and ear disorders rarely result in loss of sight and hearing once the disorder is diagnosed and treated with the proper medication. This chapter takes a look at common disorders that affect the eyes and the ears and discusses drugs that are used to treat those disorders.

CHAPTER

An Inside Look at Pharmacology

Just the mention of drugs causes all sorts of images to run through our mind: the magic pill that made you feel better when you were under the weather; the stinging injection that left your arm sore for days; the handful of capsules that cost a month’s pay; and even the vision of furtive street-corner exchanges.

These impressions are from our experiences as patients or consumers. Healthcare providers, however, view drugs differently because drugs are an integral component of the arsenal used to combat the diseases and physiological changes that disrupt activities of daily living.

A drug is more than a pill. It is a compound of chemical elements that interacts with the body’s chemistry causing a chain reaction of events. Drugs are given to achieve a therapeutic effect. However, most drugs also have side effects. Some side affects are desirable and some are not. Healthcare providers must have a thorough understanding of a drug’s action in order to effectively prescribe and administer the drug and evaluate the patient’s response to the medication.

Throughout this book you’ll learn about drugs: how they work; their therapeutic effects; their adverse effects; their interactions with other drugs; how they are prescribed; and how they are administered. However, before learning these details, let’s begin in this chapter with the basic concepts of pharmacology.

What Is Pharmacology?

Pharmacology is the study of chemicals—drugs—on living tissues and how those chemicals help diagnose, treat, cure, and prevent disease or correct the patho-physiology of living tissues. The term pharmacology is derived from two Greek words: pharmakon, the Greek word for drugs, and logos, the Greek word for science.

Pharmacology has its roots in folklore and tradition that dates back to ancient times when knowledge of the medicinal effects of plants were passed down through generations. By 1240 AD, pharmacology moved from the realm of home remedies to a science where drug standards were established and a measuring system was developed—called the apothecary system—that was used to measure quantities of drugs. Because drugs can vary in strength and purity, pharmacological standards have been developed that govern the manufacturing and control of drugs. The United States Pharmacopeia National Formulary is the only official book of drug standards in the United States. If a drug is included in this book it has met the standards of quality, purity, and strength. These drugs can use the letters U.S.P. following the official name of the drug. Accurate dosage and the reliability of the effect the drug will have on a patient is dependent upon the purity and strength of the drug. Purity is the dilution or mixture of a drug with other materials to give it a form that can be administered. Drugs may vary in the strength of their action. The strength of drugs from plants can depend on where the plant is grown, the age at which the plant is harvested, and how the harvest is preserved. Drug packaging standards determine what information needs to be displayed on packages of drugs. You’ll learn more about these later in this book.

In addition to these standards, there are a number of important laws that have been enacted to control the sale and distribution of drugs.

1938 FOOD, DRUG AND COSMETIC ACT

Before 1938 there was no control over pharmaceuticals. This changed when a drug company distributed a sulfa drug to treat pediatric patients. The drugs turned out to be a chemical similar to antifreeze. It was highly toxic and killed more than 100 people, including children.

At the urging of the public, the United States Congress passed the 1938 Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. This act required:

•  Drugs must be proven save for use before they can be sold.

•  Inspections of drug manufacturing facilities.

•  Safe tolerance levels be identified to prevent the patient from being poisoned.

•  Cosmetics and therapeutic devices be controlled.

1952 DURHAM-HUMPHREY AMENDMENT TO THE FOOD, DRUG AND COSMETIC ACT

Until 1952, anyone could distribute drugs. With the passage of the Durham-Humphrey amendment to the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938, a group of drugs was defined that could only be purchased if the patient had a prescription from a licensed practitioner.

1962 KEFAUVER-HARRIS AMENDMENT TO THE FOOD, DRUG AND COSMETIC ACT

The Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938 was amended once more in 1962 with the passage of the Kefauver-Harris Amendment. This amendment tightened controls on drug safety by requiring drug manufacturers to use standard labeling of drug containers. The label lists adverse reactions and contraindications or reasons why the drug should not be used.

1970 COMPREHENSIVE DRUG ABUSE PREVENT AND CONTROL ACT

By 1970, there was widespread abuse of prescription drugs. In an effort to contain this problem, Congress passed the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevent and Control Act. This act categorized controlled substances according to a schedule based on potential for abuse.

•  Schedule I is reserved for the most dangerous substances that have no recognized medicinal use.

•  Schedule II drugs have high abuse potential with accepted medicinal use.

•  Schedule III drugs have high abuse potential with accepted medicinal uses.

•  Schedule IV and V drugs have lower abuse potential with accepted medicinal uses.

The Source of Drugs

Ask a child where milk comes from and you might be surprised by his answer that it comes from the grocery store. The same might be true if you ask an adult where drugs come from and he answers from the drug store. Both are correct answers, but neither identifies the true source.

Drugs can be purchased from a drug store, but the origins are from one of four sources.

PLANTS

A number of plants have medicinal qualities and have been used for centuries as natural remedies for injuries and illnesses. Pharmaceutical firms harvest these plants and transform them into drugs that have a specific purity and strength sufficient to treat diseases.

An example of a drug that comes from a plant is digitalis. Digitalis is made from leaves of the foxglove plant and is used to treat congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias. Digitalis also strengthens the force of the contractions of the heart.

ANIMALS

Byproducts of animals, including humans, are a source for drugs because they contain hormones that can be reclaimed and given to patients who need increased hormonal levels to maintain homeostasis.

For example, Premarin is a drug that contains estrogen that is recovered from mare urine. This is used as hormonal therapy to manage menopausal symptoms. Insulin is another hormonal drug that is used to regulate blood sugar levels in patients with diabetes mellitus. Insulin can be recovered from humans using DNA technology.

MINERALS

Our body requires trace elements of minerals in order to maintain homeostasis. Minerals are inorganic crystal substances that are found naturally on earth. Patients lacking an adequate level of these materials may take specific mineral-based drugs to raise the level of minerals.

For example, an iron supplement is a common mineral-based drug that is given to patients who suffer iron deficiency, a condition which can lead to fatigue. Iron is a natural metal that is an integral part of body proteins such as hemoglobin that carries oxygen throughout the body. Minerals are obtained from animal and plant sources.

SYNTHETIC/CHEMICAL DERIVATIVES

Great strides in molecular biology and biochemistry enable scientists to create manmade drugs referred to as synthetic drugs. A synthetic drug is produced using chemical synthesis, which rearranges chemical derivatives to form a new compound.

Sulfonamides are a common group of synthesized drugs that are used to treat many infections including bronchitis, pneumonia, and meningitis. Sulfonamides are designed to prevent the growth of bacteria.

HERBALS

Herbals are non-woody plants. Some have medicinal qualities classified as a dietary supplement—not a drug. Unlike drugs that are governed by the Food and Drug Administration, dietary supplements are not tested or regulated and can be sold over-the-counter without a prescription. This lack of monitoring means there are no standards for purity and strength for herbals. Two packages of the same herbal distributed by the same company might have different purity and strength that makes the effect of the herb unreliable. There is no control over the manufacturing process and that can lead to contamination. The law prohibits distributors of herbals from claiming that an herbal can cure a disease. They can only state the effect of the herbal on the body. For example, the manufacturer can say that an herbal increases blood flow to the heart, but cannot say that the herb prevents heart disease.

Herbals can lead to unwanted side effects and undesirable interactions with prescription drugs. For example, ginkgo inhibits platelet aggregation (grouping to form clots) if taken with coumadin, an anticoagulant. The result can be increased bleeding and stroke. Garlic interacts with protease inhibitors used to treat HIV and decreases the effectiveness of the prescribed medication. The interaction of herbals with other drugs can be unpredictable and even dangerous. Healthcare providers should encourage patients to reveal any herbal preparations they are taking.

Drugs Names

One of the most confusing aspects of pharmacology is naming drugs. A drug is given three names. Each is used in a different area of the drug industry. These names are the drug’s chemical name, generic name, and brand name.

CHEMICAL NAME

The chemical name identifies chemical elements and compounds that are found in the drug. The chemical name is important to chemists, pharmacists, and researchers who work with drugs at the chemical level.

A chemical name looks strange to anyone who isn’t a chemist and is difficult for most of us to pronounce. That’s why names other than the chemical name are given to a drug. Here is the chemical name for a commonly used drug: N-acetyl-p-aminophenol.

GENERIC NAME

The generic name of a drug is the universally accepted name and considered the official proprietary name for the drug. The generic name appears on all drug labels and is the official name listed in official sources such as the Physicians Desk Reference (PDR). The pharmaceutical company that patents a drug has exclusive rights to sell it until the patent expires. When the patent expires, other drug manufacturers may distribute the drug under the drug’s generic name or create a brand name. The generic version of a drug may be cheaper than the original drug and the cost is usually reimbursed by insurance companies. An example of a generic name for a commonly used drug is acetaminophen. The generic name is easier to read and pronounce than the drug’s chemical name, N-acetyl-p-aminophenol.

BRAND/TRADE NAME

Drug companies often select and copyright a trade or brand name for their drug. This restricts the use of this name to that particular company. Many brand names may exist for the same chemical compound.

Brand name drugs may be more costly than generic drugs and are partially reimbursed or not covered at all by insurance companies.

A brand name for acetaminophen is Tylenol (patented by Johnson & Johnson Pharmaceuticals).

An example of the correct documentation of the generic and brand name of a drug is: furosemide (Lasix). This drug is a diuretic used for many patients with hypertension (high blood pressure) or cardiac (heart) disease.

Prescription versus Over-the-Counter Drugs

The 1952 Durham-Humphrey Amendment to the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act requires that certain classifications of drugs be accessible only by prescription from a licensed practitioner. These are commonly referred to as prescription drugs or legend drugs because the drug label must display the legend Caution: Federal law prohibits dispensing without prescription on the label of the drug.

Drugs that fall under this classification are:

•  Those given by injection.

•  Hypnotic drugs (drugs that depress the nervous system).

•  Narcotics (drugs that relieve pain, dull the senses and induce sleep).

•  Habit-forming drugs.

•  Drugs that are unsafe unless administered under the supervision of a licensed practitioner.

•  New drugs that are still being investigated and not considered safe for indiscriminate use by the public.

Non-prescription drugs are called over-the-counter (OTC) drugs and are available to the public without prescription. Some over-the-counter drugs were at one time available by prescription, but later were considered safe for use by the public or reformulated for over-the-counter use. Some drugs can be sold in lower doses over-the-counter (OTC) while higher doses of the same drug require a prescription as per FDA requirements.

Drug Effects

Drugs have multiple effects on the body. Some effects are desirable and some are not. The therapeutic effect is the intended physiological effect or the reason the drug is being given. A therapeutic effect can be the drug’s action against a disease such as an antibiotic destroying bacteria. Another physiological effect can be the side effects that occur in the body such as nausea and vomiting or a skin rash. A side effect is a physiologic effect that is not the intended action such as the drowsiness that occurs when a patient takes an antihistamine. Some side effects are beneficial while others are adverse effects that can be harmful to a patient.

Healthcare providers must identify all known side effects of a drug and weigh any adverse effects with the therapeutic effect before administering a drug. Patients must also be informed about expected side effects and provided instructions about how to manage adverse side effects if at all possible.

For example, female patients are instructed to drink buttermilk and eat yogurt when taking a broad-spectrum antibiotic. This counters a possible vaginal yeast infection, which is a common adverse effect of broad-spectrum antibiotics. Additionally, a female patient should be instructed to use other forms of birth control when taking this medication because antibiotics lower the effectiveness of birth control pills.

Many times patients will discontinue the use of a medication because the side effects are so unpleasant. Antihypertensive medications (blood pressure medicine) can cause side effects such as drowsiness or the inability to achieve an erection in a male. Patients may decide that this effect is undesirable and discontinue the use of the prescribed drug. Patients should be encouraged to discuss any and all side effects with the provider. Many times, there are alternative medications that can be prescribed. Abruptly discontinuing the use of a drug may not be in the best interest of a patient. Some drugs may be gradually decreased in dose and frequency. Sometimes patients discontinue taking a drug because they feel better, however, the condition being treated is still present. Some examples of these types of medication are antibiotics and antidepressants.

Drug Safety

Drugs must undergo rigorous testing before being approved by the Food and Drug Administration for use in humans. The initial testing is done with animals to determine the toxicity of the drug. Acute toxicity is the dose that is lethal or kills 50% of the laboratory animals tested. The testing is also done to determine what symptoms are experienced by the animals and the time the symptoms appear.

Subchronic toxicity studies, conducted in at least two animal species, usually consist of daily administration of the drug for up to 90 days. Physical examinations and laboratory tests are performed throughout the study and at the end of the study to see what organs may have been adversely affected by the drug.

Chronic toxicity studies, also conducted in at least two species, usually last the lifetime of the animal but the length of the study may depend on the intended duration of drug administration to humans. Three dose levels are used, varying from a nontoxic low-level dose to a dose that is higher than the expected therapeutic dose and is toxic when given over a long period of time. Physical examinations and laboratory tests are performed to determine which organs are affected and whether the drug has the potential to cause cancer (carcinogenic).

Animal studies enable scientists to develop a therapeutic index for the drug. A therapeutic index is the ratio between the median lethal dose and the median effective dose. It tells a practitioner the safe dose to give for the therapeutic effect to be achieved.

Some drugs have a narrow margin of safety and require that the blood plasma levels be frequently monitored to assure that the drug stays within the therapeutic range. Drugs that have a wide margin of safety don’t require that the plasma levels be monitored. Digitalis (digoxin) is an example of a drug that has a narrow margin of safety and requires frequent monitoring of plasma levels.

Scientists also learn how the drug is absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted once it is administered to the animals. This helps scientists predict how the drug will react when administered to humans.

Tests are also conducted in laboratory test tubes that can determine the metabolism of the drug in humans, which may be different from animals. These are called in vitro studies. Once animal studies are successfully completed, the drug is ready for human trials during which human subjects are given the drug. There are three phases of human trial.

PHASE I: INITIAL PHARMACOLOGICAL EVALUATION

In Phase I, drug trials, the drug is given to a small number of healthy volunteers to determine safe dosage levels. The purpose is to document the dose level at which signs of toxicity first appear in humans, determine a safe tolerated dose, and determine the pharmacokinetics of the drug. Pharmacokinetics will be discussed in Chapter 2. Volunteers who give consent to participate are monitored closely during this phase. Permission must be obtained from the FDA to conduct Phase I clinical trials.

PHASE II: LIMITED CONTROLLED EVALUATION

The purpose of Phase II evaluation is to monitor drug effectiveness and any side effects. Individuals with the targeted disease participate in this phase of drug trials. For example, antihypertensive (blood pressure lowering) drugs will be administered to patients who have hypertension (high blood pressure) to determine the drug’s effectiveness or optimal dose response range and for side effects. The number of participants is larger than Phase I trials but usually does not exceed 100 persons and every effort is made to use only people who have no other disorders or diseases.

PHASE III: EXTENDED CLINICAL EVALUATION

Phase III drug trials include many physicians and large groups of participants. When enough information has been collected to justify continued use of the drug, a New Drug Application (NDA) is submitted to the FDA. Usually, more than 4 years has passed between the drug’s selection and the filing of the NDA.

Phase IV studies are also called post-marketing follow-up. They are voluntarily conducted by pharmaceutical companies. These studies continue after the FDA has approved the drug and often include populations such as pregnant women, children, and the elderly. Manufacturers can find low-level side effects or can find that a drug is toxic and must be removed from market. The FDA continues to monitor new drugs even after they are marketed.

Drugs also undergo tests to determine the possible effects on a fetus. As a result of these tests, drugs are classified using the following Pregnancy Categories.

Category A

Adequate and well-controlled studies indicate no risk to the fetus in the first trimester of pregnancy or later.

Category B

Animal reproduction studies indicate no risk to the fetus, however there are no well-controlled studies in pregnant women.

Category C

Animal reproduction studies have reported adverse effects on the fetus, however there are no well-controlled studies in humans but potential benefits may indicate use of the drug in pregnant women despite potential risks.

Category D

Positive human fetal risk has been reported from investigational or marketing experience, or human studies. Considering potential benefit versus risk may, in selected cases, warrant the use of these drugs in pregnant women.

Category X

Fetal abnormalities reported and positive evidence of fetal risk in humans is available from animal and/or human studies. The risks involved clearly outweigh the potential benefits. These drugs should not be used in pregnant women.

Locating Drug Information

Before administering a drug to a patient (see Chapter 4), healthcare providers need to know the following information about the drug:

•  Generic and trade name: The generic name is the official name of the drug while the trade name is the drug’s brand name.

•  Clinical uses and indications for use: Describes the purpose of the drug and when the drug is to be given to a patient.

•  Mechanism of action: Describes how the drug works.

•  Adverse and side effects and toxicity: Identifies the effects the drug has other than the therapeutic effect.

•  Signs and symptoms to monitor: Identifies the patient’s physiological response that must be evaluated after the drug is administered.

•  What to teach the patient: Specifies instructions that must be given to the patient before and after the drug is administered.

This information is available in product inserts, various drug handbooks for nurses, and in computerized pharmacology databases and in the following:

•  American Hospital Formulary Service (AHFS) Drug Information: Published by the American Society of Hospital Pharmacists, Inc. and contains an overview of every drug.

•  United States Pharmacopeia Dispensing Information: Published by the U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention and highlights clinical information, which is the same as the drug inserts found in packages of drugs.

•  Physician’s Desk Reference (PDR): Published by Medical Economics with the financial support of the pharmaceutical industry and contains the same information as found in the drug inserts.

•  Physician’s GenRx published by Mosby and includes comprehensive drug information product identification charts and product ratings by the Food and Drug Administration. It also contains cost comparisons between drugs.

•  Handbook of Nonprescription Drugs: Published by the American Pharmaceutical Association and contains comprehensive information on over-the-counter drugs including the primary minor illnesses the drug is used to treat.

•  Medline Plus (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginformation.html): An online database produced by the U. S. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health and contains information about prescription and over-the-counter drugs and devices as well as warnings and drug recall information.

Drug Orders

A drug order, also called a medical prescription, is an instruction from a provider to give a patient medication. Providers such as a physician, dentist, podiatrist, advanced practice nurse (in most states), and other authorized licensed healthcare providers can write a drug order. Physician assistants can also write a drug order but require the co-signature of a physician.

All drug orders are written on a prescription pad or on an order sheet if written in a healthcare institution. Sometimes orders are written into a computerized drug order system. A verbal drug order is sometimes given but must be followed up with a written drug order within 24 hours.

Drug orders are written using the abbreviations shown in Table 1-1 and must contain:

•  Date and time the order (prescription) was issued.

•  Name of drug and whether or not a generic form of the drug can be substituted for a brand-name drug.

•  Drug dose.

•  Route of administration.

•  Frequency and duration of administration.

•  Special instructions such as withholding or adjusting dosage based on nursing assessment, laboratory results, or drug effectiveness.

•  Signature of the prescriber.

•  Signature of the healthcare providers who took the order and transcribed it.

Table 1-1.  Commonly used abbreviations for drug orders.

*The Joint Commission for Accreditation of Hospitals Organization (JCAHO) has recommended that these abbreviations not be used to decrease the chance of errors. However, some hospitals and providers continue to use them when writing medications orders.

TYPES OF DRUG ORDERS

There are four types of drug orders. These are:

Routine orders: This is an ongoing order given for a specific number of doses or number of days.

Example: 1/31/05 7:30 P.M. Lasix (furosemide) 40 mg., PO, qd (signature)

This is an order to give 40 milligrams of Lasix by mouth once a day. Once a day medications are generally given around 9 A.M. or 10 A.M. based on the healthcare institution or patient