Manifesting the Spirit: Believers as Sacraments

Manifesting the Spirit

Believers as Sacraments

Mbanyane Mhango

Manifesting the Spirit

Believers as Sacraments

Copyright © 2021 Mbanyane Mhango. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Write: Permissions, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 199 W. 8th Ave., Suite 3, Eugene, OR 97401.

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04/23/21

Scripture quotations marked (NKJV) are taken from the Holy Bible, New King James Version®. Copyright © 1982 by Thomas Nelson. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked (NRSV) are from the New Revised Standard Version Bible, copyright © 1989 the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Table of Contents

Title Page

Preface

Introduction: The Believers as Sacraments of the Spirit

Chapter 1: Manifesting the Lord’s Spirit

Chapter 2: Manifesting the Regenerating Spirit

Chapter 3: Manifesting the Empowering Spirit

Chapter 4: Manifesting the Relational Spirit

Chapter 5: Manifesting the Communing Spirit

Chapter 6: Manifesting the Comforting Spirit

Chapter 7: Manifesting the Eschatological Spirit

Conclusion: The Spirit and Sacramentality of All Believers

Bibliography

Preface

The Triune God’s eschatological mission is to dwell with believers forever (Rev 21:1–4). Believers’ present encounter with the Spirit of God’s presence in Christ is only a foretaste. They look forward to encountering God’s presence fully in the eschatological kingdom. Meanwhile, believers show concrete signs of a personal encounter with the Spirit via Christ. Drawing from the sacramental principle that the natural manifests the spiritual, the corporeal manifests the incorporeal, creation manifests the Creator, the finite manifests the infinite, etc., this book claims that believers manifest God’s Spirit in Christ. Jesus is the Spirit-manifesting Man par excellence.

Jesus Christ stands at the heart of all sacramental thinking, since he fully revealed God’s presence. As the primordial sacrament of the encounter with God, Christ shapes and informs the claim that believers are sacraments of God’s presence. These are believers who reflect Christ in word and deed through the Spirit’s assistance. The theological view that believers are sacraments links to several theological trajectories including but not limited to Christology and pneumatology.

The sacramentality of believers demands that they reflect Christ in word and deed through the Spirit. The term sacrament brings together orthodoxy (right belief or doctrine), orthopraxy (right practice or action), and orthopathy (right affection or passion). It is my conviction that one way someone can be known, even God, is by knowing what that person has said, says, or is saying, or what the person has done or is doing. In other words, what people say or do reveals who they are (Prov 23:7; Matt 12:34; Luke 6:45).

Biblical narratives provide a hermeneutical lens for conceiving the believers as sacraments. The term sacrament has ontological (metaphysical), epistemological, and ethical implications. In addition, sacramentality intersects with anthropology, Christology, soteriology, pneumatology, ecclesiology, and eschatology, among other disciplines. Significantly, the claim that believers are sacraments has an ecumenical import because God pours out the Spirit upon all flesh (believers).

The Spirit poured out at Pentecost is egalitarian and demonstrates God’s desire to break human-engendered barriers. This Spirit encounters and manifests in and through all believers. Thus, each contributes to making Jesus visible by the Spirit. It flows from this that all believers are sacraments of God’s Spirit in Christ. As sacraments, the believers reflect Christ in word and deed. In this way, they fulfill Christ’s call as ambassadors and carry out the Great Commission.

I am deeply grateful to those who helped me along the journey of my doctoral studies, including the writing of this book; they are too numerous to mention. However, a few are in order, and they include: Phyllis Nyame-yie Agyin Mhango (my wife); Alicia, Charissa, and Yawaka (my children); Mr. William Bill and Mrs. Julie Arthur; Dr. Cornelius Bekker; Dr. Amos Yong, Dr. Clifton Clarke, Dr. Opoku Onyinah, Mr. Omari and Mrs. Doreen Boateng. I also thank Sandress, Jonathan, Ntchindi, Tawonga, Nellie, Tamala, and Nkhondo (my siblings), for their encouragement.

I dedicate this book to the late Mr. Lyson Manombo Manoah Yawaka (my father), the late Mrs. Alice Mutyioka Mhango (my mother), and the late Lizzie Mhango (my sister). Lastly, I thank the Lord for the grace to serve him in both the academy and ecclesia. I invite you to join me in exploring in this book our calling to be sacraments of a personal encounter with God’s presence.

Introduction

The Believers as Sacraments of the Spirit

And they went out and proclaimed the good news everywhere, while the Lord worked with them and confirmed the message by the signs that accompanied it.

(Mark 16:20)¹

Even a cursory reading of the biblical text suggests that God encounters and manifests his presence in and through human beings. Both people who approach the Bible with a hermeneutic of suspicion and a hermeneutic of trust would admit a level of fascination with biblical stories of divine-human encounters. To be sure, the most fascinating biblical stories of encounters between divinity and humanity pertain to Jesus Christ, the prophet from Nazareth of Galilee (Matt 21:11). As the God-Man (John 1:14), he shapes and informs all encounters between God and humans. In this sense, we should read biblical stories of divine-human encounters through the lens of Christ.

The incarnation of Christ demonstrates God’s desire to encounter and reveal his presence in and through human flesh. Put in another way, Jesus shows that the immortal being encounters and reveals his presence in and through mortal beings; the infinite being in and through finite beings, the incorporeal being in and through corporeal beings; the infinite being in and through finite beings, the spiritual being in and through natural beings, etc. Spirit manifestations suggest that the heavenly realm and the earthly realm come together in and through believers in Christ.

For example, in the Old Testament, Moses stretches his rod over the Red Sea and stops the waters from flowing, which allows the Israelites to cross over as the Egyptians pursue them (Exod 14:21). Samson uproots the Gaza city doors and doorposts and carries them on his shoulders to a mountain top (Judg 16:3). To the amazement of the Israelites and Philistines, the youthful David kills Goliath, the giant and renowned warrior, with a slingshot (1 Sam 17:50). Elijah and Elisha use a mantle to strike and split the Jordan River and cross over (2 Kgs 2:7, 8, 14). How did Moses, Samson, David, Elijah, and Elisha do these things? God acted in and through them. In other words, Moses, Samson, David, Elijah, and Elisha rendered God’s presence visible.

For example, in the New Testament, afflicted individuals come into contact with Peter’s shadow and are set free (Acts 5:15). Similarly, those who make contact with Paul through handkerchiefs and aprons are delivered from sickness and demonic powers (Acts 19:12). Amazingly, Stephen is killed as he confesses Christ (Acts 7:59). Peter, Paul, and Stephen make God’s presence visible to others.

The above stories demonstrate the mystery of God’s action in and through human flesh. A sacramental imagination elucidates the nature of divine-human encounters. Precisely, God’s action in and through believers creates moments of sacramentality. Put another way, those that encounter and reveal God’s presence are sacramental. Thus, biblical and post-biblical believers in and through whom the Spirit of God’s presence is tangibly expressed are sacraments. Though the word sacrament itself is not in the Bible, the sacramental motif is implicit in biblical texts.

A sacramental imagination is implicit in Paul’s writings because he holds a believer’s ontology (nature of being) as spiritual and natural (1 Cor 3:1; Gal 6:1). Sacramentality privileges the non-dualistic or non-dichotomist view of believers. Following this theological trajectory, this book posits that the believers are concomitantly spiritual and natural, thus basically sacramental.

Few subjects have generated more intense debate in Christian thought than sacraments. Some church traditions conceive the Water baptism and the Lord’s Supper as ordinances, while others hold them as sacraments. The term sacrament has a broader meaning than how scholars often use it. A reductionist view of sacraments polarizes and engenders a false dichotomy between the so-called sacramental churches or theological traditions on the one side and the non-sacramental churches or theological traditions on the other side of the spectrum.

The notion that Jesus Christ is the primordial sacrament offers a theological remedy to the otherwise regrettably minimalist conception of a sacrament. Driven by the incarnation of Christ, a sacramental imagination brings together Christology, ecclesiology, pneumatology, anthropology, and eschatology. A sacramental imagination takes seriously manifestations of the eschatological Spirit of God’s presence in and through believers from Pentecost to the eschaton.

The Gospels discuss Jesus’ Pentecost, which is a historical and radical event. This is because the descent of the Spirit upon Jesus at the Jordan river (Matt 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32) paved the way for the descent of the Spirit upon the disciples (Acts 2:1–4) and all subsequent believers (Acts 2:39). This is in many ways what Saint Irenaeus implies when he says, So when the Son of God became the Son of Man, the Spirit also descended upon him, becoming accustomed in this way to dwelling with the human race, to living in men and to inhabiting God’s creation.² In other words, Jesus’ Pentecost foretells the disciples’ Pentecost.

Although the Spirit of God manifested in and through select Old Testament believers, the Pentecost event in the New Testament democratizes this pneumatic experience. This is not to suggest that believers operate as silos that are standalone containers of the Third Article. Pentecost accents that no believers are spectators but participants in the drama of redemption. It is upon this theological conviction that all believers contribute to manifesting the Spirit of Christ. These Spirit manifestations occur in and through the believers both individually and collectively.

Notably, Christ is the Spirit-manifesting Man par excellence. In other words, it is in and through Christ that one finds full manifestation of God’s presence. It flows from this that Christ is the standard for evaluating believers’ manifestations of the Spirit. This assertion is in keeping with the theological conviction that Christ is the primordial, primary, great, root, foundational, fundamental, or basic sacrament of the personal encounter with God’s presence. Seen in this light, Christ justifies the view that believers are sacraments of personal encounter with the Spirit. All believers manifest the Spirit of God’s presence in Christ whether ordained/clergy or laity.

Pentecostals and Charismatics emphasize palpable or visible encounters with the Spirit. Precisely, they abhor esoteric, cerebral, abstract, or disembodied spirituality. Church traditions that have a penchant for concrete, tangible, visible, or perceptible manifestation of the Spirit will find the discussions that run through the tapestry of this book both theologically stimulating and spiritually enriching. In fact, even believers who identify with sacramental churches like Roman Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran will discover fresh ways of conceiving the idea of sacramentality.

Unlike the platonic view that dichotomizes or bifurcates between the natural and the supernatural realms, sacramentality brings together the creation and the Creator. Sacramentality is neither naturalistic nor spiritualistic, as it allows for the possibility of matter to be bearers of the supernatural or spiritual. The Pentecost event demonstrates this sacramental worldview since the Spirit (the Creator/supernatural) manifested in and through the disciples (natural/matter).

At Pentecost, the Spirit is manifested in and through a rushing wind which symbolizes the breath of resurrection life (Ezek 37; cf. 2:7; John 20:22), a fire which symbolizes the eschatological time of judgment (Acts 2:3), and tongues, or glossolalia, symbolic of the power of the eschatological kingdom (Acts 2:1–4).³ Because Pentecost is a continuing event, the Spirit continues to manifest in and through believers. All the believers who show signs of a personal encounter with the Spirit of Christ serve as microcosmic and macrocosmic sites of God’s grace.

More importantly, believers manifest the Spirit’s presence in and through their words and deeds. This is what Jesus seems to imply when he tells his disciples, You are the salt of the earth (Matt 5:13) and You are the light of the world (Matt 5:14). Jesus uses the terms salt and light metaphorically to highlight that believers are bearers of the Spirit. This suggests that the believers are means of grace for the sake of fellow believers and unbelievers. Put differently, believers’ bodies function as location, sites, or signs of the grace of the Spirit of God’s presence.

The Spirit of God’s indwelling presence enables believers to reflect Christ, the true light (John 8:12; 9:5). The believers cannot be the salt of the earth or the light of the world apart from the Spirit of Christ (John 5:15; Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8). The salt and light symbolize the visibility, palpability, perceptibility, tangibility, or audibility of the Spirit in and through believers. Salt and light have physical or material properties, and thus resonate with sacramental characterization of believers. Believers are both salt and light because of the Spirit’s indwelling presence (Rom 8:9, 11; 1 Cor 3:16; 6:19).

In keeping with this, Paul relates God’s indwelling presence to believers as temples of the Spirit when he writes, do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit within you, which you have from God, and that you are not your own? (1 Cor 6:19). That finite beings (believers) host the infinite Spirit of God’s presence is, in and of itself, a mystērion, or mystery. This is also reminiscent of what Jesus means when he says, Out of the believer’s heart shall flow rivers of living water (John 7:38). Believers’ visible-making nature stems from the Spirit.

Although Pentecostals have historically distanced themselves from sacramental thinking, the claim that believers are sacraments resonates with Pentecostal thought and praxis. This is so because Pentecostalism accents Spirit encounters⁴ or experiences.⁵ Pentecostal encounters with the Spirit are palpable or concrete; hence, they shape and inform the sacramentality of believers. This is why the sacramentality of all believers I postulate takes Spirit manifestations seriously.

In Christ one finds the full manifestation of God’s Spirit (Luke 4:18–19; Acts 10:38). The Pentecost event inaugurates the 120 disciples as sacraments of God’s presence. This does not mean that believers should expect to experience the Spirit accompanied by phenomena like wind and fire as at Pentecost. Instead, it is to stress that the Spirit poured out upon all flesh⁶ engenders all believers as human channels of God’s grace which followers seek after.⁷ To the extent that believers render God’s Spirit visible, they are sacraments. The Pentecostal experience of Spirit baptism empowers the believers to witness effectively to God’s salvific mission in Christ.⁸ This suggests that the Great Commission and the sacramental being of the believers belong together.

This book seeks to inspire believers to embrace this sacramental reality consciously. The believers’ sacramentality accents their being and their actions, or who they are and what they do. Bolstered by this thinking, believers should subject themselves to spiritual disciplines to enhance their sacramentality. This is in keeping with the Pentecostal non-dualistic worldview. To be sure, Pentecostals expect the Spirit of God in Christ to intervene in the believers’ real life situations.

Walter J. Hollenweger challenges Pentecostals to embrace the breath of the Spirit, who uses physical realities to speak of God’s grace.⁹ Hollenweger notes an embedded sacramental worldview in Pentecostalism. In keeping with this, I suggest that Pentecostals and Charismatics should not domesticate their view of sacraments to rites such as Water Baptism and the Lord’s Supper, as crucial as these are. Instead, they should conceive sacrament to speak of their way of being. Precisely, I posit that Pentecostals envision themselves as partakers of the divine nature, participating in transferring divine grace (2 Pet 1:4).¹⁰ This promise relates to all believers.

Pentecostals use their physical bodies to provide concrete expression to the Spirit. Further, Pentecostals insist that the Spirit manifests in and through their anointed bodies primarily, while they also use materials such as anointing oil for therapeutic purposes,¹¹ albeit only secondarily. For example, God’s healing grace flows in and through the believers when the Spirit leads them to lay hands upon the sick. This is a common rite among Pentecostal believers.

Pentecostals find inspiration in Jesus, who manifested the grace of the Spirit so much that multitudes sought to touch him mostly for therapeutic purpose (Matt 8:3; 14:36; Mark 1:41; 3:10; 5:27, 30–31; 6:56; 7:33; 8:22; 10:13; Luke 5:13; 6:19; 7:14; 8:45, 47; 18:15; 22:51). The Spirit also manifested palpably in and through individuals in the Old and New Testaments (Judg 14; 1 Kgs 17; 2 Kgs 6; Acts 3: 6; 6:8; 15:5; 19:12). There are several examples of believers that can be held as sacraments of the Spirit of God’s presence in the Old and New Testaments.

While the Spirit manifests in and through select individuals in the Old Testament, he manifests in and through all believers in the New Testament. This means that all believers are temples of the Spirit of God’s presence in Christ both individually and communally (John 14:17; Rom 8:9–11; 1 Cor 3:16; 6:19; 12: 7; 2 Cor 13:3, 5; Gal 1:15–16; 2:20; 4:19; Eph 3:17; Col 1:27; 2 Tim 1:14; Jas 4:5). Put differently, all believers are signs of the grace of the Spirit.

Seen in this light, Christ merits as the perfect sign of grace. Put differently, Christ is the Spirit-bearer par excellence. The scale of Spirit manifestation in and through Christ surpasses any human being in history. In his famous sermon, Jesus quotes the prophet Isaiah in a way that others before him ever did, The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me . . . He has sent me (Luke 4:18–19). Jesus clearly understands that his mission to set captives free would issue in and require the Spirit’s manifestation. The Spirit manifests in and through Jesus so tangibly that people desire to touch his body or his clothes for therapeutic reasons. Multitudes that touch him are delivered and testify about their encounters with God’s presence (Acts 10:38).

At Pentecost, the Spirit rests upon the 120 disciples and manifests his presence tangibly. This enables them to draw the attention of many Jewish visitors from the diaspora (Acts 2:1–4, 5–12). The Spirit enables them to speak in tongues that the visitors are able to hear in their own native tongue. The disciples become human sites or signs of grace of the Spirit of God’s presence.

Notably, the outpoured Spirit fulfills Jesus’ promise to the disciples that you will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you will be my witnesses (Acts 1:8). This Pentecostal experience is not meant to be limited to the early disciples but extends to all believers (John 21:23; Acts 1:11; 1 Cor 1:7; Phil 3:20). To the extent that believers manifest concrete signs of grace of the Spirit, they fit as sacraments of an encounter with God’s presence.

Believers are temples of the Spirit (1 Cor 3:16; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16). In ancient times, the temples were places where human beings encountered the supernatural. In ancient Israel, the temple served as a place to encounter the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Put differently, the temple was a place where heaven and earth came together. A cloud over the tabernacle signified the descent of heaven on the earth (Exod 40:34–38; Num 9:15–22). At Pentecost, wind, sound, fire, and tongues symbolize the coming together of heaven and earth in and through the disciples’ bodies. Pentecost engenders them as both microcosmic and macrocosmic temples of the Spirit.

The most significant theological conviction in contemporary sacramental theology is the view that Christ is the primordial sacrament of the personal encounter with God’s presence through the Spirit. During his earthly life, Christ manifested the Spirit of God’s presence in unsurpassable ways. In the Old Testament, select individuals such as the judges, prophets, kings, priests, etc., provided tangible manifestation to the Spirit of God. These made God visible to all.

Pentecost democratized the Spirit and inaugurated sacramentality of all believers in New Testament in contrast with the sacramentality of select believers in the Old Testament. Because Pentecost transcends denominational, ecclesial, or church boundaries, believers’ sacramentality has ecumenical implications. This is because the same Spirit of Christ indwells all the believers.

However, in the Old Testament, the Spirit does not indwell the believers. In the New Testament, he does. Throughout his earthly ministry, Jesus taught that the Spirit would indwell his disciples (John 14:17)¹² both as individuals and as a communal body (1 Cor 3:16–17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16).

The thesis that all believers are sacraments of the Spirit in Christ opens space for a fresh theological trajectory. The thesis insists that Christ-like individuals render God’s presence visible in words and deeds. It is in Christ that one finds full manifestation of God’s presence (Col 1:15; Heb 1:3). Thus, Christ merits as the human site or sign of the Spirit of God’s presence par excellence.

Jews expected the Spirit of God’s return in the last days to usher in the messianic age or of the eschatological kingdom. A common belief among Jews was that the Spirit of God neither rested upon nor manifested through prophets after the deaths of Haggai, Malachi, and Zechariah. This expectation was fulfilled through the advent of Christ upon whom rests the Spirit in such manner that surpasses all Old Testament prophets and all persons in history (Luke 4:18–21). Christ is the Spirit-manifesting Man par excellence and shapes and informs all the divine-human encounters.

Some scholars conceive the moment Jesus breathed upon the disciples as the Johannine Pentecost (John 20:21–23). Other scholars conceive the Johannine instance as a proleptic act that anticipated the Lukan Pentecost where the Spirit is poured out on all the 120 disciples (Acts 2:1–4). The Spirit poured out manifests tangibly in and through the disciples that even unbelievers recognize them as true followers of Christ the Spirit-bearing Man par excellence (Acts 4:13).

Pentecost is a gateway to manifestations of God’s presence. It democratized pneumatic experiences in and through all the believers. I unpack the thesis that believers are sacraments through experiences of conversion, the Water Baptism, the Lord’s Supper, Spirit baptism, the gifts and fruit of the Spirit, corporate worship, unjust suffering, and eschatological hope. These experiences are helpful for clarifying the thesis due to the multifaceted nature of sacramentality.

More significantly, sacrament integrates the theological triad of orthodoxy (right belief), orthopraxy (right practice), and orthopathy (right affection). Granted that the theological view of believers as sacraments is rooted in Christ the primordial sacrament,¹³ I follow a broad definition of sacrament that is not limited to the ecclesial rites like Water Baptism and the Lord’s Supper. I now invite you to join me in the theological exploration of the sacramentality of all believers.

1

. Unless otherwise stated, all Scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV).

2

. Irenaeus, Against Heresies.

3

. Keener, Spirit in the Gospels and Acts,

193

.

4

. Warrington, Pentecostal Theology.

5

. Neumann, Pentecostal Experience.

6

. Yong, Spirit.

7

. Asamoah-Gyadu, Sighs and Signs of the Spirit,

66

.

8

. Menzies and Menzies, Spirit and Power.

9

. Hollenweger, Pentecostals,

14

.

10

. Tomberlin, Pentecostal Sacraments,

113

.

11

. Clarke, Pentecostalism,

101–2

.

12

. Other early manuscripts read is in you not will be in you, which conveys the same meaning of indwelling.

13

. Osborne, Sacramental Theology,

89

.

Chapter 1

Manifesting the Lord’s Spirit

Christ-Like Believers

To each is given the manifestation of the Spirit.

(

1

Cor:

12

:

7

)

Paul insightfully notes that believers manifest God’s presence (1 Cor 12:7). Elsewhere, he accents that God indwells believers (Rom 8:9, 11; 1 Cor 3:16; 6:19; cf. John 14:17). This is unique to New Testament believers. Nonetheless, Old Testament believers also manifest God’s presence. This implies that believers are sites, locations, signs, symbols, and means of grace. The Spirit-manifesting believers point others to God’s reality and draw or inspire them to encounter Christ. Sacrament is a fitting theological term that aptly captures the believers’ ontology or the character of rendering God’s presence tangible in words and deeds. To clarify this theological conviction, let us first reflect albeit briefly upon the early and the salient history of sacraments.

Early History of Sacraments

From apostolic times until the twelfth century, there was a relatively broad view of the sacraments. While Water Baptism and the Lord’s Supper were accepted as the most important rites, gestures, festivals, fasting, preaching, almsgiving, foot-washing, vows, or promises were understood as sacraments. By the twelfth century, the broad view of sacraments narrowed down to seven to include the Water Baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, penance, anointing of the sick, ordination or orders, and matrimony or marriage, especially within the Roman Catholic Church.

The English term sacrament historically links to mystērion. The term sacrament derives from the Latin word for sign, sacramentum, and the Greek word for mystery, mystērion. In secular contexts, mystērion referred to a religious rite or an oath and was used in military contexts when an individual was inducted into the army. The word mystery has three meanings in Pauline thought. Firstly, mystērion refers to the divine plan of salvation (1 Cor 2:7), which is now fully disclosed in and through Jesus Christ (Rom 16:25–26) by the Spirit (Eph 3:3–5). Secondly, it refers to Jesus Christ as the incarnation of God’s mystery (Col 1:27). Thirdly, mystērion refers to liturgical celebration (leitourgia).

Paul uses mystery in reference to those baptized into the death and resurrection of Jesus (Rom 6:1–11) and to the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:26). Although there was no transparent sacramental system in the initial stages of Christianity, central to a community’s life was the rite of initiation (Water Baptism) and the rite of sharing a meal (the Lord’s Supper). The anamnēsis of the Lord’s actions was a constitutive element of Christian gatherings, as was the proclamation of the Word or sermons.

The Latin writer Tertullian was the first to use the term sacramentum in De spectaculis, where he calls the Eucharist a sacrament.¹ He also employs sacramentum in his Five Books against Marcion, where he calls Water Baptism a sacrament as in his other work, entitled On Water Baptism. To be sure, he held a broad view of sacrament beyond initiation acts of Water Baptism and the Lord’s Supper. For example, Tertullian refers to charity as the highest sacrament of the faith² and relates sacrament to martyrdom.³

This broad view of sacrament continued until the twelfth century. More precisely, Peter Lombard systematized sacraments and set them as seven external signs of invisible