Space and Beyond: Professional Voyage of K. Kasturirangan

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021

B. N. Suresh (ed.)Space and Beyondhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6510-0_1

1. Reflections of a Long Journey

K. Kasturirangan¹  

(1)

Indian Space Research Organisation, Bangalore, 560231, India

1.1 Introduction

The past few decades have been marked by major social and political upheavals, disruptive technological progress, and transformative economic developments. India’s complex society has also evolved from an intensely hierarchical system—where positions of prominence were largely reserved for individuals with key familial connections—to a more egalitarian setup that increasingly facilitates the rise of people like Dr K. Kasturirangan from humble backgrounds to positions of prominence. In a multifaceted professional career spanning five decades, Dr Kasturirangan served in different capacities: for a long span of three and a half decades at the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), graduating from a young astrophysicist working under Dr Vikram Sarabhai to leading India’s space programme till 2003, six years as a member of the upper house of the Indian Parliament (Rajya Sabha), five years as a member of the Planning Commission in charge of science and technology to oversee the policies and programmes at the national level, and as Chairman of the Karnataka Knowledge Commission (KKC) at the behest of the government of Karnataka, assisting in framing state policies. Even in the very recent past, Dr Kasturirangan was entrusted to chair a committee to draft an all-important National Education Policy, which was an exercise undertaken after a gap of nearly twenty-five years. At ISRO, he refined and implemented the vision of space and its application, which had been laid out by the remarkable individuals who preceded him (Dr Vikram Sarabhai, Prof M.G. K. Menon, Prof Satish Dhawan, and Prof U.R. Rao). During his long tenure, he was entrusted by six successive prime ministers with decision-making that has significantly impacted the nation’s development.

This book articulates Dr Kasturirangan’s unique perspectives on India’s growth trajectory honed by his experiences at the nation’s decision-making frontier. These decisions, while rooted in science and logic, nevertheless have been attuned to the nation’s ever-evolving socio-cultural framework. Dr Kasturirangan not only has a rare insight into how India has made critical decisions in the past, but he is also in a position to suggest strategies that will continue to serve the country well in an increasingly complex and competitive world.

To set the context for the remainder of this book, this chapter summarizes a conversation strategized by Dr B.N. Suresh, the editor between Dr Kasturirangan and Dr B.R. Guruprasad from the headquarters of ISRO, highlighting key aspects of Dr Kasturirangan’s career. Throughout his professional career, Dr Kasturirangan has delivered several well-researched lectures with comprehensive inputs from experts on a range of topics of national importance, both within and outside India, that give him this vantage point. The point of the conversations is produced here, which also includes the salient aspects of various lectures delivered by Dr Kasturirangan. The subsequent chapters of this book present the details of his lectures with necessary updates wherever essential. His other roles also provide very valuable inputs on a range of important national issues, and some of these aspects are included in this chapter.

1.1.1 About His Ancestors

My forefathers were Tamil Brahmins who moved to Kerala from Tamil Nadu in the many waves of migration that began about five or six centuries ago. They came from towns such as Thanjavur, Trichy, Kumbakonam, Madurai, Pollachi, and the Vaideeswaran Koil region; however, the causes for these migrations are not well understood. These migrant families quickly integrated themselves with local Malayalees and began following many of the local customs and practices. They celebrated Onam, Sastha Preethi, Vishu, and other festivals of Kerala, followed the Malayalee calendar, and worshipped Lord Krishna and Lord Ayappa. Over time, their language blended Tamil and Malayalam into a dialect known as Palakkad Tamil, which was spoken with a distinct Malayalee accent.

My maternal forefathers settled in Nallepalli Agraharam, in Chittur Taluk, Palakkad district. They probably hailed from the Vaideeswaran Koil region in Tamil Nadu. One of my maternal great grandfathers, Venkateswara Iyer, was quite affluent. Although he had no formal education himself, he was a visionary, and he ensured that all his sons received a sound education. His eldest son, Vaidynatha Iyer, was educated in the Vedas, Upanishads, Shastras, etc. and became a revered Sanskrit scholar, known respectfully as Anna (Elder Brother). My grandfather, Sri Ananthanarayana Iyer, (Photo 1.1) completed his school and college education and became a sanitary inspector in Ernakulum. He had a commanding personality and was respected for his discipline and integrity. My mother, Visalakshi, was the eldest daughter among the four daughters and a son to Ananthanarayana Iyer and Narayani, my grandmother.

Photo 1.1

Maternal Grandfather of Kasturirangan, Shri Ananthanarayana Iyer (Personal Archives of Kasturirangan)

My paternal forefathers settled in a village called Chalakudy, near Thrissur. They were also Tamil Brahmins who perhaps migrated from Pillaiyarkulam, Tirunelveli, in Tamil Nadu to Kerala. Also very conscious of the importance of education, my paternal grandfather, Sri Chalakuddy Manikam Iyer, (Photo 1.2) gave all his sons education at least up to graduation. My father, C.M. Krishnaswamy Iyer, (Photo 1.3) was a graduate in Chemistry from Maharajas College in Ernakulam. He worked in a variety of administrative capacities, and spent a large part of his career working for Tata Airlines. By the time he retired as a senior accountant officer, the company had changed to Indian Airlines Corporation, today known as Indian Airlines.

Photo 1.2

Paternal Grandfather of Kasturirangan, Shri Chalakudy Manikam Iyer (Personal Archives of Kasturirangan)

Photo 1.3

Father of Kasturirangan, Shri C.M. Krishnaswamy Iyer (Personal Archives of Kasturirangan)

1.1.2 Education

My younger brother Ananthanarayan (Ravi) and I faced an early tragedy when our mother died. Our father married again to Alamelu Ammal and had two more children (Subbaram and Subbalakshmi), but Ravi and I initially grew up with our grandparents in Ernakulum. My first school was primarily for girls, but boys were permitted for the first two standards. I was subsequently admitted to one of the oldest schools in Kerala, the Sri Rama Varma High School (Photo 1.4). I vividly recall that some of my classmates hailed from the royal family of Cochin. They would arrive in a large limousine and would be seated in a separate section from us commoners. Nevertheless, our teachers wisely gave each student equal attention. Years later, as a member of Rajya Sabha, I gratefully gave nearly Rupees 1 crore (about 140,000 USD) to my school from my Members of Parliament Local Area Development (MPLAD) fund to help them build an additional academic block.

Photo 1.4

Sri Rama Varma High School in Ernakulam, Cochin where Kasturirangan received his early school education (1948-1951) (Personal Archives of Kasturirangan)

In those formative years, I distinctly remember gazing up in sheer awe at the beautiful Ernakulam night sky. My uncle, Mr Narayanamurthy Subramaniam, advised me that if I really wanted to understand the secrets of the cosmos, I had to study physics and mathematics. Shortly after, I began taking a keen interest in these subjects. Around the age of 10, my grandfather (with whom I and my brother Ravi were staying) suddenly passed away. By now I was old enough to join my father in Bombay, and I enrolled in the South Indian Education Society High School in Matunga (Photos 1.5 and 1.6). In addition to mathematics and the sciences, our curriculum included several languages (Malayalam, Marathi, English, and Sanskrit), yet it left me ample time to indulge in my voracious appetite for reading. The footpaths of Matunga were lined with numerous book vendors, and I happily parted with four annas (one quarter of a Rupee) in exchange for a second-hand book on mythology or history or for a novel by Conan Doyle, Victor Hugo, or Alexander Dumas. More recently, while formulating the National Education Policy and discussing the need for a strong liberal arts education, I reflected on how even this unstructured exposure to history and classical literature had contributed towards my well-rounded education. Before I conclude my narration about my school days, it is appropriate to recapitulate some of my very committed and respected teachers that I was fortunate to have, among whom I recall Acharya Mashi in primary school, Raman Kutty Nair in middle school, and Padmanabhan Tambhi, Ms Elizabeth Mathai, and Muthuswamy Iyer (Photo 1.7) in high school.

Photo 1.5

South Indian Education Society (SIES) School at Matunga, Mumbai where Kasturirangan had his Middle and High School education (1951-1957) (Courtesy SIES Institutions)

Photo 1.6

Receiving the blessings of Late Jagadguru Shri Jayendra Saraswathi Swamigal of Shri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham on the occasion of Kasturirangan being made Honorary Patron of South Indian Education Society, Mumbai, also seen in picture the present President of SIES Institutions, Dr V Shankar (in the center) in November 1995 (Courtesy Archives of SIES Institutions)

Photo 1.7

Kasturirangan with his teacher Late Shri Muthuswamy Iyer who taught Mathematics at SIES School, also seen in the picture, Dr V Shankar, on the occasion of Kasturirangan being conferred with the 4th SIES Sri Chandrasekarendra Saraswathi National Eminence Award at Shanmukhanada Hall, Mumbai in 2001 (Courtesy Archives of SIES School Institutions)

My interest to pursue physics remained strong, and I joined Ramanarain Ruia College in Matunga (Photo 1.8). After four years, I graduated with a BSc with honours in physics (my primary subject) and mathematics (my secondary subject) (Photo 1.9). For my masters, I went to Bombay University where postgraduate classes were taught in multiple colleges affiliated with this university. This wonderful arrangement allowed me to learn from several truly memorable teachers.

I studied experimental physics and electronics in Ruia College with Prof R.D. Godbole, Prof R.D. Gupte, and Prof N.D. Sengupta, and at Wilson College, I took additional lectures in electronics (Fr Simons, a Scottish professor, kept us fully engaged with demonstrations of several experiments) and nuclear physics (with Prof Malkernaikar). I went to the Royal Institute of Science to study physical electronics (with Prof Y.V. Chiplonkar), and I attended classes in mathematical physics and classical mechanics (with Prof Prabhu Desai) and statistical mechanics (with Prof (Fr) William Press) at St. Xavier’s College. Quantum mechanics was taught by Prof Madhu Dhandavate (who later became the Deputy Chairman of India’s Planning Commission) (Fig. 1.10) at Siddhartha College.

Photo 1.8

Ramanarian Ruia College at Matunga, Mumbai where Kasturirangan had his college education (1957-63) (Courtesy Ramanarian Ruia College)

Photo 1.9

Kasturirangan at the Convocation to receive his B.Sc. Degree with Honors (1961) from Bombay University (Personal Archives of Kasturirangan)

Photo 1.10

Kasturirangan with Prof Madhu Dhandawate, during his visit to ISRO centre as Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission in April, 1997; Prof Dhandawate was also Kasturirangan’s Teacher in MSc and taught Quantum Physics at Bombay University (Courtesy ISRO)

All of these exhilarating lectures took place in the evening—our seemingly tireless professors were busy with intermediate and BSc classes during the day. I completed my MSc in Physics in 1963 with electronics as an elective subject.

1.1.3 Early Professional Career

Towards the end of working on my masters, I came across a newspaper advertisement for fellowships at the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), in Ahmedabad (Photo 1.11). I applied and was called to Ahmedabad for an interview with Dr Vikram Sarabhai. After I was accepted, Dr Sarabhai encouraged me to supplement my library-based studies of X-rays, Gamma-rays, cosmic rays, and so on with experimental work. I developed a device to detect particle and electromagnetic radiation and flew it in a balloon at altitudes up to thirty kilometres. Apart from the thrill of building experimental platforms and making measurements, this experience helped me gain a system-level perspective rather than a piecemeal understanding of individual aspects, such as electronic circuits, gas discharge, and telemetry and get insights regarding concepts of integrating electrically and mechanically multiple elements of an experimental payload to conduct investigations in the area of physics. I began my doctoral work in cosmic X-rays under Dr Sarabhai’s overall guidance, but two of Dr Sarabhai’s senior students, Dr P.D. Bhavasar and Dr N.W. Nerurkar, were assigned for my day-to-day supervision (Photo 1.12).

Photo 1.11

Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad where Kasturirangan did his PhD research work; inset (Front row Seated L-R) Prof K R Ramanathan, first Director of PRL, Prof Vikram Sarabhai, Founder, PRL and Nobel Laureate Sir C V Raman who laid the foundation of PRL in 1952 (Courtesy PRL)

Photo 1.12

Kasturirangan with his PhD Supervisor Prof Praful D Bhavasar at Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad (Courtesy ISRO)

Chapter 2, Forays into the World of Astronomy, Technology, and Space, gives further details on my early professional career. I have also touched upon the importance of a sound orientation to scientific research in the early part of an academic life that could positively influence ones overall professional capability in the later years.

In 1969, shortly before completing my PhD, I married Lakshmi. We were blessed with two sons, Rajesh and Sanjay, who today are both married and settled. My wife, Lakshmi, sadly passed away in August of 1991.

1.1.4 Joining ISRO

As I was completing my doctoral thesis, I had the opportunity of witnessing the birth of ISRO (August, 1969). This was naturally an intensely exciting period at PRL. Soon after the submission of my thesis, I was offered the position of a scientist by Dr Vikram Sarabhai in July 1971 in ISRO to work in the satellite program. However, without an engineering background in structures, power, control, communication, electro-optical systems, etc., I believed that I would be unable to contribute towards building satellites, the role suggested by Dr Sarabhai for me. In any case, my own interests were in high-energy astronomy. After I submitted my thesis in 1970, I was excited to receive an offer to do postdoctoral work with Prof Louis Alvarez at the University of California at Berkeley. It was Dr Sarabhai who changed my mind by pointing out how my understanding of physics and my end-to-end grasp of systems, which had been honed by experience with balloon payloads as part of my thesis work, would be invaluable in working with multidisciplinary technology systems. Thanks to his persuasive encouragement, I joined the fledgling Indian space program. I was repeatedly struck by the wisdom of his words at several points in my career when the importance of system-level knowledge proved decisive in allowing me to manage space systems at different levels.

I started working with Prof U.R. Rao where our first project was to build the 40-kg Rohini satellite. This was linked to the development of our own Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV), SLV-3. Many stalwarts were involved in the development of SLV-3, including HGS Murthy, Vasant Gowarikar, Subhash Chandra Gupta, M.R. Kurup, A.E. Muthunayagam, R Aravamudan, and APJ Abdul Kalam in Thiruvananthapuram together with E V Chitnis, P D Bhavasar, and PP Kale at the headquarters in Ahmedabad. When the Soviet Union offered us the opportunity to use their launch vehicles, we began development of our first big satellite, Aryabhata, weighing 358 kg. Tragically, on December 31, 1971, Dr Sarabhai passed away.

Professor Rao made me responsible for overseeing the totality of Aryabhata as a systems engineer, which gave me tremendous insight into the configuration aspects of the satellite and the intricate details of program management. I continued to build on this experience when I was subsequently appointed the Project Director for India’s first experimental earth observation satellite (Bhaskara) and later tasked with overseeing the operation of space-based remote sensing through the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) programme. In addition to handling technical aspects of complex systems, I also learned to grapple with issues involving budgets, configuration control, scheduling, international engagements, dealing with the launching agency, managing contracts, etc. (particularly with IRS). Prof Satish Dhawan was our Chairman, and he made it a point to ensure that all aspects that would impact a decision were addressed so that an optimal decision could be made. It is these experiences that instilled confidence in me to take up progressively higher responsibilities, first as the Director of the ISRO Satellite Centre (1990 to 1994) and ultimately assuming the Chairmanship of ISRO (1994 to 2003).

1.2 India’s Space Programme: Innovative Root for Development

In Dr Sarabhai’s vision, a key factor was using space endeavours as a means to spur the country’s socio-economic development. The unique vantage point of space makes it extremely attractive to bring timeliness and accuracy (compared with conventional methods) in a variety of scenarios, such as surveying natural resources (e.g., groundwater and forests), predicting annual agricultural yield, and providing telemedicine and tele-education services.

Dr Sarabhai was aware that India had neither the requisite technologies nor the experience to use space for such applications. Therefore, he recognized the immediate need to build satellites and create industries to support the development of advanced technologies while establishing collaborations with international agencies in parallel. Further, at the national level, he initiated partnerships with different stakeholders who could use the space capability for their own needs.

His successor, Prof Satish Dhawan, articulated the need for creating innovative institutions, such as the Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) Coordination Committee (ICC) for space communication and the National Natural Resource Management System (NNRMS), for remote sensing applications to interface with the existing institutional framework where space applications could compliment and supplement the existing conventional approaches for socio-economic development. I cannot emphasise enough how difficult it would have been to implement Dr Sarabhai’s vision without establishing Dr Dhawan’s very elegant and unique structure, which has enabled us to carry out sustainable national development activities in a time-efficient and cost-effective manner.

The details of this elegant structure are elaborated in Chapter 3, which is based on the fourth JRD Tata Memorial Lecture, delivered on August 2001, at the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India, New Delhi.

Prof Dhawan also initiated indigenous satellite programmes, such as the Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment (APPLE), which is an experimental communication satellite, and Bhaskara, which is an experimental earth observation satellite in addition to progressing the launch vehicle development of SLV-3 to an Augmented SLV (ASLV). Professor UR Rao, succeeding Prof Dhawan as the next Chairman, gave further thrust to technological and application-oriented programmes.

When I took over, I had the opportunity of translating Dr Sarabhai’s vision further, in continuity with the trajectory set by Prof Dhawan. In addition, my efforts were directed to consolidate the various tasks undertaken by Prof Rao in order to make these activities much more effective and sustainable. This required meticulous planning and execution, but the impetus provided by my predecessors was crucial in helping me take these activities to further levels of success. Whenever I see athletes pass the baton in a relay race, I am reminded of how much I owe to the titans who steered ISRO before me.

1.3 Strategic Thinking and Planning

The strategic thinking and planning involved in a space program needs a multidimensional approach. Since space is characterised as dual use, countries place restrictions on sharing their technological capabilities with other countries. Thus, our indigenous space programme had to be largely self-reliant. This does not entail full-scale, end-to-end indigenous development. Instead, we chose a strategy to use available technologies from elsewhere and find innovative ways of incorporating them into our own systems. ISRO has long recognized that it is this self-reliance that has helped us achieve results with such short turnaround times. We also have resorted to indigenization wherever necessary, but we have not been short-sighted by insisting that we should only build in India. If we can procure the best technology available globally (either as a system or a sub-system), we buy it and then adapt it in a way to build the best system as an indigenous effort.

Choosing between buy or build options must take into account considerations such as timeliness, cost, and upgrading that may be needed for the future. For instance, when the decision was made to buy four of the first generation INSAT-1 series of satellites from the United States, it was also resolved that the next generation of systems should not be purchased. Thus, the very process of procurement had implications related to developing a full knowledge base for developing INSAT-2 entirely indigenously. This strategy has borne rich fruit with ISRO’s development of INSAT-3, INSAT-4, GSAT series, etc.

It is worth noting that this strategy does not rule out the procurement of new generation systems at a later date, providing the quality and capacity of services are improved and also enabling effected generational changes in the related technologies for future systems. This combination of a strategy to buy the latest versions of a spacecraft coupled with parallel acquisition of the related technologies for adaptation in-house could help us in leapfrogging to the new generation of systems.

To buy a complex system, we need to have a level of familiarity with the technology and related aspects. Towards this, we need to invest certain developmental efforts in-house as a part of our advanced planning. The best example is our decision to buy the cryogenic engine and stage from Russia for our Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV). To acquire this, we needed to carry out some initial work ourselves in that area, so that we were equipped with the knowledge required for buying and interacting with the supplier effectively. In this context, the visionary step taken by Prof Dhawan to develop a one tonne cryogenic engine in 1985 comes to my mind. It helped us not only to gain basic knowledge but also to develop a very good team of engineers who acquired the necessary insights into the complex technologies of the cryogenic engine and stage. When we finally decided to buy the engine from Russia in the early 1990s, we were able to negotiate with them on the best of terms not only from the financial angle but also from technological considerations.

Another dimension is that strategic thinking has to take cognizance of the long-term sustainability of activities through the development of industries in India. ISRO always paid a lot of attention to the development of space capabilities in the Indian industry. We also helped them to upgrade their performance both in capabilities and capacity. Initially, we used them more and more for specialised production, assembly, and testing. Recently, ISRO is moving towards the realisation of full-scale systems (like a launch vehicle) produced through a conglomerate of industries working in consortium. This of course helps ISRO to internally concentrate more on design and development, thus utilising their high-calibre human resources optimally.

Other dimensions are the development of the stakeholder concept and the ability to work through multi-institutional frameworks like the INSAT Coordination Committee (ICC), the National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS), and the Advisory Committee of Space Sciences (ADCOS). These agencies provide unique mechanisms in the planning and utilization of ISRO’s products (like communication satellites and remote-sensing satellites) as well as space science and planetary spacecraft. Creating such an innovative user interface has been very effective and has made the system sustainable. In addition, this ensures accountability and transparency.

Lastly, the strategy of international collaboration helped the space program to grow beyond the essentials of a national system. When we strengthen international collaboration, it results in political and other attendant benefits flowing between the participating countries. All of these strategies have helped the Indian space programme endeavour to become a sustainable activity—both effective and nationally relevant.

The multidimensional approach for strategic thinking and planning involved in a space programme is presented in Chapter 4.

1.4 Space in the Next 50 years: World Trends and India’s Needs

In September 2006, at the International Astronautical Federation/International Academy of Astronautics and COSPAR at Paris, I gave a talk where I presented a detailed analysis of the profile in space over the next 50 years. This was published in Science Direct of Elsevier, 2007. The highlights of the presentation included the countries touched by the benefits of space, the countries graduating into space, and those countries that are on the path of developing such space programmes.

What the role of humanity in outer space will be in the next fifty years is perhaps as challenging a question to predict as visualising the future state of humanity on the planet Earth. The rapid rate at which our perceptions and understanding of the outer cosmos has progressed subsequent to the advent of the space era is indeed profound, but as far as the unknowns in the universe are concerned, we are left with the realisation that we are only sitting and watching from the tip of the iceberg. Our existence and habitation has been confined to an infinitesimally tiny part of the universe as we know today, and there is even a credible set of vulnerabilities that threaten long-term survival of our species. However, our consciousness and our continuously evolving collective intelligence that reach out and relate to the farthest known bounds of the manifest universe are both exhilarating and humbling at the same time.

Endeavours in outer space have been the key instruments of breathtaking discoveries not only relating to the planets and moons in the solar system but also to the large presence of exoplanets in our galaxy. Space endeavours have also aided in verification of many fundamental theories, like the big bang origin of our universe or the presence of gravitational waves, as recently demonstrated through the coordinated observations of space-based instruments and those apparatus on the ground from different parts of the globe. Over the past decades, equally importantly, outer space endeavours have provided some critical tools to overcome many challenging problems on the Earth itself for improving the quality of life. These endeavours have been engaging the private sectors and also the government so as to create the needed economic impacts.

We are now on the threshold of a new wave of exploration of outer space. This is unfolding with visions to extend human habitation beyond the confines of their earthbound existence, to explore resources from outer space, and to provide vital support for tackling challenges such as climate change or overcoming strife in different parts of the globe. This new wave of exploration and enterprise in space will be different from what it had been during the past 50 years in terms of its strategic content and drivers. Global and national enterprisesled by governmental and civilian actors all have diverse as well as overlapping spaces to share. Since huge investments and revolutionary innovations are essential to guide the giant steps needed in the next 50 to 100 years of space exploration and its uses, collaboration should be our mantra.

Faced with tremendous challenges of development, India has had to carve its own innovative strategies for space technology, making it a strong instrument for national growth. Over the past decades, India has won global recognition for continuously maintaining the relevance of this field—not only in the national context but also as a significant player in the global context. The exercise of charting a space strategy for next 50 years will trigger informed debates and is necessary to build a national consensus and to catalyse actions in harmony with the opportunities and imperatives of knowledge-based societies of the 21st century. Chapter 5 presents the essential details within a visionary framework of how space endeavours can evolve in the next 50 years in the global context and benefit different societies.

1.5 Operation of a Launch Vehicle and Spacecraft Systems

When I took over ISRO as Chairman, the development of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) had reached a good level of maturity, and the success in its first flight had been missed by a whisker. We had demonstrated both the operational IRS kind of remote sensing satellites as well as the first-generation INSAT communications satellites, and work on the Indian designed second-generation INSAT was moving well. So we were at that time on the threshold of becoming a mature space agency. All of the rules of the space game, such as defining the configuration and design, developing satellite and launch vehicle systems, obtaining industry backing and international collaboration, and many other aspects were well understood and were already in place. So my responsibility was to ensure that these rules of the space game were meticulously followed and were not violated. We also needed to exercise due care and caution not to deviate from well-set rules for the sake of improvement: last-minute fine tuning, innovation, etc. It was also necessary to give due attention to details and to devise the best approaches for validation with offline tests, simulation, and modelling. My responsibility was not only to carry forward the knowledge to the next level but also to apply the knowledge with the rigorous discipline demanded by space in all related phases, such as the definition of mission, choice of material, design maturity, optimization at the configuration and sub-system levels, introducing innovation, and rigorous application of quality and reliability. The overall planning in terms of configuration, budget, and the schedule were given maximum attention. ISRO’s rigorous review system was enforced not only at the project director level but also at different levels, for example, program director, centre directors, and the ISRO chairman. The reviews are considered to be a very serious matter and never a purely academic effort. All of these systematic efforts gave us consistent sustainable success in all of our missions: PSLV, GSLV, IRS, and INSAT.

Once we had consistency in performance, leading to operational capability, we ventured into advanced missions, following the same basic rules of procedural discipline but with different mission scopes. That is the genesis of creating new types of remote sensing satellites, like Cartosat or Resourcesat; advanced vehicles, like GSLV Mk II or GSLV MK III; and more recently, planetary missions. The confidence needed to undertake new missions also stemmed from the heritage we had established in technology, testing methodology, reliability, mission management, and related experiences. Engineers and scientists were deeply committed to adopt well-established practices even while willing to stretch themselves to take up new challenges. They also took considerable care to pass on their related experiences to new generations of engineers. This helped me to scale up the activities with confidence. The successes achieved in the first three years as chairman also propelled me to aim for more challenging tasks in my subsequent tenure.

1.6 Communication Spacecraft in India

The space communication endeavour in India started with the use of the American satellite ATS-F to conduct the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE). The was one of the biggest sociological experiments involving high technology with nearly 200,000 participants spread across 2400 villages in six different states of the country. The experience of SITE inspired the planners to establish as early as possible an indigenous space-based communication and broadcasting satellite system. This became the genesis of the first generation of INSAT, which for reasons of timeliness and capability was decided to be procured from abroad. In parallel, indigenous capability was developed through undertaking the Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment (APPLE), involving an experimental satellite with two transponders. The experiences from procuring the first generation of INSAT as well as designing and developing APPLE helped India to realise the generations of follow-up communication systems, starting with INSAT-2. The details of this segment of India’s space achievement together with the related application planning are elaborated in my talk as a part of the First Arthur Clarke Memorial Lecture titled Space Odyssey—A Down to Earth Perspective, delivered at the Arthur C Clarke Institute of Modern Technologies, Colombo, in March 2009. This lecture is discussed further in Chapter 6.

1.7 Evolution of Earth Observations in India and Major Challenges in Developing Space-Based Remote Sensing Capabilities

When we started conceptualizing space-based remote sensing as an operational system, we wanted to ensure that it should cater to the country’s needs in resource areas like agriculture, forestry, environment, oceanography, and land-use planning. For example, when we consider agriculture in India, our typical field size is only about half that of a football field. So we need to have camera systems with a resolution able to identify such a feature size (i.e., approximately thirty meters). In the 1970s, Landsat (U.S.) and Spot (France) were the only two satellites with that capability. It became essential to make a quantum jump from one kilometre of Bhaskara to a thirty meter resolution using the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite, which was a major challenge.

Another challenge was to realise a satellite within a certain specified size, volume, and weight so that it could be flown in a PSLV, which at that time was being configured for a 800 kg satellite to be placed around a 900 km orbit altitude. The longitudinal size of the satellite had to be limited within 3 m, and the lateral dimension to be accommodated within a 2.8-m diameter shroud of PSLV. The size of United States’ Landsat was much bigger and much heavier. The challenge for us was to build a satellite that had the capability similar to Landsat or Spot but within the size, volume, and weight compatible with PSLV capability. This in turn meant reducing the size by half, the volume by one eighth, and at the same time, trying to provide the performance characteristics similar to the best satellites available elsewhere.

The next complication was that we did not have the technologies needed for the optics and sensors for the camera system. A very interesting idea of using Charge Coupled Devices (CCDs) was given by our experts; we were one of the first Countries to use the CCD technology. Further, the choice of reflective optics had to be ruled out because we found it to be too big for the satellite. So we had to use a telescopic refractive optical system. Again, this was an innovative Indian design but manufactured in France. At that time, we had no clue about building precision sub-systems needed for satellite control, such as a miniature propulsion system, gyroscope, or reaction wheels. So we virtually started from scratch. In the next five to six years, we systematically built the design and development capabilities in each of these critical areas. Importing them was not possible because of technological sanctions.

Next, we needed to ensure that the spacecraft development was in tune with the performance expectations of the users. So we interacted with many stakeholders to define the basic satellite performance parameters (e.g., spatial resolution, wavelength band, and radiometric resolution). It was a proud moment for all of us when our first operational remote sensing satellite, IRS-1A, started functioning in orbit as per our expectations in the first attempt! Although it was planned to last for only three years, the IRS-1A functioned for almost eight years. This was indeed a remarkable mission; it was the first of its kind where we equalled the world capability. No doubt, this was a real success story. Since then, the Earth’s observation capabilities from space have evolved to better levels of performance, keeping India in a pre-eminent position in this capability for space exploration.

A detailed account of the efforts in developing India’s unique capability in the design and development of a space-based remote sensing camera system with all of its interesting challenges is outlined in Chapter 8, which is based on my Presidential Address at the Annual Meeting of Indian Academy of Sciences at Tirupati in November 2001.

One of the first step for stakeholders to use remote sensing, was developed by Prof Satish Dhawan, at that time Chairman of ISRO. He created an institutional framework to work closely with users and trained them to provide the right inputs for defining the systems. This strategy in great measure helped us to develop a variety of applications. The stakeholders were also working closely with us to develop all of the methods and techniques needed for image analysis, image processing, image interpretation, and ultimately for generating specific resource information. We also ensured that the users created their own in-house capability and continuously interacted with us. Subsequently, the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), which originally had been part of the Department of Science and Technology, and whose main job was primarily to interface with the users came under ISRO. The approach adopted was to develop all of the new ideas on applications by the Space Application Centre (SAC) and transfer them to NRSA to make sure that users benefited from them. Wherever possible, we also tried to transfer this entire remote-sensing capability to the users. For example, today, the Department of Forestry is able to handle the remote sensing application on their own. The Mahalanobis Centre’s use for agriculture yield forecasting is another example. All of this could happen mainly due to the establishment of a well-planned institutional strategy for remote sensing.

The evolution of this space observation system capability is elucidated in a paper titled Evolution of Earth Observation Capabilities in India, which is presented in Chapter 7.

1.8 Satellite Navigation System and Its Applications in India

India’s position as a pre-eminent spacefaring nation has primarily come from its unique achievements in establishing space-based services for remote sensing and communications in addition to realising launch capabilities. Recognising the critical need of possessing a certain level of autonomy in the area of satellite-based navigation, ISRO has embarked in the recent years to develop this capability in a phased manner. Navigation, as a human endeavour, dates back to time immemorial as a means to locate a position or chart one’s route from one point to another. From the early means of remembering objects and landmarks like trees and rivers and subsequently looking at celestial objects such as the Sun, Moon, and stars as points of reference, the aids of navigation have undergone remarkable evolution over the last few centuries. With humankind developing the capabilities to move to faraway places and the attendant need for 3D positioning (i.e., latitude, longitude, and altitude), it is recognised that the process of navigation would call for improving the underlying knowledge of the shape of earth as well as the position of landmarks, use of radio transmitters, and other similar approaches. Phoenicians, Vikings, and Greeks were some of the early seafarers with extraordinary navigation skills. In the Asia–Pacific region, Chinese and Arabs were known to have undertaken extensive sea voyages. In the Indian context, the Sindhu and Indus valley civilizations provide evidence of undertaking successful voyages for doing business with Romans, Babylonians, and Sumerian civilizations.

The major transformation in satellite navigation was ushered in during the space era when monitoring the Sputnik-1 frequency on the ground and studying the Doppler shifts enabled the determination of the satellite orbit. This in turn led to the idea, as an inverse problem to satellite position determination, that if the satellite orbit is known, can we not determine the user location using the same Doppler effect principles? This was demonstrated effectively in the early 1960s by both the United States and the Soviet Union. The idea was taken forward, many improvements were introduced, and finally this led to the present Global Positioning System (GPS) of the United States, Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) of Russia, and Galileo, the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) of the European Union. The most recent entrants in space navigation include China’s Beidou system and India’s Navic system.

Recognising the importance of a certain level of autonomy in space-based navigation, India started developing a Satellite Positioning System (SPS) for orbital determination of low-earth orbiting satellites. This began the development of GPS Aided–Geo Augmented Navigation (Gagan) for providing support to air service navigation over Indian regions. It should be recognised that this system still depended on GPS signals. In addition, India decided to develop an Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), comprising of three geostationary satellites and four satellites in geosynchronous orbit with a 29 degree inclination. This system has been rechristened the Navigation with Indian Constellation (NAVIC) and provides India and its neighbouring regions position, navigation, and timing services. NAVIC can be utilised to include disaster management, location-based services, road and rail navigation, coastal surveillance, and time and frequency synchronization. As we move to convert NAVIC capabilities into an operational system, India is now studying the approach to realise space systems that could provide global coverage as part of a long-term strategy.

The paper on satellite navigation discussed in Chapter 9 highlights the evolution of space navigation systems in India.

1.9 Advancing Space Science and Developing National Scientific Capability

The initial scientific efforts of our space program were directed towards supporting geophysicists working on various aspects of geosciences, particularly atmospheric and ionospheric sciences. These scientists became interested in this area when India actively participated in early programs like the International Geophysical Year (IGY) (1957–58) and the International Quiet Sun Year (IQSI) (1964–65). Our scientists recognised that, since the geomagnetic equator passes over Thumba in the southern tip of India, launching small rockets with instruments to examine various aspects of the atmosphere and ionosphere could be a very rewarding scientific endeavour. Thus, the space era in India heralded in 1963 with the flight of small rockets from the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in the outskirts of Thiruvanthapuram.

Even before this, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) and Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) had active groups capable of building and flying scientific instruments to high altitudes with balloons capable of reaching up to 40 km. Ground-based instruments always supplemented space-based observations using radio astronomy, ionospheric propagation, and atmospheric studies. So with the advent of space program, it became realistic to go to altitudes higher than the ground-based and balloon-borne systems were capable of.

What is special about science besides its intrinsic value? First of all, scientists are among the most well-connected professionals across the world and they normally disseminate their ideas publicly and widely. Since there are no inborn inhibitions (unlike in space technologies), scientists can quickly form international collaboration. In the early phase of our space program, we had peer advisers to space science like Prof Jacques Blamont from France, Prof Itakawa and Prof Oda from Japan, Prof PMS Blackett from the United Kingdom, and many others from the United States and Europe. Joint collaboration was also done at individual levels—cases in point are between Prof Cahill of the United States and Dr Shastry of PRL working together on a magnetometer experiment and Prof Bhavasar and Prof Jacques Blamont cooperating on atmospheric dynamic studies. This scientist-to-scientist collaborative network helped programs to progress rapidly. There were a good number of collaborative endeavours in several areas, such as for cosmic rays at PRL, and astronomy at Mumbai. Collaborative work on aeronomy was done at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) at Delhi and Andhra University at Vishakapatnam in Andhra Pradesh.

Additionally, instruments built for space science demand greater sophistication compared to remote sensing or communication, which is often an excellent rationale for upgrading technologies. Further, these upgrades can be gainfully deployed to improve remote sensing and communication capabilities. These missions have given a unique opportunity to develop a strong academic system in space science in India. The idea is to induce more and more universities to work in this area, give them the benefit of ISRO’s experience, and involve them in trying to interpret the data and publish scientific results.

Once we had established satellite launch and application capabilities, a pertinent question was whether we could place more challenging demands on the satellite technology through an astrophysical observatory mission with very stringent specifications on control accuracy and precision. After a lot of debate, the scientific community developed a very unique multi-wavelength observatory concept, named Astrosat, with challenging performance criteria both for the satellite and the sensors. We were certain that this would provide rich scientific results and at the same time place high demands on the technology. There were significant challenges to be overcome in building instruments, such as a Large Area X-Ray Proportional Counter (LAXPC), a medium energy gamma ray detector, a cadmium-zinc telluride detector, and an X-ray grazing incidence telescope. Scientists from several institutions, including TIFR, Inter University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), ISRO, and Raman Research Institute (RRI), worked remarkably well together, and ultimately, the spacecraft was realised and flown successfully. Astrosat had produced significant scientific results.

Undertaking planetary missions was also considered important in this context. As a first step, we chose a Moon mission (Chandrayaan 1), and we presented our ideas in high-level intellectual debates with scientists, policy makers, and political leaders over a period of four years. Although Chandrayaan-1 did not provide any tangible benefits directly, it benchmarked India as a key player in international planetary missions in the 21st century. Other important aspects of such missions include imparting inspiration for new generations and effecting the means for international cooperation. These missions have indeed taken India qualitatively and quantitatively to a higher level of capability and unique achievements. Today, our credentials have been fortified by successfully undertaking Mangalyaan and Chandrayaan-2 missions. Recent related developments in space science are explained in Chapter 10 based on a Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose Memorial Lecture delivered at the Royal Society, London, in 2004.

1.10 Convincing the Nation on Chandrayaan

By the late 1990s, ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) capabilities were operational, as well as the dedicated remote sensing and communication satellite systems used for application-oriented objectives. What next? This was the question naturally on our minds. On the one hand, any proposed project had to fully justify taxpayers’ expenditure in terms of its relevance to the national context. On the other hand, space exploration offered the possibility of sustaining the tremendous public interest and excitement that had been built up by the nation’s space science capabilities. It is in this context that a public lecture I delivered in Delhi in May 1999 elicited tremendous response when I mentioned the possibility of an Indian planetary program. The story behind this entire process and planning leading to the decision for a planetary program in general—and Chandrayaan-I in particular—by the government of Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee makes for an interesting narration. This is included as a part of the K R Narayanan Memorial Lecture delivered at the Australian National University, Canberra, in July 2006, which is discussed in Chapter 4. The anecdotal version of my association with Atal Bihari Vajpayee is given in Chapter 20.

1.11 Weather, Climate, and a Meteorological Satellite

India is predominantly an agricultural country, and this demands a good weather forecasting system. There was a time when agriculture was contributing sixty percent of our Gross Domestic Product (GDP), but today it may be around fifteen or twenty percent. Because satellites operating from a geosynchronous altitude can provide a large area synoptic view, they are best used for providing reliable weather forecasting data. Since a weather monitoring payload and a communication payload both need geosynchronous orbit, it is economical to build one satellite accommodating communication, broadcasting, and meteorology. Around the early 1990s, when we faced a precarious situation with the operation of a weather payload, INSAT’s Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR), it was decided to launch an INSAT VHRR payload with PSLV into geostationary transfer orbit exclusively for meteorological observation. Initially, it was called METSAT (for meteorological satellite). Later, as a mark of tribute to the Indian born astronaut Kalpana Chawla who died in the Challenger tragedy, Prime Minister Vajpayee Ji announced that Metsat would be renamed Kalpana.

The role of a meteorological satellite is unquestioned, as the hydrological system is always impacted by climatic changes, which demand much better information on climate, including better frequency and improved spatial resolution. Our climate is a multi-parameter system of temperature, pressure, winds, radiation, etc., and these parameters need more sophisticated measurements with high accuracy and precision. This was not easy to realise at that time with contemporary technologies. It became essential for us to gradually transit from the regular INSAT-1 radiometer with 8 km of spatial resolution to a radiometer with infrared channels and visible channels of 5 km, 2 km, and (finally) 1 km. With INSAT-3D, the culmination of a long and complex developmental endeavour resulted in a sophisticated 16-channel sounder capable of providing vertical profiles of a number of meteorological parameters with high precision and accuracy.

To achieve the best outcomes, India has synergised its efforts with the global system and worked closely with other global agencies, such as the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), European Meteorlogical Infrastructure (EMI), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and British and Japanese meteorological agencies, for realizing a comprehensive perspective of global weather phenomena. Unique satellites dedicated to specific studies, like Megatropics (collaboration between India and France) and Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) (of Japan), also have been utilised. The Megatropic satellite has carried microwave radiometers and sounders for detailed study of tropical weather. TRMM has helped to characterize rainfall, including determining drop size distribution. Ultimately, marrying these sensing capabilities with appropriate models has given us a comprehensive edge on the meteorological system at local, regional, and global scales. This enabled India to be a major player in this social, economic, and strategic endeavour.

Chapter 11 presents my talk titled Weather and Climate—Perspective from Space, which was delivered as part of the first Satish Dhawan Lecture at the Indian Meteorological Society in September 2002.

1.12 The Environmental Aspects of Our Planet Earth

Our planet, Earth, is a dynamic entity with high level of complexity in its behaviour. In spite of studying the various elements of the Earth’s system, such as its atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, we have yet to comprehend the systemic behaviour of the total connected system in addition to the variables of the multiple dynamic parameters on both spatial and temporal scales. Considering that Earth is presently the only known planet capable of sustaining life, our research on Earth and its environment should continuously assess the ability of this planet to sustain its unique, multiple, and complex forms of life.

Thus, to understand the earth’s environment, a variety of remote sensing and meteorological satellite systems have been launched by ISRO over the last few decades. Remote sensing satellites like the IRS, Resourcesat, and Cartosat have provided a wealth of information on atmospheric structure; composition, dynamics, and characteristics of the cryosphere in the form of glaciology and snow melting; hydrological cycles; and assessment of the forest wealth, including preservation and conservation of the various unique ecosystems and their bio-diversities, such as in the Western Ghats. Indian meteorological satellites also have contributed much to the understanding of the weather and climatic systems in the tropics and provided a critical link to the creation of a global information system to understand the overall climatic system with particular emphasis on global change. Plans are underway to monitor atmospheric trace gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitric oxide, and chloro fluro carbons as well as measure stratospheric ozone. Similarly, specialised ocean observation satellites have helped to study oceanic ecosystems, in particular corals, production of phytoplankton and other types of ocean biota, as well as ocean dynamics and temperature.

In a nutshell, the Indian program on environmental and ecological studies using space systems has been unique and has helped to answer several important questions regarding changes in the Earth’s systems at local, regional, and global levels, including the causes, future evolution and attendant social benefits of these changes. In addition to the measurement and observation of various parameters, India has also set up several groups and centres of excellence in the areas of simulation and modelling of the different Earth systems, their characteristics, and their behaviour.

Chapter 12 includes discussion from Environment from the Vantage Point of Space, delivered at the Third Darbari Seth Memorial Lecture in The Energy Research Institute (TERI), New Delhi, which presents details on environmental aspects.

1.13 Launch Vehicle Technologies and Their Maturity to Meet the Country’s Needs

Launch vehicle technologies, considering their dual use character, are zealously guarded, even by a handful of countries who have developed the corresponding capabilities. Taking due cognisance of this; we undertook the development of launch vehicle technologies very cautiously to ensure that we understand all of the intricacies of a launch vehicle functioning at each step. We initiated a modest programme by developing a vehicle with limited capabilities, SLV3, before embarking on the next class, ASLV. After understanding several complex rocket technologies via this development, we initiated the development of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV, which would fulfil our own applications and scientific missions. Our application satellites, particularly the remote sensing satellites, would weigh between 800–1500 kg. Thus, our goal for PSLV was very specifically to build a vehicle that could place a one and half tonne class of satellite into a polar orbit at 700–1200 km. Our work with SLV3 and ASLV gave us a good technology base in solid motors and many other critical rocket systems. We also had an opportunity to work with the National Centre for Space Studies (CNES) in France to obtain liquid engine technology using Earth-storable fluids. We developed the combination of solid and liquid stages on the pragmatic considerations of our applications, capability, and reliability.

Subsequently, when we configured a vehicle for delivering satellites to geosynchronous orbits, we were clear that the initial satellites would weigh around 2 tonnes, whereas future satellites would be more in the category of 3–4 tonnes. Economic factors also had to be weighed up carefully to ensure commercial viability. So for the lower stages of the GSLV Mk II, we utilised technologies developed under the PSLV program, whereas for upper stage, we pragmatically chose a more efficient cryogenic stage to get a better payload weight compared to the total weight.

We were also aware that it would take time to develop an indigenous upper cryogenic stage; hence, we decided to go with Russian technology. This strategy helped us to gradually learn and master the art of cryogenic technologies. We have successfully developed our own 7.5 tonne cryogenic stage for the GSLV Mk II and a 25 tonne cryogenic stage for the next generation, GSLV Mk III.

The current global trend is for even heavier communication satellites in the 6 tonne class. Therefore, ISRO is planning to replace the core booster of the GSLV MK III from Earth-storable stages into semi-cryogenic stages to attain the necessary capability of 6–6.5 tonne. Both the GSLV Mk III and its upgraded versions can be used for human space missions or even a space station.

We need to constantly push the technology frontier further and have to be one among many selected players providing economical ways to access space. Towards this, ISRO is working on reusable vehicles and air-breathing technologies. Recently, we had successful experimental flights using both of these technologies. No doubt, these two concepts are the stepping stones for the latter half of the 21st century to move towards operational, cost-effective launch vehicles and space planes.

The details of this evolution of India’s space transportation systems are given in Chapter 13. On the same topic, the A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Memorial lecture that had been delivered at Shivaji University, Kolhapur on July 27, 2016 and organised jointly with the Indian Society for Technical Education (ISTE) in New Delhi will be discussed.

1.13.1 Thoughts on Human Space Mission for India

This is something that has drawn my attention since I was Chairman of ISRO. While ISRO was successful in sending satellites, people were talking about sending a human into orbit. This important question came up during the 2003 Science Congress, where I was seated next to Vajpayee Ji. Out of the blue he turned towards me and asked, "You are doing everything for the good