Materiality and Interior Construction

CHAPTER 1

WHY MATERIALS MATTER

Specific characteristics of materials and consideration of their use in design and construction are detailed throughout this book. This chapter introduces the general issues pertinent to all materials in advance of examining their use within a specific building assembly in subsequent chapters. A holistic framework of interrelated considerations is established by examining the following topics:

Design intentions

Historical overview

What it’s made of and how it’s made

Environmentally sustainable design considerations

Material properties and performance characteristics

Applications

Installation methods

Maintenance requirements

Resources and sources

DESIGN INTENTIONS

Every material possesses an inherent poetry that is interconnected with human experience and engages both the mind and the body (see Figure 1-1). The connections that materials have with human experience can, however, be highly subjective or have broad cultural associations. Our connotation of an object made out of wood may differ greatly from that of a similar object made out of metal or glass. The generally accepted notion is perhaps that glass is sleek, metal is cold, and wood is warm. However, it is not just the material of an object that imbues it with character. Rather, our perception of an object’s materiality is influenced by the distinctions of its particular color, surface texture, thermal conductivity, density, and finish. It is possible for wood to be highly figured, carved, knotty, stained, unfinished, weathered, or have either open or closed grain. Brickwork can appear rough, smooth, flat, or shiny. Glass can appear clear, translucent, opaque, textured, colored, or be laminated to other materials. Similarly, metals can range in color and surface texture, be polished or brushed, have a patina, or be rusted through. Therefore, objects made of the same material but with different finishes have their own unique character and sense of materiality.

Figure 1-1 Peder Vilhelm Jensen-Klint’s stairwell design of Grundtvigs Kirke in Copenhagen, Denmark (1913), intentionally uses whole brick masonry units throughout in order to draw associations between the integrity of the material and the church community. Photography by Sarah Sokoloski.

New technologies have expanded the range of materials and finishes available. The development of new manufacturing techniques has enhanced performance characteristics and broadened the spectrum of unique aesthetic properties (see Figure 1-2). These innovations make it necessary for architects and interior designers to frequently revisit the palette of contemporary materials.

Figure 1-2 The faceted soffit is clad in polished stainless steel with a pockmarked texture. Barcelona Forum, Barcelona, Spain, designed by Herzog & de Meuron (2004). Photography by Audrey de Filippis.

Aesthetics can significantly influence one’s sense of luxury and comfort, or the lack thereof. It has been said that 75 percent of an object’s monetary value lies in its visual appeal.¹ Polished marble, highly figured wood, and lustrous velvet invoke a sensorial response quite unlike that of natural concrete, unfinished knotty pine, and vinyl upholstery. To articulate the range of associations that a particular material might invoke, we use descriptions such as elegant, casual, sleek, rustic, traditional, trendy, and so on. Just as there are no ugly colors, there are no ugly materials. Beauty, however, entails only one dimension of materiality. Environmental context and cultural bias collectively give materials their broader meaning, while interior space offers a spatial framework for daily experience (see Figures 1-3 and 1-4).

Figure 1-3 Salon Ovale, Hôtel de Soubise, Paris, France, designed by Germain Boffrand (1735–1740). Photography by Patrick Snadon.

Figure 1-4 Crafted and reserved woodwork in the Ministry Workroom on the second level of the Meeting House, Shaker Village, Pleasant Hill, Kentucky (ca. 1820–1910). Photography by William A. Yokel.

The Design Concept

A strong design concept demands the integration of many considerations. Intradependent upon a working knowledge of design and construction, material selection is guided by the desire to actualize the design concept. A single material or finish can inspire a design concept or the development of a color scheme. Choosing to install hardwood flooring versus carpeting conveys a different design intention that must be considered in the early phase of the design process. Beyond the selection of materials lies an equally important consideration of use, application, and detail. The deliberative use, application, and detail of materials can reinforce design principles such as rhythm and repetition, scale and proportion, and unity and variety, thereby creating ideological links among material, spatial experience, and design intention (see Figure 1-5).

Figure 1-5 Peter Behrens manifests the German expressionist movement of the 1920s with his use of masonry in the administration building of the IG Farben Company, Frankfurt, Germany (1920–1925). The use of gradated color bricks, corbelled from floor to ceiling, creates a dynamic visual experience of the interior space. Photography by Jerry Larson.

The inherent poetry of a material can imbue a strong design concept with the powerful sense of experience and meaning. Peter Zumthor’s Thermal Baths at Vals, in the canton of Graubünden, Switzerland (1996), is one example. Natural materials, including local Valser quartzite combined with elements of gently flowing water, ambient light, and the aroma of jasmine, infuse the space with a deep sense of relaxation that promotes well-being (see Figure 1-6).

Figure 1-6 The interior spaces of the Thermal Baths at Vals, in the canton of Graubünden, Switzerland (1996), seem cavelike, with the sound of moving water, the use of dry-stacked stone walls, and the play of daylight on the water. Designed by Peter Zumthor. Photography by James Herrmann.

St. Petri, Klippan, Sweden (1962–1966), designed by Sigurd Lewerentz, is another example of a building and its interior spaces in which the flooring, walls, and vaulted ceiling are all made with dark brick masonry, creating a quiet and somber sacred place for meditation, worship, and prayer (see Figure 1-7).

Figure 1-7 Chapel of St. Petri, Klippan, Sweden (1962–1966). Swedish architect Sigurd Lewerentz intentionally used every brick in the chapel’s construction, whether it was broken or irregular. He chose not to cut any brick as a metaphor to express the intrinsic value of each person. Note the residual grout spacing. Photography by Jerry Larson.

Human Factors

Human factors is an area of study that involves scientific research on the interaction between the human body and the built form (see Figure 1-8). A human factors specialist conducts user trials in order to evaluate the design of products, as well as their effect on the people who use them. The application of this combined research aims to improve the well-being and ensure the safety of the end user.

Figure 1-8 Sketch of the human figure in different postures interacting with the built form. Drawing by Gil Born.

Human factors encompasses specific areas of research that include:

Accessible design

Anthropometrics

Ergonomics

Human perception and behavior

Posture

Proxemics

Universal design

The ADA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities are outlined in Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG). These standards outline minimum dimensional requirements for pathways, ramps, slopes, and stairs regarding access and egress through a building. Although specific materials are not discussed, the measure and performance of selective elements are, and include, for example, the minimum recommended coefficient of friction for floor surfaces.

Anthropometrics is a science dealing with the measurement of the human body. It is an area of study built upon statistical research of the human body, funded in part by the U.S. military and laterally adopted in both the design and the engineering disciplines. Today, anthropometrics and medical research include statistical data on gender and ethnographic matters and serve as a foundation for ergonomics and other related fields of study.

Ergonomics is an applied science that investigates the interaction between built form and the actions the human body makes in order to perform a task. Henry Dreyfuss’ The Measure of Man and Etienne Grandjean’s Fitting the Task to the Man have made contributions to this area of study, which designers and researchers today continue to build upon. The principal aim of ergonomics in the area of design is to achieve a harmonizing alignment among built form, activity, and the limits of the human body.

Human behavior is inherent in the design of buildings and interior spaces. This notion is predicated upon the idea that design is deeply rooted in the human condition. While design is a part of the humanities, it is also an applied art, and as such, it is dependent upon the selection, application, and resolution of materials.

When people are not standing or sleeping, it is likely that they are sitting and engaged in a number of tasks while being seated. Posture is the position of the human body when standing, walking, squatting, or sitting. It shapes and is shaped by design, as well as communicates societal and cultural norms.

Proxemics is the study of the inversely proportional distances between people as they communicate in and through space. These distances, both required and desired, affect the way people move through and interact with one another and the built environment. The anthropologist Edward T. Hall coined the term in his book The Hidden Dimension.

Universal design is a broad and inclusive design concept that attempts to accommodate all people, not just people with disabilities. Universal design incorporates principles of accessibility, intuitive use, and equitable use in design. The term was coined by architect Ron Mace (1941–1998) and has been widely disseminated in both academia and professional practice.

Our sensory experience of materials in the world around us is immediate and constant. We touch and experience materials on a daily basis, especially those used in interior millwork and furniture. We notice when we have to extend our effort to open a heavy door or brush against an abrasive surface. We become acutely aware of physical sensations when we touch aluminum in a cool environment or experience an unsettling electrical shock in a dry environment. The synthesis of perception includes the use and feel of a material in a given environment. Our sensory response to materials directly influences our experience and contributes to our perception of comfort or discomfort, pleasure or dissatisfaction (see Figure 1-9).

Figure 1-9 Mosaic tile shower with stained glass, inspired by nature and embellished with stone quarried from the building site. Rainbow Hill, Julian, California, designed and fabricated by James Hubbell (1991). Photography by Jim Postell.

Human factors and materials research are interdependent upon the following considerations:

Perception and behavior

Visual characteristics

Haptic sensation

Health, safety, and welfare

Perception

Perception is an active process, which is both learned and innate. Through our senses, we develop an understanding of materials. Materials and the built environment, both directly and indirectly, stimulate the body’s senses:

Visual sense = Sight

Tactile sense = Touch

Thermal sense = Environmental comfort

Auditory sense = Hearing

Olfactory sense = Smell

Materials are a visceral encounter as well as a visual phenomenon. Some materials contribute to our sense of pleasure and touch, such as the experience of grasping a wooden, hand-formed handrail or walking on a resilient cork floor (see Figure 1-10). Others negatively affect the experience of a space due to the concern that they might contribute to accidents. Walking on a wet, polished marble floor can lead to slips and falls, while the glare from a highly reflective floor or wall surface might create the unpleasant sensation of temporary blindness, depending on the location and source of light. In addition, many adhesives and sealers selected to enhance technical performance are known to contain carcinogens and emit harmful volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Figure 1-10 The profile of the smooth wooden handrail complements the coarse brickwork at the First Christian Church, Columbus, Indiana, designed by Eliel Saarinen (1940–1942). Photography by Jim Postell.

Visual Characteristics

People rely primarily upon their sense of sight when describing materials. Generally, a material is conveyed first through optical perception, followed closely by the other senses. A key part of visual perception is the manner and effect in which light strikes a material’s surface (see Figure 1-11). Visual characteristics can be described using the following specific terms:

Figure 1-11 Daylight softly illuminating the concrete walls and floor in the Chapel of the Holy Cross, Turku, Finland, designed by Pekka Pitkänen (1967). Photography by Jerry Larson.

Color/hue: The visual property that depends on the light reflected by a surface, which is generally perceived as red, blue, green, and everything in between. The perception of color is influenced by the surface conditions of the material and the surrounding environment (see Figure 1-12).

Figure 1-12 Daylight passes through the south-facing colored glazing into the lobby at Palais de Congrès de Montréal, Montréal, Canada. Designed in 2003 by Canadian architect, Hal Ingberg, in collaboration with Tétreault, Parent, Languedoc and Associates, Saia and Barbarese Architects, and the architects Dupuis, Dubuc and Associates (Ædifica). Photography by Malcolm Lee.

Depth: The visual or perceived depth of a material’s surface (see Figure 1-13).

Figure 1-13 Close-up view of Panelite IB TO4 partition at McCormick Tribune Campus Center, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois, designed by Rem Koolhaas, OMA (2003). Photography by Mandy Hamberg.

Light transmission: The property of a material or substance to permit the passage of light, with little or none of the incident light absorbed in the process (see Figure 1-14).

Figure 1-14 Translucent Vermont Danby marble slabs allow daylight to pass into the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, designed by Gordon Bunshaft of SOM (1963). Photography by Jim Postell.

Luster: A visual quality caused by the refraction and reflection of light off a finished surface (see Figure 1-15).

Figure 1-15 Brushed stainless steel flooring panels refract light inside the CaixaForum Madrid, Madrid, Spain, designed by Herzog & de Meuron (2008). Photography by Malcolm Lee.

Reflection: The change in direction of a wavelength at the interface of two different media so that the wavelength returns to the medium from which it originated (see Figure 1-16).

Figure 1-16 Light reflecting off polished stainless steel panels in the Experience Music Project (EMP), Seattle, Washington, designed by Frank Gehry (2000). Photography by Yvette Njoki Waweru.

Shade/tone: The presence of black in a color or hue (see Figure 1-17).

Figure 1-17 The rough texture of the funnel-shaped concrete pillars and canted ceiling in the Sibelius Museum, Turku, Finland, offers an acoustical benefit with dramatic visual presence of shade and tone. Designed by Woldemar Baeckman (1968). Photography by Jim Postell.

Sheen: The appearance of gloss on a surface (see Figure 1-18).

Figure 1-18 Light reflects off the high-gloss sheen of the hardwood maple floor in New Harmony’s Atheneum, New Harmony, Indiana, designed by Richard Meier (1976). The sheen, along with the curved glass wall, alludes to the river beyond the Atheneum. Photography by Mandy Hamberg.

Texture: The tactile appearance of a surface (see Figure 1-19).

Figure 1-19 The combed surface treatment of the plaster walls and ceiling surfaces in the Chapel of St. Ignatius, Seattle, Washington, is highlighted by indirect, color-tinted daylight. Designed by Steven Holl (1999). Photography by Michael Zaretsky.

Tint: The presence of white in a color or hue (see Figure 1-20).

Figure 1-20 Various subtle hues and shades are present in the white painted surfaces and Carrara marble flooring at the Milwaukee Art Museum, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, designed by Santiago Calatrava (2001). Photography by Sina Almassi.

Value: The overall degree of lightness and darkness of a hue (see Figure 1-21).

Figure 1-21 The open studio space in Crown Hall, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois, foregrounds the transmission of light and shadow through the lower translucent wall panels and adjustable blinds above. Designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1950–1956). Photography by James Eckler.

In addition to sight, people rely on a synthesis of their senses of sound, smell, and touch to inform their perception and experience of space. Thermal, visual, acoustic, and haptic sensations are experienced phenomena. Perception is an active phenomenon and is dependent on the selection, finish, and detail of materials and interior components. Human perception and behavioral response to material is critically important to consider in the broadest sense.

Haptic Sensation

Haptic sensations are physical and phenomenological experiences of touching and interacting with materials, particularly experienced through the hands and feet. Environmental conditions that influence the sense of touch include air movement, air temperature, and air humidity. Metals often feel cool to the touch, especially in temperate or thermally controlled environments. Glass can feel cool to the touch because it draws heat away from our bodies into the glass. When exposed to direct sunlight, however, glass can feel exceptionally warm. A material’s thermal sense is influenced by its emissivity, conductivity, and radiant potential, all of which are influencing factors regarding the perception of touch. Emissivity is the degree of light reflectivity from the surface of a material. Highly reflective materials have a low emissivity rating (near 0). Highly absorptive or black surfaced materials have a higher emissivity rating (up to 1). A material’s conductivity indicates the rate of transfer of heat energy through the material. A material’s radiant potential is its capacity to release heat into the surrounding ambient environment.

Natural oils in the hands and fingers can leave marks on glass if the glass is not properly treated. Vinyl does not absorb moisture, and, as a result, condensation can form when direct contact is made with exposed skin. Plastic laminates can be abrasive over time to both clothes and skin. In response to these conditions and characteristics, designers and architects have sought to work with new materials and have used existing materials in unconventional ways. For example, hard surfaces can be treated and finished to create a range of visual and visceral effects. Granite, for example, can be hammered, flamed, honed, or polished. Polished granite feels and looks much different from flamed granite.

Glass can be annealed, cast, distressed, floated, blown, or tempered. For nearly every material, there is more than one option to consider regarding the characteristics and quality of its surface and finish. Different material finishes will result in unique sensory experiences.

Designers can appreciate the subtle, tactile distinctions between synthetic leather and genuine leather, but it is important to be aware of the variances in their versatility, application, and maintenance. A designer must ascertain when it is best to specify full-grain or split-grain leather, how best to apply it, and how leather’s surface quality is maintained.

Alvar Aalto’s work reveals a tradition rich in materials and architectural details intended to humanize the built form. In Aalto’s Säynätsalo Town Hall in Finland, every detail is thought through, with a commitment to enrich the user’s experience. For example, the door handles are made of woven leather strips through a metal form, which are tactically pleasing to grasp (see Figure 1-22).

Figure 1-22 Leather-wrapped door handle at Säynätsalo Town Hall, Säynätsalo, Finland, designed by Alvar Aalto (1949-1952). Photography by Jim Postell.

Aalto’s furniture offers a significant sensorial experience, perhaps designed in reaction to the cold tubular-steel furnishings that were beginning to emerge in Germany during the 1930s. Of particular note is Aalto’s Paimio chair, designed for patients at the Paimio Sanatorium. Aalto claimed the chair’s design helped the sanatorium’s patients to breathe better and was fabricated in wood rather than steel because wood is perceived to be a warmer and more tactile material. It is made of laminated wood veneers, and despite its lack of upholstery, the springy seat and sufficient area for the body to move about results in comfortable sitting. Aalto’s furniture designs, his innovative use of materials, and his tactile interior environments exemplify the uniquely Scandinavian concept of hygge, a Danish word that roughly translates to mean cozy. Human experience and the sensation of touch are directly influenced by material properties, which inevitably will change over use and time. Architects and interior designers need to understand how materials and the processes of maintaining materials influence their properties and, in turn, influence the tactile experience of the built form.

Health, Safety, and Welfare

The specification of materials and finishes contributes to the health, safety, and welfare of their users. A material’s finish can be used as a means of wayfinding to help direct people through a large space. A material change on the nosing profile of a stair assembly can create a sense of sure-footedness when a person is descending a stair, thereby avoiding potential injury (see Figures 1-23 and 1-24).

Figure 1-23 Extended stair profiles designed by Alvar Aalto; each has a different rise/run ratio. Aalto created this folly as a lesson in stair design for the students in the Department of Architecture in Otaniemi, Espoo, Finland, located at the Aalto University School of Science and Technology (TKK) campus, which he also designed (1969). Photography by Jerry Larson.

Figure 1-24 Stainless steel nosing defines the edge of the carpeted spiral stair at the SAS Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, Copenhagen, Denmark, designed by Arne Jacobsen (1960). Photography by Jim Postell.

Designers need to be aware of health, safety, and welfare issues within local, national, and international building codes, including the ADAAG, as well as practical considerations that extend beyond code compliancy. It is also important to understand why these codes are in place. Materials that are not properly fire rated for their specific application can contribute to the spread of both flame and smoke and possibly result in unnecessary injuries and damages. Excessive lateral force or concentrated live loads within buildings may contribute to the structural failure of a floor assembly, wall, or partition. Inadequate sound isolation due to a partition’s or a ceiling’s low Sound Transmission Class (STC) rating may contribute to the transmission of unwanted sound (i.e., noise), which can result in psychological stress or physical discomfort. The designer’s challenge is to select appropriate materials while considering the limits of the human body, functional needs, and spatial ambience relative to use and experience.

Indoor Air Quality

Indoor air quality is a significant health, safety, and welfare concern in the design of interior spaces. Sick building syndrome can result from the buildup of toxic vapors produced by the off-gassing of certain building materials and can be exacerbated by poor heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.

In the processes of fabrication and construction, materials are often bonded or laminated, surfaces are primed and painted, and edges are seamed and sealed. The adhesives, binders, paints, sealants, solvents, thinners, and varnishes used in these processes can release a substantial amount of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the atmosphere.

VOCs are naturally or synthetically derived, carbon-based organic chemicals emitted as gases into the air by the process of evaporation. Gases, such as methane (a greenhouse gas), can be naturally produced by biological decay of organic matter, including the burning of wood and wood-based materials. Formaldehyde, the second most common VOC, is produced as the solvent in adhesives, paints, and varnishes evaporates. Maintaining a moderate temperature can affect VOC emissions because relatively hot and humid conditions allow for more vaporization of formaldehyde from wood-based material. Many cleaning products and wood-finishing preservatives are sources of VOCs. Determined levels of mold, bacteria, and secondhand smoke can affect the health and well-being of building inhabitants.

When released in enclosed interior spaces, VOCs can cause health effects, such as:

Allergic sensitization or asthmatic symptoms

Eye, nose, and throat irritation

Headaches

Loss of coordination

Nausea

The exacerbation of lung, heart, and other existing health problems when combined with nitrogen oxide to form ground-level ozone

VOCs can penetrate the fibers of absorptive materials such as carpeting, ceiling tiles, drapery, and upholstered furnishings in which they can remain embedded for weeks, months, and even years. Therefore, whenever possible, these materials should be installed after the installation of materials finished with polyurethane, catalyzed lacquer varnishes, or solvent-based adhesives. An effective way to reduce VOCs is through forced ventilation for a period of time using fresh outside air and a filter with a minimum efficiency reporting value (MERV) of 12. Another, preventative approach is to keep interiors properly ventilated and in good repair. Replacing water-stained ceiling tiles and carpeting can prevent the growth of mildew and mold spores. Using materials made with bio-based adhesives and water-based solvents will dramatically reduce the amount of airborne particulates and contaminating VOCs. Other preventative measures include the implementation of green cleaning policies and proper maintenance of HVAC systems.

The indoor air quality (IAQ) and the environmental air quality (EAQ) are relative measures, quantified in parts per million (ppm), to help determine the quality of indoor air. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) defines acceptable indoor air quality as air in which there are no known contaminants at harmful concentrations as determined by cognizant authorities and with which 80% or more people exposed do not express dissatisfaction.² The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) studies of human exposure to air pollutants indicate that indoor air levels of many pollutants may be 2 to 5 times higher and, in some situations, nearly 100 times higher than outdoor levels. The high levels of indoor air pollutants relative to outside air is a concern that needs to be addressed by designers, especially because it is estimated that people spend as much as 90 percent of their time indoors. At this time, the EPA only regulates VOCs in the air, water, and land, but no standards have been established for nonindustrial indoor air. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), however, has issued a permissible exposure limit (PEL) for formaldehyde (a known carcinogen). What complicates the issue even further is that the definition of VOCs varies across agencies and countries. Products labeled low VOC or zero VOC can be a false claim attributed to the fact that a particular compound was exempt from the EPA’s definition. Visit www.epa.gov//iaq/voc.html for more information.

Material Safety Data Sheets

In an effort to manage product stewardship and workplace safety, manufacturers of building materials and components are required to supply Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS). These forms, published by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), are a widely used system for cataloging information pertaining to the use of chemicals. MSDS are intended to provide procedures for the safe use and management of potential hazards associated with a specific material in an occupational setting. They record a material’s physical data (melting point, flash point, etc.) and outline the risks to human health and the environment. The sections below outline considerations covered in standard (MSDS) forms:

Substance identity and company contact information

Chemical composition and data on components

Hazards identification

First-aid measures

Firefighting measures

Accidental-release measures

Handling and storage

Exposure controls and personal protection

Physical and chemical properties

Stability and reactivity

Toxicological information

Ecological information

Disposal considerations

Transport information

Regulations

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

The discovery, extraction, manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and reuse of materials are important to understand within a chronological and geographical context. Reflecting upon the history of various material processes can inspire designers to consider materials in innovative ways or to create new ones. Knowing when and where a specific material or fabrication technology was first used can foster connections among materials, fabrication, users, and place. This can provide a better understanding of social and cultural connotations inherent in the use of specific materials.

Initially, human beings began exploring and developing natural materials that were on hand and abundantly available to construct dwellings that provided shelter from the elements. Availability and functionality influence the selection and use of materials, as do a host of other issues such as climate, site, design intention, and workability. Materials provide thermal insulation and wind resistance when applied correctly. They also provide meaning, utility, and structural integrity to the built form. By providing an array of visual and visceral stimuli, as well as acoustic and olfactory sensation, materials help to shape, and, in turn, are shaped by, cultural, environmental, and technological factors. As a result, the historic development of building materials parallels the chronology of how societies have thought about design, building, and technology. As settled societies developed throughout the world, so too did the notions of place and place attachment, through which materiality has contributed substantially to the geographic and cultural identity of place (see Figures 1-25 and 1-26).

Figure 1-25 The Old Church at Petäjävesi, Finland, built of local timber in an architectural tradition unique to eastern Scandinavia (1763). Photography by Per Jansen.

Figure 1-26 Thirteenth-century Konark Sun Temple, Konark, India. The temple takes the form of the chariot of Surya (Arka) and is exquisitely carved in red sandstone in the tradition unique to the region of Orissa, India (1236–1264). Photography by John Arend.

Formulating cultural associations among materials, fabrication techniques, use, place, and time exemplifies the German concept of zeitgeist, translated to mean in the spirit of the age, as studied by theorists and historians. This concept tempers how one might consider materials and their role in design and construction, especially in the context of place and time. It emphasizes the communication of societal and cultural meanings and weaves together use, intention, and material technology.

Currently, the science of material technology is under pressure to address urgent issues concerning the environment. In this age of technological advancement and globalization, architects and interior designers are fortunate to have a wide variety of materials from which to choose. This abundance of choice is an opportunity to exercise our highest conscious intention concerning ecological responsibility. Mainly, designers consider the aesthetics of a material, its poetic quality, and its intended meaning, yet now, more than ever before, designers must balance their desire for aesthetics with issues pertaining to performance, installation, maintenance, and life-cycle costing. The growing popularity of Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)–rated new construction and commercial interiors suggests that, in some ways, we have come full circle and ought to reconsider local materials and sustainability as a paramount concern.

The crafted interior spaces of James Hubbell (an artist living and working in Southern California) invoke a sense of place and time through the use of local and natural materials (see Figure 1-27).

Figure 1-27 Close-up detail of local materials used at the Hubbell residence, Santa Ysabel, California. The hand-formed clay tiles, shells, and broken-glass mosaic are embedded into concrete. Photography by Peter Hilligoss.

Some artists, designers, and architects use new materials in traditional ways, while others seek unique ways of using conventional materials (see Figure 1-28). In either scenario, materials can be a significant determinant of form. At the cutting edge of many contemporary interiors are the working prototypes made from new polymers, new alloys, aerogels, new wood products, smart materials, biodegradables, and rapidly renewable materials (see Figures 1-29 and 1-30).

Figure 1-28 Cast-in-place concrete partitions, metal handrails, and wood ceiling, all conventional materials, used in unique ways. Simmons Hall, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, designed by Steven Holl (1999–2002). Photography by David M. O’Connell.

Figure 1-29 Bencore Starlight composite panel with external layers in acrylic (available in various colors). Photography by Jim Postell.

Figure 1-30 Bencore Starlight sectional-cut view of the composite plastic resin panel showing inner-patented, microcellular, translucent styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) core bonded with external layers in acrylic (available in various colors). Material scan by Jim Postell.

Before exploring some of the newer materials available and used today, consider the chronology of material discoveries and technological inventions that have occurred during the past 7000 years. It is illuminating to review how the evolution of materials and methods of fabrication have influenced the design and construction of buildings and interior spaces.

Chronology and Technological Development

WHAT IT’S MADE OF AND HOW IT’S MADE

By examining what a material is made of and how it is made, a comprehensive understanding begins to emerge of the relationship among the aspects of health, safety, welfare, and sustainability. Other results of this inquiry reveal performance expectations, cultural associations, the development of new materials, and material-making technologies.

Identifying a material’s chemical components can shed light on toxicity issues that could compromise the health, safety, and welfare of the people who manufacture them, as well as those who inhabit the interior spaces they are built with. For example, the discovery that exposure to the airborne fibrous mineral, asbestos, causes cancer led to the end of its use in vinyl asbestos tile (VAT). In the 1980s, talc was substituted for asbestos, thereby creating vinyl composition tile (VCT).

The use of vinyl has recently come into question because it emits dioxin when combusted. In response, PVC-free products are beginning to emerge in the marketplace. Public awareness, advocacy, and especially legal action concerning these discoveries contribute to the sustained demand for and development of safe material solutions. Prior to specifying a material, a designer is advised to review the MSDS, which contains data regarding potential hazards, including chemical components, melting point, flash point, and reactivity.

Most materials require some degree of milling, curing, or surface finishing. Knowing if a material is first a liquid, cast into a mold, extruded, and how it cures can provide insight into a material’s properties and performance characteristics. These variables can affect the application and method of assembly.

Handmade glazed ceramic tiles, for example, are hand pressed into a mold, glazed, baked, and cooled. Prior to baking, the clay has a high moisture content. Once fired, ceramic tiles tend to become somewhat dimensionally irregular. This lack of consistent uniformity affects the installation because a wider grout joint is required to make up for the difference in the tile’s edging. Machine-made tiles have cleaner edges and less warping and variation from handling. Mechanized production methods contribute to maintaining a consistent moisture content ratio. A material’s chemical composition will also affect its dimensional stability. Different polymers expand and contract at different rates. An element made from polypropylene will vary in dimension from an element made from acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic when manufactured using the same mold. If the size differential is not considered prior to the method of manufacture and assembly, the component’s design and performance can be affected.

Cast glass rarely produces a dimensionally precise result due to the movement differential caused by the cooling process. Similarly, tempered glass has a tendency to distort during the cooling process, especially when its proportions extend beyond basic rectangular shapes. An example of this point can be seen in the difficulty of specifying and detailing the manufacture of long, thin-shaped, tempered glass pieces because the final dimensions may vary due to the tempering process.

Illuminating a material’s components, as well as its total manufacturing process, can reveal issues pertaining to sustainability. One begins to understand how the amount of resources and embodied energy used in production and transportation can define a material’s true shade of green. For example, producing aluminum consumes a significant amount of energy and water in treating bauxite (the ore from which aluminum is made). Manufacturing techniques, although they are more difficult to ascertain than MSDS, can be detrimental to the environment. For instance, the plating of selective metals such as bronze, steel, and nickel emits dangerous gases into the atmosphere, and the current processing of aluminum creates a heavy metal by-product that can potentially contaminate our water and food supplies. These examples make it clear that sustainability and issues of health, safety, and welfare go hand in hand with technological advancement. As cleaner energy sources are developed and regulations impose stricter criteria on manufacturing plants, we look forward to facilities that yield less pollution and use fewer resources.

The culmination of all of these factors can inspire a designer to think outside the box and consider using materials in innovative ways. The history of technological development illustrates how new methodologies, sometimes used in the fabrication of one material, can lead to the development and use of another. Plastic laminate, for example, was initially developed for use as an insulating material in the production of electrical components.

Marc Swackhamer and Blair Satterfield’s research in the area of digitally fabricated modular wall systems is an example of how the use of new materials and digital fabrication technologies can help designers rethink traditional building components and, in turn, inspire a new aesthetic. Their research has resulted in several working prototypes, two of which are titled Drape Wall and Cloak Wall. These prototypes have been displayed at the Weisman Art Museum (St. Paul) and the Goldstein Museum of Design (Minneapolis). Their collaborative practice called HouMinn (pronounced human) reflects a long-term commitment to the study of materials. Their experimentation with innovative fabrication processes has contributed to the technological development in both material science and the craft of making things.

The way we fabricate materials has come a long way since the Industrial Revolution. The development of synthetic material technologies that began in the 20th century has ushered in a new age of high-performance composite materials. Kevlar, designed by Stephanie Kwolek for DuPont in the mid-1960s, was developed based on the principles of radical polymerization that first led to the invention of nylon. This highly durable synthetic fiber can be spun into fabric, which can be used as such or melded to other materials for reinforcement. Kevlar fabric was used in the sinuous design of the 60,000-square-foot retractable roof of Montreal’s Olympic Stadium. However, due to engineering and design flaws, the Kevlar roof was removed.

The cost of researching a new material for an architectural application can be problematic. Most clients are reluctant to be the first to use cutting-edge materials because they lack the security of the tried and true, and typically a design firm cannot afford to assume the liability of specifying a material that may not perform as expected. Yet, architects and designers yearn for the opportunity to create something unique. In the renovation of Alice Tully Hall at New York’s Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, the New York–based architectural firm Diller Scoffidio & Renfro (DS&R) welcomed the challenge to forge something new. The blushing walls, as they have been poetically referred to, were the result of a one-year research and development (R&D) plan. The molded acoustic panels, which wrap the interior of the concert hall, are engineered out of the veneer cut from one large trunk of African moabi (see Figure 1-31).

Figure 1-31 Molded acoustical panels at the Alice Tully Hall, Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, New York (2003–2009). Photography by Iwan Baan.

The upper part is laminated to MDF and the lower part to a resin panel that allows the built-in light source to radiate softly through the veneer. Other acoustical equipment is hidden within this seamless translucent sheathing located 18 inches from the building’s exterior. Lincoln Center funded the R&D on a fixed budget that was to coincide with the end of the project’s design development phase. The R&D included the resolution of all of the necessary acoustical, technical, and code compliance issues; prototyping; and a proof-of-concept mock-up. After working with many different vendors, DS&R ultimately partnered with 3-Form to manufacture this multifaceted wall assembly. Manufacturers might partially fund the research in anticipation of a large project but, typically, clients contribute to the R&D of a new material application when both design and performance requirements are unique.

The result of analyzing what materials are made of and how they are made contributes to an understanding of the development of new materials and technologies. Today, material scientists are creating a sense of growing anticipation with their pioneering work in the emerging fields of quantum mechanics and superconductivity. Recent advancements in nanotechnology reveal how various quantum mechanical methods can be used to modify the molecular structure of matter. In controlled environments, a quantum mechanic is able to isolate molecules that are between 1 and 100 nanometers in size and is able to build arrangements of atoms different from their natural order.⁴ Subsequently, the rearrangement of atoms can enhance a material’s physical properties and even alter its characteristics. For example, an opaque substance such as copper can become transparent.

These complex cutting-edge technologies are spawning a new generation of highly durable, lightweight materials made of carbon, glass fibers, and self-healing plastics that can be used in applications never before imagined. Carbon nanotubes, for example, offer great promise because they are the strongest known fiber (and 10,000 times thinner than a human hair), yet research has only begun regarding the potential issues of their toxicity. Glass fiber and self-healing plastic materials are still in the developmental stage.

The availability of raw materials and the various processes required to mill them affect the overall cost. Whether extensive or modest, manufacturing expenses can range significantly depending on the amounts of energy, time, and technology used. The value of a material influences the perception of its cultural significance and, subsequently, its use in design. The history of manufacturing aluminum illustrates this point. When it was first available in the 1800s, aluminum was expensive to produce due to the high energy required in its manufacture and therefore held significant social value. As such, plans were made to use it to clad the top of the obelisk at the Washington Memorial, primarily due to its lustrous color and resistance to tarnish. After delays incurred by the Civil War, construction resumed in the 1880s. On December 6, 1884, a small cast aluminum pyramid (measuring 22.6 cm in height and 13.9 cm at its base) was installed on the memorial. This marked the time when most people learned about aluminum, creating a distinct honor and association for the material. Soon thereafter, a new invention for processing large quantities of aluminum oxide (from bauxite, a readily available ore) made aluminum much less expensive to produce. During the 1900s, it became a popular material, associated with the production of inexpensive, everyday products, such as folding aluminum chairs and aluminum cans.

Material Extraction

Accessing the organic resources of various materials involves the removal of layers of earth and core drilling. If not properly managed, these invasive processes can significantly disturb the physical and biological ecosystem. In addition, enormous amounts of water and energy are consumed in order to access and extract material.

Stone is extracted from the earth by using one of several mining techniques. Two common excavation techniques are subsurface mining and quarrying (i.e., gathering building materials through an open pit). How stone is extracted and where it comes from can influence its material properties and characteristics, impact the natural environment, and contribute to the cost and energy consumed by labor and transportation. Limestone is typically quarried in huge and exposed sedimentary layers because subsurface mining is an expensive, dangerous, and less effective method of extracting large building materials (see Figure 1-32).

Figure 1-32 Limestone quarry, foreground, indicating a significant amount of surface extraction at Carmeuse Lime & Stone, Cedarville, Michigan. Photography by Mike Hamberg.

Indiana Limestone is a regional limestone that is considered a freestone, meaning that it has a fine grain and no preferential direction in its grain structure. Therefore, it can be easily cut, carved, drilled, or turned on a lathe. Limestone quarried from other regions, even those in close proximity to Indiana, such as Michigan, can exhibit uniquely distinct characteristics and material properties.

The world’s vast supply of bamboo is grown in tropical regions throughout the world with a significant amount harvested in China. Although bamboo is a rapidly renewable material, because it can be grown and harvested within a 10-year cycle, it is not considered completely green because of the fossil fuels required to transport the bamboo considerable distances for inclusion in projects located halfway across the globe. It is also considered an invasive grass species due to its rapid growth rate and can be harmful in nonnative areas when left to grow in the wild.

How forests are managed and wood is harvested will influence both the quality of the lumber and the environment. All lumber can be purchased as certified from several international organizations, but the two major organizations are the Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) and the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). Both are independent third-party organizations that certify the harvesting process and chain of custody for lumber producers. Certified lumber ensures that sustainable forestry and harvesting methods have been followed. This is particularly important when selecting and using exotic hardwoods in design.

ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Green design is the application of a philosophy that addresses the global environmental crisis of climate change. It is inclusive of many disciplines that share the intention of eliminating the negative environmental impact of air and water pollution and the depletion of natural resources in the creation of physical objects, including buildings. In architecture, the scope includes site selection, scheme formation, procurement, project implementation, as well as material selection. The term green design is both general and inclusive. It considers distribution and packaging, biodegradability, the life cycle of materials and products, off-gassing, the toxicity in fabrication or use, and a number of other important factors, including human rights and labor standards. A material’s ingredients, manufacturing methods, industry ratings, and certifications all contribute to defining the full environmental and sociopolitical impact of a product.

Raw materials are rarely found in nature and available for immediate use without requiring additional processing. They must be extracted, manufactured, and transported before being used in the fabrication or construction of projects. The technologies used in these processes must be examined holistically to determine if a material contributes to a sustainable system of production with respect for nature, or if it creates unintended consequences that are a hazard for the environment or living beings.

Architects and designers must be able to separate the important facts from the hype generated by parties with vested interests. The Environmentally Sustainable Design Considerations section, noted as ESD Considerations, examines how the following questions reveal a material’s comprehensive effect on the environment:

How does the extraction of the raw material impact the environment? Is the material locally produced and/or rapidly renewable?

How much energy is required to transport the acquired raw material to the manufacturing plant and to distribute the finished product to the end user? What kind of packaging is required?

What are the chemical ingredients? Are they safe to manufacture, use, and dispose of?

Are the fabrication technologies toxic to the environment or to the health of the people who make them? Are the manufacturing processes in accordance with human rights and labor laws?

Is the material nontoxic, biodegradable, or compostable?

Does the material off-gas and contribute to poor indoor air quality?

Is the material made with recycled content? Is it designed to be recyclable within the current infrastructure of the local recycling stream? Are there take-back systems in place? How is it recycled, and what does it get recycled into?

Can the material be upcycled into a new composite material or serve a new purpose after its intended use?

What are the material’s industry ratings and certifications (i.e., FSC)? Has the manufacturer substantiated the material’s sustainability credentials with quantifiable life-cycle analysis data?

By examining the environmental consequences of material selection, it becomes evident that it is essential to integrate these considerations into every aspect of the design process. But perhaps the first questions designers need to ask themselves are, is new construction really necessary and can the existing construction be modified to suit the client’s needs while intentionally reducing consumption and waste? Today, architects and interior designers are encouraged to use fewer resources and consider sites and existing buildings that don’t require significant spatial or physical transformation. Modest spatial and physical alterations to existing buildings will likely minimize the need to use new materials. Less invasive design alterations are generally considered more sustainable. The mantra for sustainability—reduce, reuse, recycle, and regulate—as outlined by William McDonough and Michael Braungart in their seminal book Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things, serves as an effective means to focus our collective attention toward the critical issues concerning the global environmental crisis.⁵ McDonough and Braungart propose ways that designers can create products, interiors, and buildings in which nature and commerce might coexist.

The following concepts and ideas contribute to our understanding of sustainability in design.

Biomimicry

In the natural world, there is no waste. Every living thing is food for other living things in a perfect closed-loop system. Pollution does not exist in nature. Everything is biodegradable, powered by sunlight, and biodiversity is systemic. Animals and plants adapt to their environment in complex and fascinating ways over time. Today, it is up to designers to apply this same ingenuity and adapt to the environment in ways that respect the planet’s limited resources and balanced ecosystems.

Biomimicry (a combination of the Latin words bios, meaning way of living, and mimesis, meaning to imitate) refers to the concept of using nature as the ideal inspiration for creating products and emulating natural methods of production. The practice of looking at nature’s solutions for design inspiration has existed for centuries, although the term has only recently become widespread. The book Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature, written by the biologist Janine Benyus in 1997, has contributed to the growing awareness of the subject. In her book, Benyus illustrates a multitude of design inventions that were directly inspired from studying nature such as a leaf serving as inspiration for the design of a photovoltaic cell. Visit www.biomimicryguild.com for more information.

Carbon-Neutral Design

Carbon-neutral design is an important component of a sustainable design initiative that examines ways to reduce a building’s or interior’s carbon emissions. The issues surrounding carbon emissions are complex. Carbon is expended in the extraction of materials that we use to create products, in the transportation of these products to the site, in their construction and fabrication, in the operation of buildings, and through the people who occupy interior spaces. Carbon-neutral design attempts to reduce the carbon emissions associated with all these aspects. Further, both the nature of the work carried on within a building and the related work produced off-site contribute to whether or not a building is carbon neutral. The thoughtful location of a project or the material production site can help reduce transportation costs; therefore, carbon-neutral design considerations include neighborhood, local, and regional planning issues.

Related to the need and desire to reduce the energy consumed in the manufacturing of materials and maintenance of buildings, a letter from the Earth Institute at Columbia University indicates that research is under way to develop advanced technologies to reduce carbon emissions from coal-burning power plants. Scientists are developing methods to capture and store the carbon dioxide present in the air and inject it into marine sediments in the ocean. Certain rocks have the unusual potential to safely convert carbon dioxide emissions into common minerals like chalk and limestone.

Another interesting and recent development in carbon-neutral technology can be found in the production of precast concrete. Concrete’s active ingredient, cement, is conventionally made by baking limestone and clay powders under intense heat, which is produced by the burning of fossil fuels. Making finished concrete products (mixing cement with water, sand, and gravel) generates additional emissions because heat and steam are used to accelerate the curing process. The process of making concrete accounts for more than 5 percent of human-caused, carbon dioxide emissions produced annually. A new proposed process exposes freshly mixed concrete to a stream of carbon dioxide–rich flue gas, which, in turn, accelerates the reaction between the gas and the calcium-rich minerals in cement. The technology virtually eliminates the need for additional heat or steam, saving energy and minimizing emissions. Potentially, this new technology could reduce by 20 percent all carbon dioxide emissions in the manufacturing of cement, which, if commercialized, could revolutionize concrete manufacturing and potentially produce a more durable concrete, without compromising structural integrity.⁶

Certifications

Third-party certifications serve to reassure those who specify materials that environmentally sustainable practices are being implemented and observed by their manufacturers. These watchdog organizations oversee the processing of materials to ensure that the balance and biodiversity of the ecosystems that some materials come from are maintained and protected. The standards they set help regulate a broad range of environmental benefits, including carbon-neutral design, greenhouse gas mitigation, and resource management. In addition, issues of social responsibility, child labor laws, and animal rights are taken into consideration. Selecting certified materials is an empowering act of creating positive change for the health and well-being of our planet. The following certifying organizations intend to