The Catholic Church: The First 2000 Years

PREFACE

History is fascinating when it tells the stories of people who influenced their cultures and when readers understand the connection between what they are learning and their own lives. This book includes many interesting stories and frequent links between historical events and our times. Since the book was written for the convenience of nonscholarly readers, I have used uncomplicated grammar and vocabulary wherever possible. I have usually included explanations of historical or theological terms when they were first introduced, even if most Catholics probably know them. For readers who are unfamiliar with history, I have written brief descriptions of the historical periods in which the events described took place. The book generally follows the chronological divisions found in standard Western civilization textbooks.

Church history is the story of how God works with individuals, societies, and his Church. It is about the way God revealed himself to us in the past and intervened in people’s lives. Since this is a Catholic book on the history of the Catholic Church, it includes traditional Catholic interpretations of history. For example, a secular history book might suggest some obvious reasons the Catholic Church survived and flourished for two thousand years, but this book claims God’s protection as the primary reason. In addition to giving Catholic interpretations, the book describes the difficult times when scandals or persecution threatened to destroy the Church. Miraculous stories, where they are mentioned, are usually given as they are stated in the original sources and usually include references to the sources in the text. Readers are free to disregard the Catholic interpretations and to refuse to believe the miracles, but it would not be historically accurate to leave them out of a Catholic history book.

The text does not include many direct references to controversial questions of today, such as the possibility or impossibility of ordaining women as priests. Teachers using the book can always start a discussion of these questions, but they should have the option of choosing their own time and method of introducing the subject. The book briefly discusses most historical controversies. For example, there are explanations of the need for Church reform before the Council of Trent, the Inquisition, the Crusades, the treatment of Jews in medieval society, and the historical role of women in society, though the book is too short to devote much space to any of these issues. The discussion questions found at the end of each section are intended to highlight important points found in the chapter and to initiate discussions.

I would like to thank the people who helped me write this book. The most important were my former professors at the University of Colorado, particularly Professor Boyd H. Hill in medieval history and Professor Carl Christensen in Renaissance / Reformation history. In addition to teaching me about history, the evaluation of historical evidence, and how to write about history, they read and commented on parts of the text. However, they are not responsible for its defects or its religious content. Many thanks also to the priests, nuns, teachers, friends, and relatives who taught me, read and commented on the book, or answered my questions about their own lives and experiences.

I

The Church in the New Testament

1. What Is the Church?

2. The People of God in the Old Testament

3. The Church Jesus Founded

4. The Church in the Acts of the Apostles

Featured Saint: Paul

CHAPTER 1

The Church in the New Testament

1. What Is the Church?

Many Catholics think of the Church as an institution or an organization, and this is correct but not complete. The Church was founded by Christ to carry on his work in the world. Each parish church, usually including all of the Catholics in a geographical area and led by a priest, is part of a diocese, which is led by a bishop or an archbishop. Each bishop oversees the parishes in his diocese and is responsible for other Church organizations such as Catholic hospitals, charitable organizations, and schools located in it. He provides leadership in teaching the truths Christ taught us and in explaining the way they should be applied to modern situations.

Often an area with a large population or with geographical or political importance—perhaps associated with an important city—will be made an archdiocese. The bishop of an archdiocese is called an archbishop. He is the leader of the other bishops in the area, but each bishop is responsible for teaching the faith in his own diocese. The leader of the whole Church is the Pope, the Bishop of Rome. All bishops are appointed by him or with his consent and receive their authority from him and from God. The Pope is elected by a group of Church leaders chosen to be cardinals, but he receives his authority from God and is guided by God with special gifts of grace. Each bishop, priest, and deacon is chosen by God through his Church and receives grace from him to carry out his mission. These gifts of grace are imparted by the sacrament of Holy Orders, the action of Christ working through his Church.

The Church is much more than an institution. The Church is a union of Christ and of all of the members of the Church, including people who have died and are in heaven with God and those who have died in God’s grace but are not yet united with him in heaven. As baptized members of his Church, believers are united with Christ and with each other in a spiritual sense. Everything they do affects others, regardless of whether anyone besides God knows about their actions, and everything others do affects them. All Christians are part of the Body of Christ, and they are never alone. This teaching is part of the reason Christians believe in the dignity and importance of each individual.

Christ established his Church for several purposes. The Church preaches his message so that everyone may be baptized and find salvation. His sacraments give people his life and grace. He taught believers to turn away from evil and live in peace and justice so that they can be happy in this life and find eternal life in heaven.

The Church has many organizations to carry out the will of Christ and explain his message. For example, Jesus told his followers to care for the sick and feed the hungry, so the Church provides hospitals, nursing homes, and food and shelter for the poor. Jesus told believers to love one another, so Christians try to bring peace to the world by reconciling individuals and nations whenever this is possible. Christ promised that his Church would last to the end of time, so the Church provides for her own survival by ordaining new priests and bishops and baptizing and training new generations of Christians. Christians believe that Christ taught them the best way of life, so Christians try to create societies in which gospel values are reflected in laws, government structure, and culture.

Since the Church was founded by Jesus Christ and is sustained by God, when believers study Church history they learn about God and the way he has worked with people in the past. History is the story of many individuals and cultures, and readers will find a wide variety of characters, lifestyles, and solutions to apparently impossible problems. Readers who are not Catholics or Christians will find that the study of Church history gives them added insight into secular and religious history and explains many modern controversies.

Discussion Questions

Identify: parish, diocese, bishop, Pope, Eucharist

1. Describe the external structure of the Church.

2. Describe the charitable and missionary activities carried out by the Church.

2. The People of God in the Old Testament

The Catholic Church was founded by Christ about two thousand years ago, but God has been active in history since the beginning. The pre-Christian era was a preparation for Christ, and also for the Church.

The book of Genesis in the Bible tells how God created the universe, the world, and human beings. Though the first people, Adam and Eve, were created good, in God’s image, they chose to turn away from God by disobeying his commandment. This sin broke their union with God and deprived them of God’s life and grace, and it brought evil and death into the world. God responded by promising to send a Savior.

Much later, about four thousand years ago, God called a man named Abraham to leave his home and go to another land, located in what is now Israel. God promised that if Abraham believed in him, worshiped him, and obeyed him, God would give Abraham the land and many descendants. This promise and Abraham’s agreement were a covenant, a binding contract between God and man.

Abraham’s faith in God was severely tested. He was already old when God called him, and his wife, Sarah, had not had any children. Many years later, after he had fulfilled God’s commands faithfully, he still had no child. Finally his son Isaac was born. After this Abraham’s faith was tested again. God asked Abraham to offer up his son in sacrifice. While Abraham must have wondered at this strange command, he did not hesitate, but went to the mountain of sacrifice and prepared to do as God said. At the last moment God stopped him. God said that Abraham had proved that he would obey God’s will in everything and that he should not sacrifice his son. Instead, he should sacrifice a ram.

The idea of sacrificing animals or other possessions may seem strange to modern readers. In Old Testament times, offering sacrifices was one way God asked his people to show their love for him. When Christ came to earth, he gave up his life in obedience to God as a sacrifice to bring us salvation and the grace of God. The sacrifices in the Old Testament helped prepare the people of God to understand the sacrifice of Christ. Since the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus, Christians do not offer animal sacrifices to God. Instead, Catholics worship God through Mass, which re-enacts Christ’s sacrifice and brings us his grace. Christians also offer God gifts or sacrifices of money, which are used to support the Church, assist the poor, or help with other good causes. Catholics may sacrifice or give up their possessions or time, as people did in the Old Testament, and they should live their lives in obedience to God’s will.

As God had promised, Abraham’s descendants became very numerous. They were called the children of Israel after Abraham’s grandson, Israel. Later they were called the Hebrews or Jews. They moved to Egypt during a famine and stayed there for four hundred years. At first the Egyptians treated them well, because Joseph, one of Israel’s sons, had been sold by his brothers as a slave to Egypt and had become an important official there. After many years the Israelites became even more numerous, and the Egyptians enslaved them.

The book of Exodus tells us that God called Moses to lead the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt, back to the land he had promised to Abraham and his descendants. Moses at first was reluctant to obey God in this, but he finally agreed. With the help of his brother, Aaron, and with many signs and miracles from God, Moses led the Israelites to safety. While they were in the desert on their way to the promised land, God renewed his covenant with them. God told Moses to go to Mt. Sinai, where God gave Moses the Ten Commandments, the basic laws that the Israelites were to follow. When Moses returned, he found that the people had grown tired of waiting for him and had persuaded Aaron to make an idol, a calf of gold, so that they could worship it instead of God. Moses was furious, but he begged God to forgive the people for this sin and to take pity on them. The Israelites all promised to turn back to God and to obey his Commandments. In return, God promised to care for them, to give them a homeland to live in, and to protect them from their enemies, as long as they obeyed his laws and worshiped him alone.

The covenant God made with Abraham, and renewed with Moses, was the basis of God’s relations with his chosen people during the years before Christ. God’s law became more detailed as he gradually taught his people the way he wanted them to live. At the time of Abraham, God showed his people that he was one God, but they did not have the Ten Commandments. After Moses led them out of Egypt, they were given the Ten Commandments and many other laws, but they did not have the writings about the judges or of the prophets.

The twelve tribes of the Israelites were united under Moses and his successor, Joshua, but as the people increased in numbers and spread through the land, they lost their unity. The tribes had no central government after Joshua died, and each tribe and family did whatever its members wished. The books of Joshua, Judges, and Samuel tell us that God allowed the Israelites to turn away from worshiping him and to pray to the gods of the surrounding pagans. The tribes attacked each other and did many other evil deeds.

Since the Israelites had broken their covenant with God, he let their enemies in nations around them defeat them in battle. He also sent prophets called judges to remind the Israelites of their covenant with him. The judges settled disputes among the Israelites, told people God’s will for their lives, persuaded them to obey God, and led them in battle against the enemies who were oppressing them. The judges’ leadership did not pass on to their descendants. Each time a judge died, the tribes returned to their former state of anarchy.

The last judge was Samuel, a great prophet. When he grew old, the Israelites asked him to appoint a king to rule over them, since they wanted to be like other lands. After praying to God, Samuel anointed King Saul, and, when Saul turned away from God, Samuel anointed King David. Under David’s leadership Israel grew to be a strong, wealthy nation. David was devoted to God, and God promised through the prophet Nathan that David’s heirs would always rule Israel. Kings who were descended from David ruled Israel for about five hundred years, but the prophecy was completely fulfilled in Jesus, a descendant of David. Jesus Christ established the kingdom of God on earth in his Church and rules over Christians forever.

Many kings after David turned away from God and worshiped idols or oppressed the poor with heavy taxes and unjust laws. Some persecuted the prophets God sent to remind people of his covenant. The tribe of Levi provided priests to offer sacrifice to God, but even these hereditary priests sometimes worshiped false gods. Finally God allowed enemies to conquer the Israelites in wars. The survivors were taken to Babylon as captives.

After several generations the remaining Jews were allowed to return to their home land. At first they were under the authority of Jewish leaders who worshiped the God of their ancestors, though they held their offices from the Persian government. These leaders called an assembly after the Israelites returned and read the whole law of Moses, called the Mosaic law, to the people. Everyone agreed to follow it. This was a further renewal of God’s covenant with his people. The law included the Ten Commandments and hundreds of complicated rules for eating, working, keeping the Sabbath, praying, offering sacrifices, marriage, and many other activities. It was easy to become preoccupied with these rules, but many devout Jews understood the spirit of the law and followed God with their whole hearts.

Several hundred years later the Jews were conquered by the Greeks, who persecuted them to force them to follow Greek customs. However, many Jews loved God so much that they were willing to die rather than disobey his laws. After a few Jews had been martyred by the Greeks, they revolted under the leadership of Judas Maccabeus and won their freedom. Later they were conquered and governed by Romans, who allowed them to keep their religion, customs, and some independence, but oppressed them with heavy taxes.

The people of God in the Old Testament were similar in many ways to the Church. The Israelites worshiped the same God, though they did not know that the one God, named Yahweh, was a Trinity with Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. They obeyed the Ten Commandments, though Jesus gave a fuller explanation of their meaning to his followers. They had prayer, the Old Testament of the Bible, and worship services. The Jews’ beliefs about the creation of the world, angels, devils, the nature and final destiny of human beings, life after death, and the need to avoid sin to please God were the same as or similar to those of Christians. The Jews were waiting for a Messiah who would save them. They were surrounded by nations with different customs and religions, and they knew that God wanted them to obey and worship him rather than to adopt mistaken customs and to worship false gods. The Jews, God’s chosen people, had been prepared for the next step in God’s plan for the world.

Discussion Questions

Identify: covenant, Abraham, Moses, Ten Commandments, Old Testament, King David, Mosaic law, Judas Maccabeus

1. Describe God’s relationship with Abraham.

2. Describe God’s covenants with the children of Israel before the time of Christ. What did the people promise to do? What did God promise to do? What happened when they broke their covenant with God?

3. Describe the people of God shortly before the time of Christ.

3. The Church Jesus Founded

The Old Testament had many prophecies about Jesus. Some prophecies spoke of a king who would rule Israel, overcome her enemies, purify her worship, end injustice, and establish a reign of peace and prosperity. At the time of Christ, many Jews thought these prophecies meant that the Messiah would be a military leader like Judas Maccabeus who would free them from the Romans. However, there were other prophecies many Jews ignored. The Psalms and the book of the prophet Isaiah tell of a suffering servant of God, a king who would be rejected, have his hands and feet pierced, be overcome by his enemies, and die a terrible death to ransom his people from their sins. When Jesus came to earth, he fulfilled the second group of prophecies by his Crucifixion and death. Many of the first prophecies were fulfilled after his Resurrection and are still being fulfilled in his Church, and others have not yet been fulfilled. Christians believe that they will be fulfilled at the Second Coming of Christ. Since the Jews did not find in Jesus the military leader they were seeking, and since he spoke against many of their ideas and customs, the majority of the Jews did not believe that Jesus was the Messiah. After Jesus was crucified and rose from the dead, more of them became believers. All of the first Christians were Jews.

The Gospels tell us that Jesus was born by the power of the Holy Spirit from the Virgin Mary. Joseph the carpenter, Mary’s husband, was Jesus’ foster father. When Jesus was about thirty he began his public ministry, traveling around Israel and preaching to the people.

Jesus gathered a group of disciples and chose a special group of twelve men, the Apostles. Jesus chose St. Peter to be the leader of the Apostles, saying, And on this rock I will build my church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven (Mt 16:18, 19). Though Jesus explained his teaching more clearly to the Apostles than to the other disciples, none of them understood it fully until after he rose from the dead.

Though the Jews were God’s chosen people, Jesus’ teaching was revolutionary for them in many ways. In the Sermon on the Mount he gave them the Beatitudes, which showed that people should follow God more radically than the Mosaic law required. However, the disciples of Jesus were to follow the laws with a new spirit. For example, the Ten Commandments forbid killing people, but Jesus said that people should not even hate their enemies but rather should love them. The Ten Commandments say people should not commit adultery, but Jesus said they should not lust after others. They should control their thoughts as well as their actions. The Jews believed that God rewarded good people by giving them wealth and happiness, but Jesus said that it was harder for a rich man to get into heaven than for a camel to go through the eye of a needle. Living a good Christian life usually makes people happy, but the final reward is in heaven, not in this life. On one occasion, the Apostles asked Jesus how anyone could be saved, since this way of life seemed very difficult. Jesus told them that though this is impossible with men, nothing is impossible with God. Later, with the help of God, the Apostles were able to follow Jesus’ teaching, and they gave their lives to bring his word to others.

Jesus was frequently asked where he got the authority to teach. Most religious teachers were Pharisees, who came from famous schools. They based their authority on the prestige of earlier teachers. They thought that since Jesus had not attended such a school, he had no authority to teach. Jesus responded to the question of his teaching authority in several ways. The first was to refer to his miraculous powers. Jesus healed people who had been paralyzed, insane, or sick for years, and he brought dead people back to life. He worked miracles that showed that he had power over nature, such as calming storms, walking on water, turning water into wine, and feeding huge crowds with a few loaves of bread. His miracles helped prove his authority by showing that he had power from God, but they were not the basis of his authority. He gradually revealed to his disciples that he was the Messiah, the Son of God, and that he and God the Father were one. Jesus was God as well as man. This was puzzling to the Jews, who did not have our knowledge that God is a Trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Since Jesus was God, he had authority to explain God’s laws, to forgive sins, and to make changes in the rules governing God’s people. Since he was man, he was able to teach people how to live by his example, and he was able to die for their sins.

Jesus taught his followers many new customs and beliefs. He told them that they must be born again through water and the Holy Spirit, indicating that people must be baptized and live a new life in Christ. The Jews believed that sins could be forgiven only by God; Jesus forgave sins because he was God. After the Resurrection, he gave his Apostles the power to forgive sins in his name through the sacraments of baptism and penance. At the Last Supper, Jesus consecrated the bread and wine so that it became his Body and Blood and gave the Apostles power to do the same thing. This instituted the Eucharist and ordained the Apostles as priests and bishops.

Jesus explained to the Apostles that he must suffer and die, but that he would rise from the dead three days later. He took Peter and two other disciples to a mountain, where he was transfigured and appeared to them in glory with Moses and Elijah, who symbolized the law and the prophets of the Old Testament. Moses and Elijah vanished, leaving only Jesus. This showed that the New Covenant established by Jesus would be permanent and helped the Apostles to believe in the Second Coming of Christ after Jesus had ascended into heaven.

Jesus had many followers, but a few groups actively opposed his teaching. The Pharisees, who were devoted to following the Mosaic laws, with all of the details developed since the time of Moses, often opposed Jesus’ teaching, which stressed interior conversion rather than detailed and complicated regulations. The Sadducees disagreed with Jesus because they did not believe in the resurrection of the dead. The Jewish political leaders, especially the high priest, feared that a popular religious leader might undermine their authority and provoke the Romans into destroying their nation. The Roman occupying government was sensitive to any popular movement that might threaten its dominance. Jesus was betrayed by Judas, one of his Apostles, and handed over to the high priest and the Romans, who crucified him. Jesus’ death fulfilled the prophecies and gained our salvation. He rose from the dead the third day after his Crucifixion.

When Jesus chose his Apostles and sacrificed his life for us, he changed the worship of the Old Testament. Instead of a hereditary priesthood offering sacrifices, Christians had bishops and priests who had been called to that office and who reenacted the sacrifice of Jesus whenever they celebrated the Eucharist. St. Peter and the other Apostles were the leaders of the Church after Jesus ascended into heaven. As St. Peter was the leader of the Apostles, the successors of St. Peter were the leaders of the bishops—the successors of the Apostles—and of the rest of the Church. Jesus told St. Peter and the Apostles to teach the things he had commanded, which meant that the bishops, led by the Pope, had the authority and the obligation to judge how to apply the teaching of Christ and to preach it throughout the world.

Jesus’ own life, death, and Resurrection gave Christians new ideals. He sacrificed his own life to pay the penalty for sins so that believers could have their sins forgiven and become united with God. Christians needed to love Jesus and each other as much as Jesus loved them, enough to give their lives for him or for each other. When Jesus rose from the dead, he showed that God triumphs over obstacles that seem insurmountable and defeats that seem final. Believers did not need to fear death, since it was not the end. If they loved and followed God, death was their birth into life with God in heaven. The good actions of Christians, particularly their love for the poor and for their enemies, were the ways they showed their love for God and followed his commands. Jesus’ new ideals were challenging, but Christians throughout the ages accepted the challenge and devoted their lives to serving God and other people.

The Old Testament showed that God loved human beings. He saved his people from slavery, gave them rules to live by so that they could be at peace with each other and with him, protected them from their enemies, and taught them to love him and worship him. When they forgot him or turned away from his laws, he sent judges or prophets to remind them of their covenant with him. In the New Testament God showed his love by becoming man and living with his people. He taught them how to live, established the Church to continue teaching his message, gave us his life in the sacraments, and died a horrible death to save his people. He always guides and helps his Church so that Christians can hear his message and know his will for their lives and find eternal happiness in heaven.

Discussion Questions

Identify: disciples, Apostles, Beatitudes, St. Peter

1. Who was Jesus?

2. What changes did Jesus make in the way