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    Salerno to the Gustav Line, 1943–1944
    Salerno to the Gustav Line, 1943–1944
    Salerno to the Gustav Line, 1943–1944
    Ebook306 pages2 hours

    Salerno to the Gustav Line, 1943–1944

    By Jon Diamond

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    In September 1943, shortly after the conquest of Sicily, the Allied armies made amphibious assaults on the Italian Mainland at Calabria, Taranto and along the Gulf of Salerno beaches. The Italian Government quickly capitulated but the Germans fought on. Although the British XIII Corps and 1st Airbornes attacks were largely uncontested in Calabria and Taranto, the Allied Fifth Armys beachheads at Salerno underwent savage Nazi counterattacks.After Salerno, the Allied Fifth and Eighth Armies continued their advance north initially to the ports of Naples and Bari before struggling through Italian massifs, held up by a determined enemy and unfavorable ground and weather. In January 1944, the Fifth Armys X, II and French Expeditionary Corps attacked across the Garigliano and Rapido Rivers with the aim of breaking through the Gustav Line fortifications. The Nazi defense at the town of Cassino just succeeded in halting the two-week Allied attack during First Battle of Cassino and the Gustav Line was to be the scene of fierce fighting for months.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherOpen Road Integrated Media
    Release dateFeb 28, 2018
    ISBN9781526707352
    Salerno to the Gustav Line, 1943–1944
    Author

    Jon Diamond

    Jon Diamond is a practising physician who has had a life-long interest in military history. A graduate of Cornell University, Jon has been on the faculties of Harvard Medical School and Pennsylvania State University. He has served as a civilian attendee to the United States Army War College National Security Seminar in Carlisle, Pennsylvania and has written a significant number of articles and papers including over fifteen for Military Heritage Presents WWII History. He is the author of a book on David Low's Cartoons and the British Policy of Appeasement. He resides in Hershey, Pennsylvania.

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      Salerno to the Gustav Line, 1943–1944 - Jon Diamond

      Chapter One

      Strategic Prelude to the Invasion

      The see-saw struggle across the North African littoral in the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations (MTO) ended with the British Eighth Army’s victory over German and Italian forces at El Alamein in early November 1942. British prime minister Winston Churchill stated after the victory over Rommel’s Panzerarmee Afrika : ‘Now this is not the end; it is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning.’ In his monumental post-war history Churchill wrote: ‘Before Alamein we never had a victory. After Alamein, we never had a defeat.’

      Concurrent with the final pursuit of the Axis forces throughout Libya, the Allies amphibiously invaded Vichy French-controlled Morocco and Algeria during Operation Torch on 8 November 1942. A brutal six-month campaign to drive the Axis from their ‘Tunisgrad’ bridgehead, and Africa entirely, ensued. The Allies victoriously entered Tunis on 8 May 1943 to a massive surrender of German and Italian forces.

      To implement the large Allied force in North Africa and to secure the Mediterranean Sea lanes, Sicily was amphibiously assaulted by the US Seventh and British Eighth armies on 10 July 1943, Operation Husky. After a tenacious thirty-eight-day campaign, the Axis evacuated the island to the Italian mainland across the Strait of Messina. Mussolini was deposed on 24 July and representatives of the Italian government were secretly negotiating terms of an armistice with the Allies, which they signed on 3 September. A springboard for the invasion of Continental Europe via its soft underbelly was now in Allied hands. In the meantime, Hitler had been in the process of planning to seize control of Italy with Wehrmacht troops, if the Italians surrendered. The Italian capitulation was officially announced on 8 September.

      Despite US Army planners not wanting to detract from their build-up of the nascent forces in Britain for a cross-Channel assault, the American joint chiefs of staff acquiesced to other Mediterranean amphibious operations: an invasion of the Italian mainland across the Strait of Messina by British XIII Corps along the Calabrian toe of Italy (Operation Baytown, 3 September); along the beaches of the Gulf of Salerno (Operation Avalanche, 9 September) by the Allied Fifth Army; and at the port of Taranto (Operation Slapstick, 9 September) by elements of the British 1st Airborne Division at the heel of the Italian Peninsula.

      During the Second Battle of El Alamein in early November 1942, some of Lieutenant-General Bernard L. Montgomery’s Eighth Army troops are shown taking cover from Axis artillery shell-bursts at the side of a disabled Panzer Mk IV. The Eighth Army’s victory against German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel’s Panzerarmee Afrika ended the see-saw two-year battle across the Cyrenaican and Egyptian deserts. Afterwards, the Axis forces began their lengthy westward retreat into Tunisia or surrendered. (NARA)

      The Mediterranean Theatre of Operations, September 1943. Tunis and Bizerte fell to the Allies on 8 May 1943. Sicily was chosen as the next Allied MTO target as Operation Husky was launched on 10 July 1943. After thirty-eight days, the US Seventh and British Eighth armies conquered the island and the surviving Axis forces fled across the Strait of Messina to the Italian mainland. On 3 September 1943, during Operation Baytown, the British Eighth Army’s XIII Corps invaded the Italian mainland at Reggio and other locales in Calabria. Six days later, Operation Slapstick, an uncontested amphibious assault on the port of Taranto, was launched by elements of the British 1st Airborne Division. Also, on 9 September 1943, Operation Avalanche unfolded along the beaches in the Gulf of Salerno to secure a foothold for the Allied Fifth Army to be in proximity to the port-city of Naples. Allied forces sailed from several MTO ports including: the US 36th Division from Oran; the British 46th and 1st Airborne divisions from Bizerte; the British 56th Division from Tripoli; and the US 45th Division from Palermo. The US 82nd Airborne and 3rd Infantry divisions waited in reserve on Sicily. General von Vietinghoff’s German Tenth Army, with its 16th, 26th, and Hermann Göring Panzer divisions, the 3rd, 15th, and 29th Panzer Grenadier divisions was to launch massive counter-attacks. The positions of the 1st and 2nd Luftwaffe Parachute divisions in Italy as well as the 90th Panzer Grenadier Division on Sardinia are also shown. (Philip Schwartzberg, Meridian Mapping, Minneapolis, MN).

      US soldiers from the Allied Western Task Force, under Lieutenant-General George S. Patton, are shown riding the carriage of a Bofors anti-aircraft (AA) gun onto the Atlantic shores of French Morocco near Safi on Operation Torch’s D-Day, 8 November 1942. The Anglo-American invasion of Vichy French north-west Africa along the French Moroccan coast to seize Casablanca as well as in the Mediterranean at Oran and Algiers was intended to launch a quick strike for Tunis to permanently drive the Axis from North Africa. The German response to both the Allied invasion and Vichy capitulation was swift, commencing a bitter six-month campaign in Tunisia. (NARA)

      An American reconnaissance Jeep is shown with its surviving crew from the three days of fighting at Sidi bou Zid, Tunisia, in mid-February 1943. On 14 February, tank columns from the German 5th Panzerarmee’s 21st and 10th Panzer divisions, under General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim’s command, broke through a thin American armoured defensive line there. A failed American armoured and mechanised infantry counter-attack by major elements of the US 1st Armoured Division was crushed, leading to the capture of approximately 1,500 American soldiers, 150 American tanks and scores of half-tracks, artillery pieces and trucks, that left doubts among British commanders about the American forces’ battle readiness against the veteran Nazis. (NARA)

      A German 10th Panzer Division’s Mk IV Panzer is shown lying disabled on the Tunisian desert valley floor near El Guettar, where American II Corps forces now under Lieutenant-General George S. Patton’s command defeated this Nazi formation on 23 March 1943. The 1st Infantry Division’s 16th and 18th Infantry Regiments repelled two German Panzers and motorised infantry assaults, with Luftwaffe cover, utilising massed artillery, tank destroyers, mines, air sorties and hand-to-hand combat. This combat provided a diversion of Nazi armour away from the British Eighth Army in the south. Also, American and British commanders were pleased with how much the US II Corps’ fighting élan had improved since the battlefield disasters at Sidi bou Zid and Kasserine. (NARA)

      The crew of a British Eighth Army Universal carrier is shown reading a sign in French in the Tunisian town of Mareth after its capture in late March 1943. The term Universal applied to the carrier was apt since it could be used for a variety of combat functions from simply moving infantry or being armed with a Bren light or Vickers medium machine-gun, an antiquated Boys anti-tank rifle, or a mortar. The Mareth Line consisted of a series of outdated blockhouses and entrenchments built by the French in the late 1930s to protect southern Tunisia from Mussolini’s Tripolitania outposts. Rommel had doubts of the suitability of the Mareth Line to stop Montgomery’s Eighth Army and left Africa permanently on 9 March with Arnim assuming command of Panzerarmeegruppe Afrika. (NARA)

      US soldiers from the 60th Infantry Regiment of the 9th Division are shown marching in single-file holding their M1 semi-automatic Garand rifles along one of the hills surrounding a valley 7 miles outside the Tunisian port of Bizerte on 7 May 1943. That day marked the fall of the port after vicious house-to-house fighting in the city that utilised M3 Medium Lee tanks and 9th Division infantry. Bizerte had been assigned to US II Corps for capture and had once been part of the Nazi bridgehead for supply and reinforcement after Operation Torch commenced six months earlier. (USAMHI)

      Infantrymen of the Princess Patricia Canadian Light Infantry (PPCLI) are seen leaving a grove of fruit trees to make their way through barbed wire to cross an open field on Sicily in July 1943. Encountering only cursory opposition from ill-equipped and poorly trained Italian coastal defenders, 1st Canadian Division made their combat debut exit from their beachhead to advance north-westerly prior to beginning a British XXX Corps’ arc around the Monte Etna massif, Operation Hardgate. (NARA)

      Elements of the US 2nd Armoured Division, under Major-General Hugh Gaffey, are shown moving down a Palermo street on 22 July 1943 to the cheers of some of the Sicilian capital’s residents. The entire island’s capture on 17 August enabled the Allied invasion of the Italian mainland, despite protests from some American planners fearing a distraction from the Allied build-up in the United Kingdom for a future cross-Channel invasion of Normandy. (NARA)

      A British infantry section is seen advancing through the rubble of heavily defended Catania, which was subjected to intense Allied aerial bombing, artillery shelling and naval gunfire. British XIII Corps took Augusta on 12 July 1943. However, Catania did not fall until 5 August, due to an inability to properly deploy British formations along the narrow axis of advance in the vicinity of the heavily defended Monte Etna massif. (NARA)

      Forward elements of the US 3rd Infantry Division enter the north-eastern Sicilian port of Messina after the Axis had executed an evacuation from the island across the Strait of Messina during Operation Lehrgang. During the exodus across the Strait, approximately 62,000 Italian and 40,000 Germans arrived in Calabria. About fifty Nazi tanks, along with 10,000 vehicles and approximately 200 artillery pieces, were ferried across the waterway for future operations against the Allies wherever they were to mount an amphibious assault on the Italian mainland. (NARA)

      After Messina’s capture, Lieutenant-General Bernard L. Montgomery (left), British Eighth Army commanding general and General Dwight D. Eisenhower (right), Allied Forces Commander, Mediterranean Theatre of Operations (MTO) are shown scanning the Strait of Messina from the Sicilian harbour toward their next objective, Reggio di Calabria on the Italian mainland. On 3 September, Operation Baytown would commence with Operations Slapstick and Avalanche to begin on 9 September. (NARA)

      Chapter Two

      Terrain, Fortifications and Weapons

      Allied planners concluded that the Gulf of Naples beaches were an unsuitable locale for amphibious assault to secure the Neapolitan port-city. Allied naval commanders feared fortified sea defences and the heights of Monte Vesuvius dominating the coast. As alternative landing areas, the Fifth Army could land either 25 miles north-west of the city near the mouth of the Volturno River in the Gulf of Gaeta, or 50 miles south-east of Naples along the beaches of the Gulf of Salerno.

      A landing in the Volturno River area in the Gulf of Gaeta was considered, as the disembarking Allied assault troops would be able to exit from the landing beaches and get onto the open Naples Plain, a terrain ideal for tanks and in proximity for an armoured thrust into the outskirts of the city. A Gulf of Gaeta assault was intended to deny the Nazi defenders the surrounding hills or other terrain features that would impede a rapid deployment from the beachhead into the environs of Naples. However, this invasion site was too remote for the Allied fighter bases on Sicily to provide an air umbrella for an amphibious assault. Also, invading near the mouth of the Volturno River was too far north from the British Eighth Army’s Calabrian landing sites for mutual support of the Allied Fifth Army in a timely manner. Other naval disadvantages for a Gulf of Gaeta amphibious assault included the mined and fortified maritime approaches and an unfavourable hydrographic gradient of an offshore sandbar that precluded Allied transports from landing close to shore.

      The Gulf of Salerno, with its 25-mile stretch of beaches south of the town of Salerno to Agropoli, offered the most favourable conditions for a landing that was within reach of Allied air cover. The beaches had little surf and an offshore

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