City Life in Japan: A Study of a Tokyo Ward

CITY LIFE IN

JAPAN

CITY LIFE IN JAPAN

A Study of a Tokyo Ward

BY R. P. DORE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

Berkeley and Los Angeles 1963

University of California Press

Berkeley and Los Angeles

California

© R. P. Dore 1958

Printed in Great Britain

Acknowledgements

This book was made possible by the generosity of the Treasury Committee for Studentships in Oriental Languages and Cultures, which supported the author during an eighteen months’ stay in Japan, and also of the Central Research Committee of the University of London which provided a grant for the machine-sorting of some of the material obtained. The author is also greatly indebted to many friends without whose help this book could not have been written; to Professors K. Aoi, K. Iwai and T. Tsukamoto for their invaluable advice concerning the preparation of questionnaires; to the interviewers for their long and conscientious labours; to Mrs. R. Enoki, Mrs. K. Omori and Mr. H. Takagi for help in copying and tabulation; to Mr. Y. Kawashima and Professor Y. Yamada for many useful discussions and suggestions concerning additional material; and to Professor W. G. Beasley, Miss Carmen Blacker, Mr. Anthony Christie, Mr. F. J. Daniels, Miss Machiko Kubo, Mr. W. R. MacAlpine, Professor M. Maruyama, Professor W. J. H. Sprott, and Mrs. Sybil van der Sprenkel for reading the whole or parts of the manuscript and making many valuable suggestions. Finally, grateful thanks are due to the people of Shitayama-cho, whose kindness and friendly co-operation made the work of collecting the material here presented a personal as well as an academic pleasure, and in particular to Mrs. Kiyoko Nishitani who not only provided her lodger with a strict, if hilarious, training in the niceties of Japanese etiquette, but also suffered her house to be turned into an interviewers’ centre and bore all the attendant inconveniences with something more than the usual human allowance of patience and good humour.

Contents

Acknowledgements

Contents

1 Aims and Limitations

2 Shitayama-cho

3 Some Sketches

4 Houses and Apartment Blocks

5 Family Income and Expenditure

6 Health and Security

7 Progress and Planning

8 The Japanese Family System

9 Household Composition in Shitayama-cho

10 The ‘ House ’

11 Husbands and Wives

12 Getting on

13 Political Attitudes

14 Education

15 Leisure

16 Neighbours and Friends

17 The Ward

18 Main Trends of Religious Development

19 The Local and the National Community

20 Family Rites

21 The Individual and the Kami

22 Present-day Religious Teachings

23 Beliefs of ‘the Uncommitted’

24 Society and the Individual

APPENDIX I Enquiry Methods

APPENDIX II Family Budgets

APPENDIX III Social Insurance Schemes in Force in 1951

APPENDIX IV Some Documents concerning the teaching of Social Studies

APPENDIX V Ward Association Annual General Meeting

APPENDIX VI Forms and Occasions of But sudan Worship

APPENDIX VII The Objects of Cults; Buddhism and Shinto, Kami and Hotoke

Notes

Index

1

Aims and Limitations

THE chief aim of this book is to give an idea of what it is like to be a Japanese living in Shitayama-cho, a neighbourhood of some three hundred households not far from the centre of Tokyo. It is concerned with what people do—how they earn a living and run a home, how they marry, how they amuse themselves, how they treat their relatives, their neighbours, and their gods—and with what people think and feel, in so far as this can be inferred from what they do and say. The account is based in part on direct observation of life as it is lived, in part on the information gained in the more artificial situation of the formal interview.

A neighbourhood study, such as this, has certain inevitable limitations as a means of approach to the study of ‘city life in Japan’. Chiefly, there is the danger that the neighbourhood selected may be unrepresentative, and where the individual or the family is the unit of study a broader approach based on systematic sampling of, say, the inhabitants of Tokyo or of the urban Japanese population as a whole might be of greater value. On the other hand the neighbourhood study has certain advantages. In the first place it enables the results of formal interviews to be supplemented by personal acquaintance with the people concerned and a knowledge of the general background of their lives. In the second place it offers a means of studying a range of topics beyond the reach of a broader sample survey— patterns of community organization, for instance, friendships and neighbour relations, the functions of shrines and temples. There is a third general justification for the community study as a descriptive device; namely that the more the people studied are similar in background and outlook the more meaningful do generalizations about them become and the less is the ‘average man’ a mere statistical abstraction. This latter advantage, however, can hardly be claimed here, for, as Chapter 2 shows, the population of Shitayama-cho was, in origin, education, occupation and economic well-being not very much less heterogeneous than the population of Tokyo as a whole.

This heterogeneity of Shitayama-cho, although it destroys some of the advantage of the neighbourhood study approach, has its 3 compensations. Granted that no application of statistical techniques could give the results of a single neighbourhood study any precise validity as a description of ‘the Japanese’ or ‘the inhabitants of Tokyo’, still, since studies of urban Japan are rare it would seem preferable that the neighbourhood selected should not be too obviously exceptional. Shitayama-cho filled the bill in this sense. It was typical in the sense that many other wards like it could be found in Tokyo, and its population was representative in the sense that its class and occupational character was none too clearly defined. ‘It’s a nondescript sort of place,’ said one of the ward leaders when I was discussing plans for the survey with them. ‘It isn’t a shopkeeper’s ward like (the ward next door). It’s not really a salary-man’s ward either. Or a working-class ward. It’s residential, but we have our workshops too. I suppose if you had to call the ward something or other you wouldn’t go wrong if you said it was towards the bottom end of the middle class.’

The result, then, is a compromise; a compromise between the contradictory aims on the one hand of deriving the maximum advantages of all-embracingness and personal familiarity which attach to the narrow neighbourhood study, and on the other of producing something which, even if it is taken as in some respects typical of a wider universe, will not seriously mislead.

It is to further the latter aim, and so to justify the title of this book, that Chapter 2 is concerned primarily with ‘placing’ Shitayama-cho in the context of Tokyo and of urban Japan as a whole by means of a few easily quantified characteristics. Throughout the book, moreover, where national or regional statistics or general institutional studies by other writers are relevant to the wider perspective of topics studied in Shitayama-cho—as in the discussion of income levels, housing, education and so on—such material has been quoted for purposes of comparison.

The inclusion of this more general material has another purpose in addition to the ‘correction for sample bias’. A report of investigations into the church-going or courting habits of an English community could safely assume the reader’s familiarity with the main outlines of the religious and family institutions of our society. It would be rash to assume the same familiarity with the major institutions of Japanese society and the information is not easily come by. Much of the more general material culled from secondary sources is included, therefore, for the purpose of providing such background information as is necessary to make the description of Shitayama-cho intelligible. The reader might wonder, for instance, why he is told so much about the almost non-existent conflict between mothers and daughters-in-law in Shitayama-cho if he were not told something about the traditional Japanese family. Such background information has a special importance in those parts of the book concerned with social change.

It is in its concern with social change that this book does attempt to go beyond simple ethnographic description. If does not try to confirm or to falsify any general theory of social change. It was, however, written, and the data were collected, within the framework of a loose theoretical picture of the sort of development which Japanese society has been undergoing over the last three-quarters of a century. At one end of this ‘ideal’ scale of development was a society based on peasant agriculture and domestic craft production, rigidly stratified and with only rudimentary means of central political control, a society in which traditional values and views of the world were rarely questioned, in which hereditary status was overwhelmingly important in defining the limits of a man’s permitted behaviour and in which a man’s relations with his kin and with his immediate neighbours made up almost the whole range of his life. At the other end of this scale of development lies an open competitive society in which the family plays no part in the economic productive activities of large sections of the population, in which codified law is a major element in social control and educational institutions outside the family play a major part in the training of new members of the society, in which a wide range of a man’s daily contacts are of an impersonal kind, and in which a rising standard of material well-being produces a constantly changing set of material values and has created an expectation of continuing change and continuing progress.

From community to association, from status to contract, mechanical to organic solidarity; the basic notions are familiar. In filling out the concrete detail of these schematized types of society the ‘traditional’ end offers no difficulty. The comparatively good documentation of the society of the Tokugawa period, supplemented by observation of contemporary rural areas, provides an adequate picture of the base-line from which Japan’s recent development began. My own picture of the other end of the scale—the goal in the direction of which Japanese society might be thought to be moving—was more vague and amorphous. It may be characterized as ‘a society which differs from none of the Western industrial societies more than they differ from each other’. Inevitably, since England is the one of these societies which I know best, my picture of this end of the scale tended to be an abstraction of English social structure as I know it.

This assumption that the course of development was to make Japanese society in more and more respects like English society did not spring from a belief that the latter embodied the highest ideals of human progress. It rested, rather, on assumptions concerning the motive forces of changes in Japan in recent decades. These can be broadly classified under three heads.

(a) The chains of cause and effect set up by changes in economic organization.

(b) Changes in formal institutions (of law, government, education, etc.) only in part the result of economic changes and to a large extent accomplished by borrowing social techniques from abroad.

(c) Changes in attitudes which, though in part the direct consequence of the other two, are in part the result of contact with the ideas of foreign countries, percolated through an intellectual elite to increasingly wide strata of the population.

Each of these could be expected to have the effect of making Japan more and more like Western societies; the last two obviously since the West was the origin of the techniques and ideas, the first if one accepts as true the general notion that many of the common features of Western societies—contract relations, bourgeois democracy, the conjugal multilineal family and so on—are the inevitable concomitants of industrialization, ‘functional prerequisites’ for an industrial society in the East as much as in the West.

According to this picture, then, Japan started moving from the ‘traditional’ towards the ‘modern’ pole some three-quarters of a century ago, propelled by these three basic factors. Japanese urban society, it might be thought, had already moved a considerable way towards the ‘modern’ end.

Such a model has a limited use in this sort of study. It was not possible to observe social change as such during the six months of the study. All that could be hoped for was to document Shitayama- cho within the context of this model, to try to show, by explicit comparisons with traditional Japanese society and with other industrial societies (almost exclusively England) whereabouts on this hypothetical scale it stood, and to attempt, where possible, to test the validity of the model itself and the assumptions on which it rested; to answer, that is, such questions as: Is it impossible for traditional family patterns to survive in an industrial society? (i.e. Are there signs of strain where they do?) or: Is urban life in an industrial society inimical to the tightly knit form of local community life which existed in Japanese rural areas and to a lesser extent in urban areas of the Tokugawa period?

Another related problem within this general framework concerned the inter-relations, at the level of attitudes and ideas, between changes in different spheres of life: a question posed in the form: Are the observable differences in outlook between individuals in Shitayama- cho capable of being characterized as ‘generally traditional’ and ‘generally modern’ or ‘progressive’? Are the individuals who manifest attitudes towards their employer which conform to what one would expect at the ‘modern’ end of the scale likely also to manifest ‘modern’ attitudes to their wives?

Certain sections of the book (in particular those on old age and the relations between parents and children) are also concerned with the ‘problems’ of change as they are experienced by the Japanese themselves: overt problems, that is to say, of conflict and adjustment which are recognized as demanding solution.

The topics selected for discussion have, then, been chosen primarily in the light of their relevance to these various aspects of social change. But this was not the sole criterion used. An exclusive preoccupation with applying to Shitayama-cho the yardstick of ‘A society which differs from none of the Western industrial societies more than they differ from each other’ would run the danger of ignoring the particular differentia of Japanese society, in particular those characteristics of outlook and way of life, more amenable to a ‘cultural’ than to a ‘structural’ approach and as easily portrayed in a novel as in the form of a scientific treatise, which make a Frenchman different from an Englishman and a Japanese different from both.

This book does attempt, then, if not to give an analysis of Japanese ‘national character’, at least to convey something of the flavour, the ‘essential Japaneseness’ of life in Tokyo. As a guide to observation and enquiry a list was first drawn up of ‘What…?’ and ‘How …?’ questions which the data collected should try to answer. These questions were of diverse origin. Apart from those which arose from the problems of change discussed above, some took the form ‘Is it true that…?’ followed by an assertion about the Japanese made by such writers as Ruth Benedict, some were the result of reading similar studies of other societies and attempting to formulate explicitly the questions about the community studied which their works were intended to answer (in particular, the Lynds’ Middle town was a fruitful source, many echoes of which will be found in this book). Others concerned features of Japanese life which had struck me as ‘significant’ or ‘interesting’.

The question of what is likely to strike a foreign observer as ‘significant’ or ‘interesting’ is worth pursuing since it points up the inherent relativity of all ethnographic description. If a well-trained anthropologist says ‘the Japanese are indulgent to their children’, this statement may be interpreted: ‘if all studied peoples are ranged on a continuum with respect to the degree of indulgence they show their children the Japanese will be found at the indulgent end’. A good anthropologist, of course, would rarely make such unqualified general statements without concrete examples of the behaviour of Japanese parents to their children. But, nevertheless, if parental indulgence is selected for comment and illustration the reason is likely to be that it is felt in some way to differentiate Japanese from other cultures.

In this case, having only a limited knowledge of other societies, the yardstick by which I selected topics as ‘characteristic’ or ‘interesting’ was chiefly difference from what I knew of my own. When I say ‘the Japanese are indulgent to their children’, it means ‘more indulgent than English parents’. Such general statements will, of course, as far as possible be avoided in favour of concrete illustrations, but it will be as well to remember that it is this criterion of difference from my own society which makes me choose to comment on the Japanese parent’s indulgence to his children and not on the fact that Japanese mothers are proud of their babies, to say something about the social status of the priest and omit to mention that the doctor is accorded greater social prestige than a road-sweeper, to discuss the disposition of sleeping quarters within the family but not to point out that the Japanese sleep in a horizontal position. As a reminder of this relativity and the limitations it involves, it was thought best to make such lurking comparisons explicit. This runs the risk of arousing what the author of a book with intentions similar to this calls, in explaining his reason for avoiding the odium of comparisons, ‘feelings of unfriendly criticism and Pharasaical self-satisfaction’.¹ But in the nature of the case this would seem unavoidable.

A warning should be entered concerning Section II which describes the contemporary material setting for the attitudes and behaviour discussed in the rest of the book. Since 1951, when this study was made, the increased tempo of industrial expansion has brought Japan well beyond the phase of post-war reconstruction. According to the Government’s Economic Survey, the consumption level of the average urban family for the period October 1956-April 1957 stood at 156% of the 1951 figure. Section II should not, therefore, be read as an up-to-date account of present-day levels of living, though there has probably been less change in the attitudes and standards of consumption which are there discussed. In the field of social security, considered in Chapter 6, there has been some increase in assistance grants and an expansion of war pension schemes, but no major change in other areas of the state security system.

Finally, a word about the interpretation of the results of formal interviews. (Details concerning the schedules used, sampling and analysis, etc., are to be found in Appendix I.) Japan at the time of the survey was occupied by a reforming, ‘democratizing’, army. The reader may well be led to wonder how far replies to interview questions, in particular those touching on political matters, were distorted by the fact that those interviewed had a shrewd understanding of the prejudices of foreigners and simulated opinions which they did not hold in order to give the answer which they thought ‘correct’ from the foreigner’s standpoint.

Subjective impressions that this was not often the case are, perhaps, of little value, but certain objective facts are relevant. In the first place the interviews were mostly carried out by Japanese students, and any distortion there was is as likely to have been in deference to their opinions as to mine. This may still give the results a somewhat false ‘progressive’ bias. Secondly, in so far as the respondents were, during the interviews, aware of myself as the prime mover, the prejudices imputed to me would not necessarily have been linked with the post-war reforms and the propaganda of democracy. America loomed so large in the closing stages of the war and in the occupation that Britain was largely forgotten. Moreover, in the minds of many people, particularly the older ones, Britain is still pictured in colours which belong to the days of the Anglo-Japanese alliance—the other island Empire, the friendly power of the West which shares with Japan many noble features such as respect for tradition and monarchy, and a code of restrained etiquette which has something in common with the ‘way of the warrior’. It should not necessarily be supposed, therefore, that everyone would assume that the ‘correct’ line with me would be to show enthusiasm for all that had been done by the Occupation. Thirdly, some of the topics selected for investigation in Shitayama-cho have also been investigated by Japanese research institutes and sociologists. Their results (which are sometimes quoted in the text) do not show any great difference in the balance of opinions from those obtained in Shitayama-cho.

It should be emphasized, however, that these arguments are intended to suggest only that a special element of deliberate distortion of opinion due to the political situation at the time is not very probable. This is not to claim that the opinions elicited in interviews represent deep and unshakeable convictions. All the drawbacks inherent in opinion surveys anywhere were present in this case, the more so since little use was made in these interviews of devices for measuring the intensity or the consistency of opinions. It will be apparent, however, that in this book my concern has been less with the measurement of opinion as an end in itself, as with enumerating the differences of opinion which exist, with showing the attitudinal and structural backgrounds of different opinions, and, where possible, with speculating on the directions of change.

NOTE: Where statistical tests of association are used, the value of p (the probability that the association is due entirely to chance) is indicated in a footnote. Chi square was generally used, but in some cases the more approximate method of the standard deviation of the difference. Where the latter method was used, this has been indicated in brackets—as (s.d. of d.).

In the text, the following conventional phrases have been adopted:

A ‘noticeable’ difference or association: when 05 < p < -2, i.e. the chances of the result being due to sampling error lie between one in five and one in twenty. This is used when it is thought likely that a real difference is obscured by the small size of the sample.

A ‘significant’ difference or association: when -01 < p < -05, i.e. the the result could occur by chance more frequently than once in a hundred, but less frequently than once in twenty times.

A ‘very (or highly) significant’ difference or association: when p < 01, i.e. the result would occur by chance less than once in a hundred times.

The reference numbers for notes which contain only source citations or figures for independence values are italicized in the text.

2

Shitayama-cho

THE popular names for the major districts of large cities—East End, West End, South-side, the Left Bank—are not always capable of precise territorial definition. This is understandable since these names stand, more than anything, as symbols of different ways of life. Modern Tokyo, for the urban ecologist, divides satisfactorily into the concentric zones he seeks to find,² but as far as the ordinary inhabitant of Tokyo is concerned his city is divisible into two parts—Shitamachi, the ‘down-town’ districts, and Yamanote, the ‘hill-side’. Of the various characteristics by which they are supposed to be distinguished from each other, we may briefly list a few.

1. First, the Shitamachi districts were, in origin, the districts inhabited by the non-samurai merchant and artisan families during the Tokugawa period. Yamanote districts were those in which were to be found the town mansions of the feudal nobility and the houses and barracks of the lesser ranks of the samurai class.

2. Geographically, the samurai districts were found in the rather more airy and salubrious higher ground which begins some way inland from the coast of Tokyo bay. The merchants and artisans were concentrated on the alluvial plain between this higher ground and the sea, a strip of land beginning as a narrow beach at Shinagawa in the south of the city, and widening out into a coastal plain three or four miles wide to the north-east. There were some commoners’ districts, however, scattered among the samurai areas.

3. As a direct consequence of their origins, the typical Shitamachi man is still thought of as a merchant or an independent craftsman, perhaps a tailor or a restaurant-owner, a carpenter or the owner of a small workshop employing one or two workers. The typical Yamanote man, on the other hand, gets his living from the modern tertiary industries; he is the professional man, the official, the business executive, the sales assistant in a departmental store, the clerical worker in one of Tokyo’s large offices.

4. There are differences in language too. The language of the old Yamanote districts has received the official cachet as standard Japanese. The Shitamachi districts preserve elements of the old Edo dialect, and even when a Shitamachi man speaks standard Japanese, slight deviations from the received pronunciation are supposed to be noticeable—hi becomes shi and there is a tendency to double consonants.

5. Then there are traditional differences in temperament between the Shitamachi man and the Yamanote man. The first is hot-tempered, but warm-hearted, uninhibited in his enjoyment of sensual pleasures, extravagant and with no thought for the morrow. The Yamanote man is more prudent, more rational, inhibited in his enjoyments and in his friendships by the demands of a bourgeois respectability.

6. There are numerous other associated cultural differences. The wide-open, no-secrets, communal life of the Shitamachi family contrasts with the greater individualism and privacy of the Yamanote family. The close relations between neighbours and tremendous enthusiasm in the local celebration of festivities in Shitamachi districts contrasts with neighbourly diffidence and half-hearted participation in shrine festivals in Yamanote. Indeed, whereas the Shitamachi family typically lives in a crowded street in a densely populated area, the Yamanote family divides itself from its neighbours with a garden and a hedge. The Shitamachi taste is largely for traditional Japanese entertainments, the kabuki theatre, the sumoo wrestling, traditional sentimental music, the geisha houses; whereas the Yamanote man is more attracted by things Western, orchestral music, ‘modern’ dramas, foreign films, ‘social’ (i.e. ball-room) dancing, together with, in the more traditional Yamanote families, a taste for the more ‘refined’ elements of the indigenous culture—the Noo mime-drama, the tea ceremony, the music of the koto lute rather than the popular shamisen banjo. Shitamachi women are more likely to wear Japanese dress, and when they do they have a distinctive way of wearing it—the kimono is cut lower to disclose more of the nape of the neck (traditionally an erotic zone) and the obi waist-band is worn lower down on the hips.

It is tempting to sum all this up as lower middle class and below, versus lower middle class and above. But such categorizations can be very misleading. At least one needs the qualifications which distinguish not only the old from the new upper middle class as in England, but also the old from the new working class, the old from the new lower middle class. For here one is dealing with a society which, until three-quarters of a century ago, had an estate system whose main lines of cleavage did not entirely correspond with gradations in economic status (many of the ‘inferior’ townsmen were far richer than many of the ‘superior’ samurai), where modern industry has only partly displaced more traditional forms of production, and where ‘Japaneseness’, as opposed to ‘Western-ness’, is still a criterion of some importance for dividing men from their fellows and one which does not necessarily follow economic status lines.

At any rate, the above list indicates some of the general characteristics which the names Shitamachi and Yamanote suggest to Tokyo Japanese. The geographical areas with which they associate them are still respectively the low-lying and the higher areas within the boundaries of the old city of Edo (as Tokyo was called in Tokugawa times). Whether the new post-Meiji³ industrial and workingclass areas to the north-east and south of Tokyo would be called Shitamachi is doubtful. It is more common, however, to include in Yamanote the newer residential areas, both the predominantly whitecollar suburbs lying on either side of the central railway line running approximately due west out of Tokyo, and the newer professional and business class areas in the south-west.

Many changes taking place within the old city boundaries have also had the effect of blurring these distinctions. The centre of the old Shitamachi has now become the governmental and financial centre; an area filled with office blocks, banks and ministry buildings, spreading over into three boroughs⁴ which have a day population between two and three times their night population (for the centre alone the ratio is, of course, much higher). Then there has been a tendency for the more successful of Shitamachi merchants and craftsmen, whose business has expanded to the point where the separation of home from workshop becomes possible, to move out to the Yamanote districts and commute daily; for, although the ‘real Edokko’ like the ‘real Cockney’ is intensely proud of his own culture, his defiant rejection of the Yamanote belief in Yamanote cultural superiority does not always carry absolute conviction. This migration was considerably accelerated by the great earthquake and fire of 1923 and again by the bombing of 1945, both of which destroyed large sections of Shitamachi Tokyo.⁵

Thus there are many districts within the old city boundaries, even, which cannot be readily assigned to the Shitamachi or to the Yamanote category. Both these concepts are a composite of a number of variables, not all of them interdependent and each of them representing a continuum, so that although one can find districts which fairly fit the stereotypes, there are many others which may be more like Shitamachi in one respect, more like Yamanote in another, and halfway in between in yet another respect.

The borough to which Shitayama-cho belonged was clearly Shitamachi; to give one numerical indication of its general character, in 1940 it had the highest proportion of manufacturing enterprises employing fewer than five workers’ (three-quarters of them without any electric power) of any borough in Tokyo—one for every 33 of the population.⁶ Shitayama-cho, however, which lies on the edge of the borough, is one of the betwixt and between wards; it could hardly be called Yamanote, but it is not quite Shitamachi. Houses are close- packed around narrow streets, there is less privacy in family life and more solidarity in communal ward activities than one could expect in Yamanote districts; on the other hand, most of the inhabitants are wage and salary earners rather than independent shopkeepers and craftsmen, and the majority do not come from old Edo families. The composite name Shitayama-cho, which is not the ward’s real name, will stand as a reminder that it represents, in many ways, a mingling of the two strains in Tokyo culture.

Geographically, Shitayama-cho stands on the dividing line between the old Shitamachi and the old Yamanote. It is in the valley of a small river, now piped underground, which makes a narrow indentation into the line of the higher ground. Old maps of the Tokugawa period show it as divided into four or five plots, the largest of which contained the town residence of a minor feudal baron, the others the houses of lesser Tokugawa vassals. A few hundred yards away from these samurai mansions were wards inhabited by commoners some of whose descendants still live there today.

At the Meiji restoration, the original residents were confirmed in their ownership of the land, but, with the commutation of feudal dues and the frequent failures of ex-samurai in their attempts to find some commercial solution to the problem of achieving a modus vivendi with a bewildering new world, the land changed hands rapidly. By the end of the century a large proportion of it had become the property of another ex-feudal-baron family which rented it out in— at first fairly large-unit—building lots. The population grew steadily.⁷

In the nineteenth century the residents seem to have been mostly well-to-do; the houses large enough to have been called ‘mansions’ (yashiki). The greengrocer remembers among the neighbours of his childhood about 1900, a Count, the president of a small bank, a retired army surgeon, the head of a private suburban railway and a large-scale labour contractor who built the longest tunnel in Japan. At that time the neighbouring hill-side was still dotted with fields of cultivated land—the district had its own ‘famous local product’, a special sort of ginger which was reputed to grow here better than anywhere else. There was a thatcher living in the ward; the river still ran beside the streets and was trapped off into fish-ponds which supported a flourishing gold-fish breeding industry. The main road from the centre of the city to some of the famous beauty spots towards the north then ran along one side of the ward and this road was lined with tea-houses and restaurants which aimed to catch such moonviewing, plum-blossom viewing and cherry-blossom viewing traffic. ‘The day we sold ten barrels of tangerines to people going up to the Chrysanthemum Festival’ is still a living legend in the greengrocer’s family.

At about the time of the first world war the trams came past the ward and took the main road elsewhere—along the line of the former river, now piped underground. Then with the big expansion of industry and the growth in the population and size of Tokyo which came with the wartime boom, Shitayama-cho began somewhat to change its residential character. The first batch of Meiji houses had reached the end of their normal life-span. They were replaced by smaller ones. The land was parcelled into smaller lots and gradually sold off as the aristocratic landlord’s fortunes declined. Some speculative builders came in and built rows of two-storey houses, others built apaato—apartment blocks containing twenty to thirty one- room units. Hotels were built, a bath-house, two small factories. Only two of the old ‘mansions’ remain and one has been turned into a hotel. The residents, as they became more numerous, tended to come from lower down the social scale.

Not unimpeachable, but probably not very inaccurate, figures for the population of the ward are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Population of Shitayama-cho

Shitayama-cho escaped both the earthquake fire of 1923 and the fire raids of 1945, but bombing and the housing shortage has brought over-crowding here as it has to every other part of Tokyo. Housing will be considered separately later on; here it will suffice to note that there would appear to have been little increase in the number of dwellings since 1930, only in the number of people inhabiting them. Apart from those families—nearly a quarter of the total—who live in one-room apaato, many other families share houses, there are (still excluding the apaato-dwellers) five households for every four dwellings, and the narrowness of the streets, together with the lack of gardens adds to the general sense of congestion.⁹

Some houses are well-proportioned, neat and trim. The tiled roof with its ornamental edge-tiles; the lower-floor eaves; the porch with its wooden gable and sliding doors of opaque glass and criss-cross wooden frame; the wide windows with at night their wooden-board shutters and by day their sliding panels of glass or white paper—all these can make an attractive composition, especially when they are set off by the shrubbery of a small garden spilling over the top of a six-foot wooden fence with a simple but interesting panel design and, as its central feature, an ornamental arched gateway made of the finest timber. But such ‘gated’ houses are rare (indeed, only 10 houses in Shitayama-cho have gardens bigger than 40 square yards, and 65% of the houses have no gardens at all). Most houses abut directly on to the narrow lanes. Nor are all made of wood of the quality which (always unpainted) mellows to a ripe brown without cracking or splitting; some are obviously patched, a few with corrugated iron; and some, with rotting boards hanging loose, are in obvious need of patching. A few tiles askew on the roof, the paper of the windows or internal partitions browned by the sun and jaggedly holed by children’s fingers, show that keeping a Japanese house neat and attractive in appearance is something which requires a continuous expenditure of time and money.

But dilapidation as such is only a minor contributory factor to the general immediate impression of untidiness and disorder which a street in Shitayama-cho presents. Except for a few solid rows of terrace houses, building has been unplanned, and houses which have been fitted like jigsaw pieces into every viable space present themselves to the lanes at odd angles and in higgledy-piggledy order. There is a mass of overhead wiring for telephones and electricity; in the absence of gardens, washing is hung on rows of bamboo poles on special platforms which jut out at first floor level indiscriminately at the front or the back of the house. On fine days the bedding—thick eiderdowns, quilts and nightshirts—is hung from upper windows to air; cooking pots and pieces of furniture are pushed out on to the narrow upper floor verandahs from rooms where living space is insufficient. One house may have a low miniature chicken-run built in front of it in the three-foot width between the outer wall and the concrete paving slabs down the centre of the lane, while on the other side a grocer, strategically placed on a corner, further encroaches on the right-of-way with a wall of stacked crates and barrels along the whole side of his shop. Two of the roads were wide enough for motorcars, but they were unmetalled, a source of choking dust in the dry and windy spring and a hazard of puddles in the wet early summer. The narrow lanes had a row of paving stones down the centre for rainy weather, and gutter ditches on either side, theoretically covered with boarding which in many places was rotting away or completely missing. One of these lanes was just wide enough for a car, but rarely used, except for an occasional midnight taxi fetching clients from the restaurant in the middle of the ward who were too drunk, or too important, to walk to the main road.

Shitayama-cho may not present a very attractive exterior, and the sense of style and colour harmony for which the Japanese are justly famed may not be immediately visible, but Shitayama-cho was made to be lived in and not to be looked at. Its streets are lively and friendly places. In sunny weather they become playgrounds for groups of young children—boys with shaved or close-cropped heads, girls with doll-like fringes who sit outside their homes on rush mats (wooden clogs, as tabooed on outdoor mats as on the indoor ones, neatly lined up at the edge) banging merrily with a hammer at pieces of wood, making mud pies, entertaining with broken pieces of china on soap boxes, blowing bubbles, queueing for their turn on a lucky child’s tricycle. After school hours they are joined by groups of older children. Girls skipping or playing hop-scotch, ball-bouncing to interminable songs with a younger brother or sister nodding drowsily on their backs. Boys wrestling, poring over comics, huddled into conspiratorial groups, playing games of snap with tremendous gusto and noise. There is generally, too, a group of their mothers passing the time of the day as they look benevolently on and prepare to mediate in quarrels. With their hair permanently waved or drawn into a bun at the back and clogs on their feet (nothing else could be slipped on and off so easily every time they enter and leave the house), a white long-sleeved apron obscures the difference between those (younger ones) who wear skirt and blouse, and those (older ones) who wear kimono. One of them, perhaps, standing as she talks slightly bent forward to balance the weight of a three-year-old tied astraddle her back, is on her way to the bath-house, a fact proclaimed by the metal bowl she carries in hands clasped under the baby’s buttocks and by the washable rubber elephant with which he hammers abstractedly at the nape of her neck.

Sometimes there is a clatter of drums and the sound of a flute and the crowds in the lane are suddenly augmented by more white- aproned women and excited children flocking to see the ‘tinkle-bang merchant’—the advertising man, dressed up as a samurai of the Tokugawa period with his son as flautist-cum-clown. Heavily made up, his hair tied in a well-greased top-knot, a swaggering scabbard at his side (and police permit in pocket with map showing proposed itinerary duly appended), he stops every fifty yards to address his hearers on the merits of the fishmonger’s fish, or perhaps, if he is commissioned by the Anti-crime Association that day, on the dangers of leaving one’s house unattended; speaking all the time in the old literary style which nowadays is heard elsewhere only on the stage of the kabuki theatre. Almost every day after school-time another drum announces the arrival of the ‘paper-theatre man’. Children gather around his bicycle. A brisk trade in boiled sweets and lollipops ensues. Then he unfolds a wooden frame-work attached to the carrier and recounts to a breathless audience that day’s instalment of his interminable serial story, illustrated with pictures which he shows them one by one. Umbrella-menders and shoe-menders come calling their business round the ward, spread a mat on the ground in a shady spot in one of the lanes and sit with their tools awaiting customers. Early in the morning, at any time after half-past six, one can hear the plaintive horn of the bean-curd seller, or the cry of the nattoo man selling a sticky substance made from fermented beans, favourite breakfast delicacies which, especially in the hot summer, are best eaten fresh. The fishmonger’s barrow, the flower-seller’s cart, sellers of children’s toys and doll-shaped sweets, knife-sharpeners, junk men come along these narrow streets one after the other in a profusion symptomatic of post-war unemployment. Each one provides an excuse for some gregariously inclined housewife to join a gossiping group in the lane.

But despite the general appearance of neighbourly friendliness, and despite the general sameness of everyday dress and of the houses they inhabited (except for a few secluded ones), Shitayama-cho contained a fairly heterogeneous population; heterogeneous in origin, in occupation, in educational background and in way of life. Before going on, in later chapters, to consider differences between individuals and families, it may be useful to give some general idea of the composition of Shitayama-cho’s population and to ‘place’ it by some comparative figures in the urban Japanese population and in the population of Tokyo as a whole.

Table 2: Birthplace* by Sex, Shitayama-cho (1951) and Tokyo Borough Areas (1950)

Table 3: Years of Schooling completed by Persons 25 years old and over, by Sex. Shitayama-cho (1951), Tokyo Borough Areas and All Japan (1950)

* Bureau of Statistics, Office of the Prime Minister, Population Census of 1950t vol. Ill, pt. 1 (10% sample), p. 109.

t Ibid., vol. VII, pt. 13, p. 154.

Table 4: Percentage of Population aged 16-24 attending School, by Sex, Shitayama-cho (1951), Tokyo Urban Areas, All Urban Areas, and All Japan (1950)

Table 5: Population by Age and Sex, Shitayama-cho; 1951, Tokyo, All Boroughs; Japan All Urban and All Rural Areas (1950)

♦ Bureau of Statistics, Office of the Prime Minister, Population Census of1950, vol. VII, pt. 13, p. 46.

t Ibid,, vol. Ill, pt. 1, pp. 30-1.

It will be seen from Table 2 that migrants from areas outside Tokyo are as common in the Shitayama-cho population as in the population of Tokyo as a whole, and significantly more common in the case of women, a feature which may be due to a higher proportion of domestic and hotel servants (mostly country-born) among the younger age-groups in Shitayama-cho than in the Tokyo population as a whole. The proportion born in Shitayama-cho itself is small, it consists mostly of children.

Average household size in Shitayama-cho (3-8) is smaller than in Tokyo borough areas as a whole (4-2), which is in turn smaller than in all urban areas of Japan (4-5; for rural areas the corresponding figure is 5-3).¹⁰ Table 6 shows what this means in terms of household composition. The slightly smaller proportion of female ‘spouse of children and grandchildren’, if not due to sampling error, would indicate that the urban trend away from the three-generation family

DIAGRAM 1—Population by age and sex (10 year age-groups)

Table 6: Population in Private Households (excluding single-person households) by Relationship to Househead and Sex, Shitayama-cho (1951), Japan, All Urban and All Rural Areas (1950)

* Bureau of Statistics, Office of the Prime Minister, Population Census of 1950y vol. Ill, pt. 1, p. 125.

is carried further in Shitayama-cho than in urban areas as a whole. There is also a considerable excess (as compared with other urban areas) in the number of unrelated lodgers, half of whom are in fact employees of the family with which they live. The most conspicuous difference lies in the smaller number of ‘children and grandchildren’, and as the figures for age structure show (Table 5 and Diagram 1) this represents not only the result of increasing atomization of the family (e.g. a married man of 30 who might still be a ‘child of househead’ in a rural household, would be himself a househead in an urban area) but also some real difference in fertility. The population is somewhat older; all the male age-groups below 30 are smaller and all over 30 are larger than in Tokyo borough areas as a whole; for women, the dividing line is 25. The contraction of the 10-19 age- group in urban areas, which is probably largely ascribable to the decline in the urban birth-rate in the nineteen-thirties, is carried further in Shitayama-cho. On the other hand, the big expansion of the 20-29 age-group in Tokyo as a whole, due to the large number of students and young unmarried workers from rural areas, is less noticeable in Shitayama-cho, being overshadowed by the bigger concentrations in the 30-49 age-groups. Some of the peculiarities in Shitayama-cho age structure can be explained by the relatively high proportion of households living in one-room apartment houses, a type of housing which tends to attract younger couples at the beginning of their married career.

The figures for occupational distribution (Table 7) and for education (Tables 3-4) illustrate the point made earlier concerning the relative heterogeneity of the Shitayama-cho population. The reasons for this and its significance as a social phenomenon will be considered in later chapters dealing with neighbour relations; here we are concerned only with the extent to which it affects the representativeness of Shitayama-cho as a segment of the Tokyo population. The differences between Shitayama-cho on the one hand, and Tokyo borough areas and other urban areas on the other, are all in the same direction; Shitayama-cho contains a bigger proportion in the higher-prestige-carrying occupations, and its population is better educated. There is a smaller proportion of industrial workers and a correspondingly higher proportion of managerial, clerical, and sales, service and transport workers (though not of professional workers). The proportion of self-employed particularly among sales and service workers is considerably greater than for all urban areas, and, although the corresponding detailed figures are not available, considerably greater also than for Tokyo borough areas where the total proportion of self-employed workers is smaller than for urban areas as a whole.¹¹

An interesting feature of the figures for years of schooling and for the proportions attending high school and university, is that, whereas Shitayama-cho men are only slightly better educated than the Tokyo average, their wives have a somewhat greater educational superiority, and the proportion sending their children to high school and university is noticeably higher. This suggests that Shitayama-cho contains a higher than average proportion of the upwardly mobile, men who have ‘got on’ via other routes than the educational ladder, have married ‘above’ them and are now able to give their children a better education than they had themselves.

To sum up this brief survey of the demographic characteristics of Shitayama-cho, it may give a better perspective to the contents of later chapters to remember that the ‘average’ citizen lives in a slightly more ‘urban’ type of household than the ‘average’ Tokyo citizen, is slightly better educated and in a slightly more prestigecarrying occupation. In what follows, however, statements about the ‘average’ Shitayama-cho inhabitant will as far as possible give place to more concrete descriptions of individual cases and the range of variability.

Table 7: Occupation of Employed Men, Shitayama-cho (1951) Tokyo Borough Areas and Japan, All Urban Areas (1950)*

♦ The classification used is that of the Bureau of Statistics as contained in the report of the 1950 Census (major occupational groups, with some categories combined). See Bureau of Statistics, Office of the Prime Minister, Population Census of 1950, vol. iii, pt. 2.

t Bureau of Statistics, op. cit., vol. vii, pt. 13, p. 94.

+ Bureau of Statistics, op. cit., vol. iii, pt. 2, pp. 80-90 and 139.

§ Owing to retirement, illness or unemployment. Figures in this column refer, therefore, to former or usual employment.

II For Shitayama-cho, all self-employed workers with five or more employees were included among the self-employed workers in the Managers and Officials category. All self-employed workers with fewer than five employees were included among the self-employed workers of the Professional and Technical, Sales Service and Transport, or Craftsmen and Production Process Workers categories. The exact criterion used by the Census authorities to discriminate Managers and Officials from (say) Craftsmen and Production Process Workers who are also employers of labour is not clear, particularly since a small number of Managers and Officials are classified as ‘Self-employed workers without paid employees* (vol. iii, pt. 2, p. 139). It is possible that the difference in the size of the selfemployed managerial group, as between Shitayama-cho and all Japanese urban Areas (5 0% as opposed to 10%) in part depends on difference in the criteria used.

Section II

LEVELS AND STANDARDS OF LIVING

1 This includes, as well as the Tokyo borough areas, the three cities of Tokyo Prefecture, Tachikawa, Musashino and Hachiooji (Bureau of Statistics, Office of the Prime Minister, Population Census of 1950, vol. VII, pt. 13, p. 21).

t Bureau of Statistics, op. cit., vol. Ill, pt. 1 (10% sample), p. 105. Urban areas are those under a city or metropolitan administration. City administrations were in principle established where (a) there is a population concentration of more than 30,000 inhabitants, (b) of which 60% or more are concentrated in a central nucleus, and (c) of which 60% or more get their living from commerce and industry (Isomura Eiichi, Toshi Shakaigaku, 1953, p. 7).

3

Some Sketches

BEFORE coming to averages and percentages, it may be useful to give first a number of individual portraits of the material lives of some Shitayama-cho families.

O is a policeman, 39 years old, the son of a carpenter. He went to a secondary technical school, but for reasons of family poverty had to leave before completing the course. He has spent a large part of his adult life in the army, and married during the war. His first son was born in 1944. Soon afterwards his wife was bombed out of their house in Tokyo and returned to her home in the country. When he was demobilized and rejoined the police he brought his wife and child to live in their present one-room apartment. Since then two more children have been born.

The five of them have one ‘four-and-a-half-mat’ room, that is, a room about nine feet square with one large recessed cupboard to contain the bedding, which is rolled up and stored away in the daytime. The tatami mats which cover the floor of the room—made of an inch and a half’s thickness of rice straw, covered with a woven rush of superior quality and hemmed with cloth—are yellowed and frayed and bear the distinctive musty odour of mats which should long ago have been renewed. Apart from a table, the only other furniture consists of two large chests-of-drawers and cupboards. These contain all the family possessions except the cooking pots and utensils which stand outside the sliding door, making narrower the already narrow corridor from which half a dozen other similar one- roomed flats open off. On the top of one of these chests is a wireless. There is one gas ring on which Mrs. O cooks for the whole family.

Cooking means primarily preparing the rice. The O family can rarely afford meat, but they have fish four or five times a week, though generally the least expensive salted salmon. The rest of the time their ‘secondary food’—as everything except the rice, the ‘primary food’, is called—consists of vegetables, fresh or pickled. Every day Mr. O takes some of this ‘secondary food’ in a tin for his lunch. His ‘primary food’ comes from a special ration cooked at the 29 police station, rice for half the month and a type of vermicelli made from buckwheat for the other-half.

One sink with a single cold water tap, and one lavatory are shared with three other families. The latter is connected with the sewer and, although without a flushing mechanism, is so arranged that the waste from the sink regularly flushes it out. There are no baths, but Mrs. O takes the children to the bath-house every other day and Mr. O goes regularly once a week. Laundry is difficult, and the tiny drying platform at the end of the corridor where the washing has to be strung on rows of bamboo poles, is quite inadequate. Nevertheless, the eldest boy is always sent to school in clean, though unironed clothes. Mrs. O would like to be able to afford an electric iron, but she is even more envious of those of her neighbours who own a sewing machine. One widow next door makes her living as a dress-maker and will make things cheaply for close neighbours.

It is in winter that the discomforts and inadequacies of a one- roomed apartment are most deeply felt. A brazier burning charcoal or anthracite briquettes produces fumes but probably less heat than five human bodies. In the dark and cold evenings the children have to be indoors long before their energies are exhausted. At seven, four and three, respectively, they do not remain still and silent for long together, and with three children on nine square yards one is bound to develop a certain insensitivity to their noise. Constant nagging and interference in their tempestuous games would be emotionally wearing as well as ineffective. An embarrassing effect of this habitual tolerance, however, is that when a visitor comes it is very difficult to prevent the children from climbing all over him. But, eventually, one after another the children will curl up on the floor asleep. Mrs. O will pull out an under-mattress from the cupboard, lift them bodily on to it, then, pulling the top clothes from their inert bodies, cover them with a thick coverlet.

Meanwhile, Mr. O has been entertaining his visitor by showing his small collection of maps of the old Edo, as Tokyo used to be called, and of books containing the short satirical poems of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the collection of which is his hobby and he hopes may one day be his profession, for it is his chief ambition in life to own a bookshop. His wife, who does not consider herself as included in the conversation except when specifically addressed has, in the intervals of tea-making and putting the children to bed, been sitting under the forty-watt bulb embroidering red flower patterns on bright blue socks which an enterprising Tokyo manufacturer exports to America. She has, in fact, been doing this for most of the day. By this means she is able to earn the few shillings a week which bring up their family income to about £11 a month.¹²

Ten shillings of this goes on rent, and another 15s. or so on water, gas, electricity and charcoal. Eight or nine shillings are given to the children for sweets, and apart from about 15s. for newspapers, cigarettes, and a monthly visit to the cinema, most of the rest goes on food, with what can be spared left over for clothes. This leaves no margin for saving, but twice a year, at New Year and Midsummer, there are regular bonuses of £10 to £15, a half of which they spend immediately on necessities such as clothes. The other half they save in the hope of one day having a house of their own.

A house of their own is the one dominant and recurrent ambition of their lives. They have some hopes of a police house, and they apply for a Tokyo municipality flat every time the lottery is reopened. So far they have failed in five draws. After the sixth failure they will be entitled to a special ticket and their chances will be increased in the next draw from something like a hundred to one to something nearer forty to one. They think they have a good chance of getting one of these flats within three years.

Mrs. A is a widow of 62. She was born of a farming family on the outskirts of Tokyo, married at the age of 22 and widowed some fifteen years later. Her husband had owned a small retail business not far from Shitayama-cho, but when he became ill they were forced to sell it and move into their present house, then newly built, thirty- five years ago. Her husband left her with three children. The eldest died, but by dint of economy, her own exertions and family help she has managed to send both her son and her remaining daughter to the secondary school. They are now 31 and 27 respectively, both still unmarried and both working as clerks in the borough office.

Thirty-five years is not much less than the average life of a Japanese town house, and theirs shows some signs of age in uneven floors and darkened woodwork which adds to the dimness of rooms, the small opaque glass windows of which look immediately on to the side of another house.

It is a small single-storey house. Apart from a tiny kitchen with a sink and two gas rings, and a sink-flush lavatory, there are two rooms, one ‘four-and-a-half mat’ about nine feet square, and one ‘eight-mat’ about twelve feet square. The furniture—a low polished table, tall chests of drawers and a wardrobe—is old, but solid and of good workmanship. The ‘eight-mat’ room has an alcove in one comer in which Mrs. A always keeps a scroll painting, changed regularly according to the season of the year. In winter it may be a snow scene, in spring a still-life of a fish, in autumn a single persimmon or a raging torrent pouring through a mountain ravine whose flanks are ablaze with the red of maple leaves. Below the scroll is a simple teabowl, or some other ornament of pottery or bronze sometimes replaced by a bowl of flowers. Flowers are also kept on top of one of the chests-of-drawers in front of the small altar-shrine which contains the tablets of her husband and her eldest daughter. In the lavatory, too, there are always one or two flowers stuck in a small holder attached to the wall.

There is a