The Berlin Police Force in the Weimar Republic

The Berlin Police Force in the Weimar Republic

The Berlin Police Force in the Weimar Republic

HSI-HUEY LIANG

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

Berkeley • Los Angeles • London • 1970

University of California Press

Berkeley and Los Angeles, California

University of California Press, Ltd.

London, England

Copyright © 1970 by The Regents of the

University of California

SBN 520-01603-3

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 74-85452

Designed by James Mennick

Printed in the United States of America

TO MY FATHER

the late Dr. Lone Liang, Chinese Chargé d’Affaires in Berlin 1928-1934

Preface

THE STUDY OF modern German history requires that attention be given to the rules of German historiography. In addition to the factual information, we must be familiar with the way in which Germans have explained and periodized the events in their past and, above all, know what expressions they have employed and what assumptions they have made. The best foreign contributors to the subject have normally drawn heavily on the intellectual pattern of German scholarship, and where they have not, they have often missed the essential point. They have borrowed not simply because the German historians were the pioneers in this field, but because the materials of modern German history until the middle of the twentieth century have to a large extent demanded an interpretative approach of their own. Unlike the English historians with their pronounced emphasis on constitutional procedure, and the historians of France who concentrated on national politics, German historians found their idiom in abstract—sometimes even speculative—historical propositions. It was probably the only way to give coherence to the oscillating and disjointed history of their people. The alternative would have been unmanageable bulk. It did, however, create a tendency toward dogmatic generalizations.

The German school of historical writing can present some difficulties to the student unfamiliar with German social customs and the German cultural idiom. A succession of theoretical or simply colloquial concepts interpose themselves as barriers between him and the object of his studies. To provide a remedy for this difficulty, there have been repeated calls for a stronger emphasis on German social history, especially in regard to the twentieth century.¹ Conventional studies of Germany’s political and economic condition since 1918 seem particularly inadequate either to convey the horror of the Hitler regime, or the confusion and indecision of the period preceding it. Consequently, playwrights have tried their hand at political subjects, elder statesmen at personal memoirs, and scholars have turned to social history in the hope that the private and prosaic, when paired with national public events, would give rise to a new credibility.²

Social history, in turn, has called attention to the need for more city history. The narrow focus of such studies allows for precise examples and detailed accounts, and for indulgence in those paradoxical circumstances that, on a higher plane of historical analysis, are too often dismissed as the irrelevant product of chance.

It is true that some of the city history of modern Germany has also been written in monumental abstractions. There exist bulky volumes described as Kultur- und Sittengeschichte which purport to weave symphonic images out of the customs and mores of entire periods. Then again, city history has taken the form of parochial chronicles devoutly compiled by local Heimatforscher. To the English-speaking public, the former approach can be irritating because of the subjectivity of its sweep ing conclusions. Local narratives, on the other hand, have the disadvantage of antiquarian accounts too obviously intended for local consumption.

This does not deny the possibility of reform. Thus, while the historiography of Berlin contains bold interpretations of the city’s changing personality over the centuries³ and any number of anecdotal compilations centered on its older quarters,⁴ there are also monographs that go far beyond the fancy of local patriots without losing themselves in subjective impressions.⁵ Some very good novels have been written on Berlin which express ideas and concerns that reach far beyond the locality.⁶ Sociological works at the turn of the century, studies in municipal government during the 1920’s, and the investigations sponsored by the Berliner Historische Kommission since the end of the Second World War, have shown that well-selected topics in the history of one city can lay the basis for a fresh look at the social history of modern Germany.⁷

Berlin offers many advantages for such an undertaking. It cannot, of course, claim to be the obvious or even the best choice of a German city for English-speaking students to study.⁸ No such choice could ever be perfect in view of the diversity of Germany’s social and cultural scene. But Berlin is a feasible, and I would like to think, a good choice to make. A city as young and as uninhibited as Berlin is particularly susceptible to the changes brought with each successive period in modern German history. Its versatile population of immigrants has nearly always moved in step with the times.

It is also true, of course, that Berlin rarely succeeded in wholly absorbing the innovations that came with each stage of modern Germany’s political and cultural development. Many of these stages, after all, have been little more than short episodes. Karl Scheffler’s much quoted observation, that Berlin is a city forever in the making and destined never to be⁹ consequently threatens to disqualify Berlin as too singular a phe nomenon on Germany’s sociohistorical map. If this limits the usefulness of our undertaking, it applies with equal force to any other German city.

On the other hand, it is compensated by Berlin’s determining influence in the course of Germany’s history from 1871 to 1933. For the story of modern Berlin is not of uniform historical value. In the seventeenth, the eighteenth, and dining the first half of the nineteenth century, Berlin was by and large the passive object of larger historical forces in Prussia and Northern Germany. The historian can find in its chronicles little more than samples from life in one of Germany’s many royal residential towns. And if, jumping two generations, we turn to Berlin’s history during the Third Reich and the years since 1945, we are dealing with materials best suited for a symbolic interpretation of Germany’s twelve years of dictatorship and Europe’s ideological division after the Second World War.

There remains the period from 1871 to 1933. For just over sixty years, Berlin was truly Germany’s administrative and political capital, the focal point of its economic life, and after 1900 the scientific and cultural center of the nation as well. During the Second Empire and the Weimar Republic Berlin was much more than a passive associate to its hinterland: the newly-born metropolis nearly engulfed the old militaristic Prussia; its dynamic growth affected the entire Reich.¹⁰

This study proposes to present one episode from Berlin’s time of greatest historical impact: the story of its police service during the Weimar Republic. The significance of this topic will be explained in the Introduction. But it should be stressed at this point that research on Berlin history for the 1920’s and the early 1930’s is urgently needed now, since many documents were lost in the Second World War and those in East German archives are not readily available to Western scholars. To compensate for gaps in the written record, the historian must appeal to the memory of elderly residents whose testimonials need to be recorded and sifted as long as they are still available.

Much of the information for this study was gathered during the fall of 1962 in West Berlin by personal interviews with veterans of the police force. These interviews varied in length from half an hour to an entire afternoon. My informants did not speak of their personal experience exclusively—some of them preferred to comment only on the general condition of police service in the twenties and shunned details such as salaries and promotions. All were interviewed with the prior understanding that they would not be asked about their activities after January 30, 1933. Their cooperation was indispensable as a source for innumerable items of information, suggestions for interpretation, and hints for further lines of inquiry. A list of my informants and the subjects they discussed will be found in the Appendix. I am particularly indebted to Polizeimeister Hermann Artner and Inspektionsleiter F. Gediehn for their patient and detailed testimonials; to Polizei-Hauptkommissar Willi Lemke for entrusting me with the unpublished manuscript of his autobiography; and to Amtsrat Heinz Thiel, Kriminalmeister Teigeier, Kriminaldirektoren Lehnhoff and Togotzes, and Kriminalrat Hoberg for their illuminating introduction to the world of the criminalist. I acknowledge my indebtedness to Commander Hans Ulrich Wemer and Deputy Commander Gottfried Miczek of the Schutzpolizei, to Oberrat Finger and Oberkommissar Hollstein at the police school in Spandau, and to Leitender Kriminaldirektor Wolfram Sangmeister for enabling me to talk freely to their subordinates.

Above all, I must thank Police President Georg Moch who, as Deputy President in the fall of 1962, gave me permission to hold all my interviews.

To all the officials formerly or currently on the staff of the police force in West Berlin who have helped me in my endeavor I would like to express my sincerest thanks. This book could not have been written without their encouragement and assistance, even though its interpretation may not always agree with their own views on the subject.

The technical literature on Prussian police ideas and police methods in the Weimar Republic was made available to me through the courteous assistance of the librarians at the headquarters of the West Berlin Police, at the headquarters of the criminal police in Schöneberg, and at the police school in Spandau. The unpublished documents concerning individual police officials, including court cases, were put at my disposal at the Berlin Document Center, the Federal Archive in Koblenz, the archive of the Landeskriminalgericht in Berlin-Moabit, the Landesarchiv Berlin, and the former Prussian Secret State Archive in Dahlem. I was unfortunately not allowed to use police documents presently located in East German archives. The background material on Berlin history was obtained at the Senatsbibliothek, the Landesarchiv, and the university library of the Free University in Berlin. Nearly all the photographs were supplied by the Landesbildstelle Berlin.

The preliminary research in the fall of 1962 was undertaken during a semester’s sabbatical leave from Bard College. The main bulk of the work was done with the assistance of a fellowship of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation between October, 1967 and July, 1968, during which time Professor Dr. Dr. h. c. Hans Herzfeld of the Free University in Berlin acted as my benevolent mentor.

I would finally like to express my gratitude to Miss Kathryn Pennypacker, my student assistant at Vassar College in 1965—66, who proofread the early drafts of some chapters, and to Mrs. Shirley Warren of the University of California Press, who painstakingly edited the final manuscript. My warmest thanks go to my friend Professor Donald J. Olsen who improved my English and encouraged my interest in city history, and above all to my wife Francette Liang who made writing this book a pleasure.

Contents

Contents

Introduction

The Importance of Traditional Police Doctrine

The Official Interpretation of Prussian Police History

The War and the Armistice

The Eichhorn Episode

Rivalry with Military Forces

Organization, Physical Training, Equipment

Social Background, Material Compensation, Police Unions, Discipline

Political Education

Subversion and Security Checks in the Schutzpolizei

The Schutzpolizei in Action: 1920-1932

Public Opinion on Crime and the Criminal Police

The Kriminalpolizei in Search of Professional Autonomy

Success and Integrity in the Kriminalpolizei

From the Papen Putsch to Hitler’s Seizure of Power

The Purge, 1933

Epilogue

Appendix: INTERVIEWS

Notes

Bibliography

Index

Introduction

BERLIN in the twenties was a national clearinghouse. Neither its position as the Reich’s foremost industrial city nor as its chief communications center was as exciting and novel as the fact that it had become Germany’s gigantic stock exchange for ideas ànd experiments in almost every field of endeavor.¹ To be sure, most innovations after 1918 assumed radical dimensions on reaching Berlin. But this, contemporaries thought, only served to enhance Berlin’s usefulness as a starting point for an inquiry into the nation’s current condition.² They had no use for an average town. The truth must be uncovered by studying its extremes, wrote S. Cracauer in the introduction to his sociological analysis of Germany’s office workers in 1930, which he based largely on what he found in her capital.³

Extremes, however, when joined together without coordination, often produce conflict. The many dynamic impulses at work in Berlin created the illusion of a powerful metropolis, while in fact much of the intellectual and material potential at hand was frittered away in mutual competition. As a result, Berlin, whose claim to leadership since 1871 had evoked much resentment in Imperial Germany, became in the twenties the universal scapegoat for a plethora of national grievances.

They talk about [Berlin] as of an outside calamity that has befallen them through other people’s fault, even through malevolence or conspiracy. … When something goes wrong in politics, economics, in Germany’s social order or cultural life … of course Berlin! When a province, a section of the population, a social class, or a clan nurses an imaginary grievance: it is the fault of Berlin. When foreigners make derogatory comments: Berlin’s to be blamed.⁴

The city’s political importance was not in dispute, only its ability to offer the defeated nation the rallying point it demanded. And indeed, life in Berlin offered a remarkable sample of Germany’s uneasy posture during the Zwischenreich between a renunciation of the monarchical past and conflicting conceptions of a democratic future. This can be illustrated by a simple observation. Nearly every important turn in the history of this city—its rise from an obscure fishing village seven centuries ago to a pretentious world metropolis by the 1890’s, as much as its demotion to a frontier post of Western Europe in 1945—all this had come together with a remarkable transformation in the city’s external appearance. But not the republican era of 1918 to 1933. Apart from a number of isolated modern building projects, the 1920’s offer comparatively little material to the historian of architecture and city planning.⁵ Quite a number of contemporaries have, instead, testified to a feeling of unreality living as they did among the stone monuments of an old order whose everlasting endurance, once taken for granted, had vanished in the course of a single afternoon. Wolfgang Schade- waldt, a Berlin writer, recalls that before the First World War his mother would take him for walks between Leipziger Platz and Gendarmenmarkt, and on the way instill in the boy some thing akin to a secular reverence for his hometown.® The war disrupted this sense of kinship between the Berliner and his city.

In the Berlin of 1921 everything seemed unreal. Big-bosomed valkyries stonily supported the facades of houses as before. The lifts worked, but there was hunger and cold in the flats. The conductor courteously helped the Geheimrats wife out of the tramcar. The tram-routes remained unchanged, but no one knew die routes of history.⁷

The city, by all accounts, had lost its former bearings. Contemporary novelists used a clipped staccato to convey the average Berliner’s fragmented impression of each fleeting moment of the day. Theirs was a literature from an unreal world, whose essential instability, Ernst von Salomon said, found its appropriate expression in psychological studies of personal experiences.⁸ Social critics liked to speak of the cynicism of the postwar generation, of its easy excitability, and of its indiscriminate search for new values and a new faith.⁹ Ahl what must we expect from these sixty millions of empty minds, in which the good and the bad, the true and the false can be instilled with equal facility. … wrote Henri Béraud after his visit to Berlin in 1926.¹⁰

The existence side by side of radically opposed ideas within a city of four million inhabitants caused anxiety in the minds of many a contemporary. At social gatherings,

arch conservative noblemen stood besides Socialist members of Parliament; a wild little anarchist conducted a heated argument with a bemonocled officer; even an unshakable anti-Semite fell momentarily silent when a well-known Jewish attorney drew near.

There was much tolerance on the surface. But where would the conflicts find their ultimate resolution?¹¹

Not everything was arrested development hovering on the brink of disintegration. Berlin shared many of the trends that historians of other cities in other countries have described as the hallmark of progress in the twenties. There was the growth of modern motor traffic, the new industry of moving pictures, much popular interest in English sports and American dance music, the rising importance of white-collar workers and of women in professional and business life. No social trend, however, could claim an overriding influence in shaping the future. The historian who does not want to isolate one fragment of Berlin’s social picture from the vaster panorama of change—for example by describing only the milieu of Berlin’s prominent writers, artists, and theatrical personalities, as so many of them have done—must laboriously account for the activities of scores of public figures and social groups: professions, commercial enterprises, institutions, classes. One possible solution for him is to study the police service in Berlin. This topic has the following advantages to offer.

The jurisdiction of the police extended to the entire area of Greater Berlin, not to one portion of this territory alone.

The police in the twenties assumed an unprecedented amount of responsibility for the security and welfare of the inhabitants in this city and drew a proportionately large amount of public attention.

Its performance in Berlin between 1918 and 1932-33 was important for the physical security of the republican government of Prussia and the German Reich.

Between the end of the First World War and the beginning of the Hitler period, the police was the backbone of public order in Berlin. This was a novel situation for both the public and its law-enforcing agents. Under the Empire, the royal constabulary (Königliche Schutzmannschaft) had been overshadowed by the prestigious Imperial Army. The police was only the internal instrument of the Prussian state, whose political and social system antagonized a large portion of its own people, while the soldiers stood for Prussia’s military renown abroad and for the recent triumph of Germany’s national cause. Visual impressions mattered too. The guard regiments with their colorful parades made a deeper impression on the imagination of the people than many other elements in Berlin’s social life however important they were. Walther Kiaulehn, half-mockingly, has suggested that the working-class movement was often underrated in the Empire merely because Socialists wore no uniforms.¹² Even the blue-clad police played a junior role to the army in the popular mind of the time.¹³

After the collapse of the monarchy in 1918, it was the army’s turn to recede into the background of the daily scene in Berlin. Patriotic holidays, court festivities, and military pomp became a memory of bygone days; army barracks and war memorials acquired the patina of historical relics—a contributing cause, some people thought, to Berlin’s declining attraction for foreign tourists.¹⁴

With Germany’s major problems shifted from foreign affairs to internal security, the police had become the government’s principal and most visible symbol of authority, its chief support in a time of widespread domestic lawlessness.¹⁵ All the branches of the Berlin police were enlarged and modernized. Detachments of the new security police provided armed protection for public buildings, stood by at countless open-air demonstrations, and staged massive raids in areas of high criminality. The Schutzpolizei’s ubiquitous presence on the public scene astounded foreign visitors as much as its novelty irritated disgruntled residents.¹⁶ Novelists of different political shades revealed their colors as they praised the smart turnout of the traffic cop or attacked the policeman as a heavy-handed disciplinarian. To some the Schupo was the agent of order and security in the midst of threatening chaos, to others the last defense of an indecisive regime.¹⁷ No one ignored it. The history of the Republic, wrote Carl Severing in 1929, is inseparable from the history of the Police.¹⁸

Even the plainclothesmen received their share of publicity. Everyone knew that the Prussian political police, which had been disbanded in the Revolution of 1918, had promptly been resuscitated—in tenfold numbers, so the journalist Adolf Stein claimed-—to protect the new regime against conspirators on the right and left. According to him the agents of what in the twenties became known as the Police Presidium’s Department IA¹⁹ covered every nook and comer of Greater Berlin, searching for secret stores of arms, violating the privacy of letters, and infiltrating clubs and associations.²⁹ Their names were even mentioned in the daily news columns reporting on political street fights and brawls at party assemblies. Publicity offered the leaders of the Weimar police an escape from their dilemma of having to choose between their democratic conscience, which abhorred secret police methods, and their political common sense, which told them to watch their enemies’ machinations.²¹ In 1928, Deputy Police President Dr. Bernhard Weiss wrote a popular book presenting the case for a political police, which sought to dispel the public’s suspicion toward Department LA.²² But if Polizei und Politik like other semiofficial publications of the time succeeded in creating the appearance of frankness in matters of domestic espionage, it also confirmed the general view that the Weimar Republic, compared to the Prussian monarchy, had vastly extended the sphere of police surveillance.²³

Not that Berliners necessarily disliked the police. The ordinary detective force, for example, benefited from the contemporary wave of interest in criminal affairs of all sorts. Few descriptions of Berlin in the twenties fail to include stories of dope peddling and prostitution, of homicidal maniacs and notorious robbers. Memoirs recounting the great days of Hotel Adlon and other fashionable establishments invariably include anecdotes of gentleman burglars and international swindlers.²⁴ Hans Fallada’s novel Wer einmal aus dem Blechnapf frisst, and Alfred Döblin’s Berlin-Alexanderplatz are pictures from the milieu of professional crooks, while Erich Kastner’s best known children’s stories Emil und die Detektive and Pünktchen und Anton deal with criminal methods whose novelty and success were then a matter of current concern.²⁵

True, the average man in the street showed little inclination to assume the role of a lay criminologist. His curiosity about crime, however, was easily extended to include the work of some outstanding detective inspectors of the criminal police whose names and achievements had appeared in the press. There was the courageous Albert Dettmann, who personally laid hand on some of Berlin’s most dangerous burglars in the early twenties. There were the commissars Wemeburg and Lissigkeit, whose rapid work in solving a number of robberies attended with murder won public acclaim. Otto Busdorf s name made headlines in the Haas-Schröder affair of 1926, and Kriminalrat Ernst Gennat helped to establish the Berlin Kripo’s international claim to excellence. If a generalization may be ventured at this point it would be this: that the twenties were the one period in Berlin’s modern history when a number of outstanding detective inspectors enjoyed great popular renown.²⁶

Police sports, police concerts,²⁷ and progress in the development of police science were all reminders that the German government after the war sought to fulfill many of its multifarious tasks through the wideflung organization of its police. The enormous routine work of the administrative police—from registering the inhabitants and running Germany’s new unemployment insurance to the enforcement of fire laws and the licensing of public houses—is too vast to be recounted here. "There is no other administrative authority that can