Infinite Reality: The Hidden Blueprint of Our Virtual Lives

Infinite Reality

Avatars, Eternal Life, New Worlds, and the Dawn of the Virtual Revolution

Jim Blascovich and Jeremy Bailenson

To our families

Contents

Introduction

1 Dream Machines

2 A Museum of Virtual Media

3 Mirror, Mirror on the Wall

4 Winning Virtual Friends and Influencing Virtual People

5 The Virtual Laboratory

6 Who Am I?

7 Re-creating Yourself

8 Street Smarts

9 Eternal Life

10 Digital Footprints

11 The Virtual Jones

12 Virtually Useful

13 Virtual Yin and Yang

14 More Human Than Human

Notes

Searchable Terms

Acknowledgments

About the Authors

Credits

Copyright

About the Publisher

INTRODUCTION

RIGHT NOW, WE’RE INSIDE A COMPUTER PROGRAM?

With that monotone query, a very confused Neo, played by Keanu Reeves in the blockbuster film The Matrix, convinces hundreds of millions of viewers that virtual reality could be so real that people have no idea they are actually living in a simulation. Of course, The Matrix is just a movie, but brain science supports many of the ideas of the Wachowski brothers, who wrote, directed, and produced the film.

The brain often fails to differentiate between virtual experiences and real ones. The patterns of neurons that fire when one watches a three-dimensional digital re-creation of a supermodel, such as Giselle or Fabio, are very similar—if not identical—to those that fire in the actual presence of the models. Walking a tightrope over a chasm in virtual reality can be a terrifying ordeal even if the walker knows it’s virtual rather than physical.

People interact via digital stimuli more and more. According to a recent study by the Kaiser Family Foundation, kids spend eight hours per day on average outside of the classroom using digital media. This translates to billions of hours per week. People interact with virtual representations in just about every facet of life—business transactions, learning, dating, entertainment, even sexual relationships. Online dating, which used to be somewhat stigmatizing, is now normative. Young adults consider their Facebook friends just as important as the people who live close enough to meet physically. In the world of online games and virtual worlds, millions of players spend over twenty hours each week wearing avatars, digital representations of themselves. Strikingly, the average age of these players is not fifteen but twenty-six. Household console video arenas, especially games, in which people control and occupy avatars, consume more hours per day for kids than movies and print media combined. To borrow a term from the new vernacular, virtual experiences are spreading virally.

Technological developments powering virtual worlds are accelerating, ensuring that virtual experiences will become more immersive by providing sensory information that makes people feel they are inside virtual worlds. In the United States, Nintendo’s Wii, often coupled with a huge high-definition television, populates many living rooms. The players’ physical actions are transformed into virtual body movements in the game. By the time you read this, Nintendo’s Wii, Microsoft’s Kinect, and Sony’s PlayStation Move may incorporate 3-D displays. Virtual experiences are no longer embodied just by hunting and pecking on a keyboard or using a joystick: digital characters now move in tandem with players as they jump around, point guns, and swing racquets, golf clubs, and baseball bats.

Stereo, 3-D visual media technology—which not that long ago was only available to scientists and people using View-Masters—promises to change the film, television, and game industry. Movie theaters entice audiences willing to pay a few extra dollars for 3-D glasses to watch blockbuster films. The game and television industry are promoting 3-D monitors to every household. The popular sports network ESPN even broadcasts in 3-D.

Although we aren’t yet jacking in to the virtual world via a plug in the back of our head, as Neo did in The Matrix, digital media are providing more realistic experiences and not just for humans. Ten years ago, most household pets ignored television. Today, high-definition television transfixes, thrills, and sometimes enrages dogs and cats as they watch the fare on the Animal Planet network. They simply do not differentiate the digital image from reality.

This leads to an interesting proposition—the brain doesn’t much care if an experience is real or virtual. In fact, many people prefer the digital aspects of their lives to physical ones. Imagine you never aged, could shed pounds of cellulite, or put on muscle mass at the touch of a button. Think about never having a bad-hair day, expressing an involuntary grimace, or getting caught staring. Think also about a world with no putrid smells but plenty of delightful ones, when it rains only when you are inside, and where global warming is actually just a myth. In this world, your great-grandfather is still around and can play catch with your six-year-old daughter. There is no dental drill or swine flu in this place.

But there are consequences to people occupying idealized digital worlds. This quandary is thematic in James Cameron’s film Avatar, which took in more money than any prior film in United States history. In it, Jake Sully, a paraplegic soldier confined to a wheelchair, dons a virtual body of a member of another species, the Na’vi, on a distant planet. With avatar arms and legs, as well as a tail, he runs through jungles and swings through trees. He even falls in love.

On the one hand, Avatar depicts many wonderful aspects of virtual reality. In the natural world, physically disadvantaged people are denied many behaviors that most take for granted. In the virtual world, people can choose whether their avatars have fully functioning bodies, regardless of their physical condition. One of the most popular virtual worlds, Second Life, has a higher proportion of physically challenged users than the general population, allowing them to shed any stigmatization they experience in the physical world. Paraplegics can not only walk and run again, but actually can fly through the air or teleport themselves thousands of (virtual) miles in an instant.

On the other hand, Jake learns that wearing his Na’vi avatar has emotional consequences. He is a human being at the beginning of the movie, but as he spends more and more time wearing his giant blue alien avatar, he loses his humanity. By the end of the film, Jake’s psychological bond with his avatar is so strong that he abandons his ties to the human race.

Avatar’s fiction is supported by science: dozens of psychological experiments have shown that people change after spending even small amounts of time wearing an avatar. A taller avatar increases people’s confidence, and this boost persists later in the physical world. Similarly, a more attractive avatar makes people act warm and social, an older avatar raises people’s concern about saving money, and a physically fit avatar makes people exercise more.

Outside of scientific laboratories, avatars can be a matter of life or death. On the positive side, an avatar can be immortal. Consider the case of Orville Redenbacher, who is still the spokesperson for the popcorn company, even though he passed away years back. Using video footage from commercials starring Mr. Redenbacher, advertisers were able to construct a digital model that looks just like him and can be animated to perform any action imaginable. So the popular spokesperson is now acting in new advertisements from beyond the grave. There are commercial services today that will immortalize anyone who would like their avatars created and stored.

On the negative side, avatars can be sources of trauma. Consider the horrific case of a thirteen-year-old girl who committed suicide when she found out the boy with whom she interacted online wasn’t who she thought he was. He was a fictional character created by others, who planned to hurt her feelings. She formed a strong attachment to the online persona. When she discovered he was fictional, she was devastated. In a less tragic but still disturbing event, in the early days of the Internet, there was a well-known rape case in cyberspace, in which one online user, via text, violated another in a virtual chat room. The victim, while physically unharmed, was traumatized.

Avatars also have the distinction of being completely anonymous but inherently trackable. One can wear an avatar of any gender, age, race, species, or shape, and via the avatar, it is possible to meet others in virtual spaces without them having a clue about one’s physical attributes and identity. On the other hand, any time people use the Internet, they leave a record behind (think cookies on Web browsers). Similarly, but in much greater detail, any time people enter a virtual space, they leave digital footprints—all the data the computer automatically collects: for example, speech, nonverbal behavior, and location. This footprint can be used (and, in fact, is being used) by military and other government agencies to detect identity. In essence, while one can hide behind an avatar of a different name, the footprint still can give him away.

IN 1938, A CAREFULLY CRAFTED RADIO BROADCAST CAUSED MILLIONS of people to question their ability to differentiate the real from the virtual. Many of these listeners experienced emotions far worse than doubt and confusion—they were terrified. Orson Welles, via radio broadcast, presented a highly realistic, news-style depiction of an alien invasion in an adaptation of the novel The War of the Worlds. Though the program was intended as entertainment, those who had not heard the lead-in to the show thought the broadcast was an actual newscast. So many people panicked and fled in their cars that highways were flooded with traffic. Others aimed their rifles and shot at water towers that resembled spacecraft, or wrapped towels around their heads to protect themselves from potential alien mind-control. Even scientists were fooled. Several geologists rushed to the alleged scene in New Jersey to examine the fallen meteorites surrounding the alien craft. In sum, a well-crafted virtual story galvanized a large population.

The War of the Worlds calamity highlights why today’s virtual revolution is particularly potent. In 1938, there was a clear distinction between media producers and media consumers. In order for The War of the Worlds to reach people’s homes, corporate support was required. The show’s producer, CBS, was one of the very few organizations that had access to airwaves. Because only a handful of program directors decided what types of stories would be broadcast, maintaining rational control over media content was possible—though not foolproof, as the broadcast’s hysteria proved.

Contrast that with today’s world, in which consumers are also media producers. Try to find a college student without an elaborately constructed Facebook profile. It won’t be easy. Students constantly update photographs and diary entries for the world to see. Similarly, YouTube videos, produced by anyone with a Web connection and a digital camera, can receive worldwide attention just hours after being produced. The people who use the Web also shape the content of the Web. Sometimes those people become multimillionaires—for example, the creators of the game FarmVille, a simple Facebook app that may have more farmers than the planet does.

We sit on the cusp of a new world fraught with astonishing possibility, potential, and peril as people shift from face-to-face to virtual interaction. If by virtual one means online, then nearly a third of the world’s population is doing so already. More than 300 million Web sites and numerous online applications, including e-mail, chat rooms, video conferencing, computer games, and social networking, keep over a quarter of the world’s nearly 7 billion humans busy—in some cases, obsessively—interacting virtually. Users average three hours per day online. In countries like South Korea, the average is much higher. Digital interactions among people are becoming ubiquitous at work and play. The vice president of Digital Convergence at IBM—that they have one is notable—predicted that all of their employees will have avatars in five years. Some projections claim that 80 percent of active Internet users and Fortune 500 enterprises will have a Second Life presence in the not-too-distant future.

If present growth rates hold, the number of Internet users worldwide could triple in four years, as will their time spent online, with the largest growth occurring outside of the Western world. Certainly, more and more people benefit from virtual interaction every day, which suggests a tipping point will be crossed, as popular social venues move from physical to the digital worlds. We are at the early stages of a dramatic shift in cyber-existence—think of it as the difference between 2-D and 3-D, between the merely interactive and the fully immersive.

IN THIS BOOK, WE PROVIDE AN ACCOUNT OF HOW VIRTUAL REALITY is changing human nature, societies, and cultures as we know them. Our goal is to familiarize readers with the pros and cons of the brave new world in which we live. We explore notions of consciousness, perception, neuroscience, media technology, social interaction, and culture writ large, as they pertain to virtual reality—and vice versa. We are writing for a wide range of readers—science lovers, futurists, and, most important, anyone who has a sense, somewhere in the back of their minds, that the world is changing radically as more and more of life unfolds digitally. It’s thrilling, exciting, and scary all at once.

This book aims to indulge the reader’s curiosity not only for whatever is just around the corner virtually, but also for the distant future. Although we sometimes use science fiction to provide colorful examples, this book is grounded in scientific theory and empirical research (much of which we conducted ourselves).

Disruptive as it may seem, the shift to an ever more virtual world—of which the Internet was only one step—may be something close to inevitable, given how humans are wired neurophysiologically. Driven by imaginations that have long sought to defy the sensory and physical constraints of physical reality, humans continuously search for new varieties and modes of existence, only this time we’re doing it via the supposedly cold machinery of digital space.

CHAPTER ONE

DREAM MACHINES

ANY BOOK ABOUT VIRTUAL REALITY HAS TO START WITH A DEFINITION of what reality is in the first place. Given that philosophers have wrestled with this subject for millennia, it’s not a simple task. Take the question What is real? Merely by asking it, we suppose there must be some things we experience that are, in fact, not real. For some, this is an obvious point. My kitchen table—that’s real. The Greek god Zeus? Not so much. Real, not real…end of story.

Well, not so fast.

WHAT IS REALITY?

For humans, reality is, strictly speaking, constructed by minds. Many scientists, writers, and philosophers, such as Aldous Huxley, and even religious gurus like the Dalai Lama, have argued that all perceptions are actually just hallucinations, and idiosyncratic ones at that. Scientists know that what people see, hear, touch, smell, and taste are really impoverished versions of external stimuli. We know, for example, that there are more colors in the light spectrum than can be seen by humans, such as infrared, and more odors than can be smelled, such as carbon monoxide. Furthermore, the qualities of sensory stimuli that people perceive, such as the color of the sky, the smell of a rose, the feel of sandpaper, the sound of a low C on a piano, are not necessarily the same for everybody.

That people differ in their perceptions of sensory stimuli is indisputable. Nearsighted individuals see faraway objects less clearly than farsighted ones, and vice versa. Anosmic people can’t smell. Others can’t hear things particularly well. Some perceptual differences are genetic (e.g., people born with a gene that makes Brussels sprouts taste bad), some are maturational (e.g., infants and older people generally have poorer vision than children, adolescents, and young adults), and some result from disease or injury (e.g., a colleague of ours lost his sense of smell after falling and cracking his skull). Forget walking a mile in someone else’s shoes, just move an inch using her senses and you would perceive reality differently.

Taking all of this into account, one might concede that reality is subjective but conclude that it’s still a constant for each of us individually. But, even within a single mind, reality is in constant flux. Consider red-green color-blindness, the inability to differentiate those two colors. Statistically, 8 percent of men and less than 1 percent of women are afflicted. However, everyone experiences a form of color-blindness every day. Look at the corner of a room in which the intersecting walls were painted the same color. In answer to the question What color are the two walls? most people would name a single color, such as sandalwood or buckskin or whatever color the walls were painted. The assumption that the walls are painted the same hue drives people’s mental perception, hence the answer. However, light in the room very likely reflects off the walls differently on the way back to one’s retina. Consequently, the wavelength of the light—which defines the color—coming from each wall is different. Yet, most people fail to perceive the color difference and are temporarily color-blind. The perceptual system makes the walls seem the same color, simplifying the world for the viewer, even though viewers can override this perceptual process when they consciously try to notice the different colors on each wall. Perceptionists label this phenomenon color constancy.

Nothing is particularly unsettling about the subjective manner in which people perceive reality. Sure, we see things differently from one another, and even from ourselves from time to time, but we still manage to come to a general agreement of what’s collectively in front of us and to share our perceptions with each other. Those deviating from this collective perception, people who see, hear, or feel things that aren’t physically there at all, are usually labeled crazy, victims of faulty wiring, etc. Son of Sam serial killer David Berkowitz, who heard voices, and Nobel laureate John Nash, who had recurring hallucinations of nonexistent people, are famous examples. It turns out, however, that even the reality shared by the normal among us is not necessarily the same.

Many think of the famous journalist Carl Bernstein as a man who can uncover information better than most Americans. After all, he and Bob Woodward were responsible for bringing the Watergate scandal to light. His ex-wife, however, disagreed. In her semiautobiographical novel, Heartburn, Nora Ephron wrote about her marriage, presumably with Bernstein, and humorously described the blinding effect of refrigerator light on the male cornea. This occurs when males open the refrigerator door to look for the butter and invariably ask (to no one in particular), Where’s the butter? Sooner or later, and with exasperation, their spouses come to look at the open refrigerator and immediately point out that It’s right there!—unblocked and in plain view. Ephron concluded, somewhat tongue-in-cheek, that despite the butter being displayed prominently in the male visual field, the male brain cannot pick it out of the array of other visual objects.

On a more scientific note, the University of Illinois perception scholar Dan Simons has studied similar behavior, albeit common to both sexes, labeling it inattentional blindness, drawing particularly surprising results from a series of startling experiments. His book, The Invisible Gorilla, takes its name from these studies.

If we were to ask you to watch a video of two teams tossing a basketball among team members, and to count the number of times each team’s players passed the ball, do you think you would notice if a gorilla walked on to the court among the players? Of course, you say? Surprisingly though, chances are about one in two that you would not.

In Simons’s now classic experiment, people watched videos of teams passing basketballs and counted the number of passes. As the action in the video unfolds, a gorilla (okay, a person in a gorilla suit) actually walks into the middle of the players, stops, beats its chest, and walks off the scene—taking from five to ten seconds to do so. A minute later, the video stops. Across several experiments, roughly half (46 percent) of the viewers did not report seeing the gorilla! We’ve tried this same experiment in our classes at Stanford and the University of California, Santa Barbara, and literally half the class shrieks in surprise when we show them the video the second time and instruct them to look for the gorilla. This inattentional blindness, or not seeing things that are there, is also one of the keys to sleight-of-hand magic acts. (Try it yourself at www.invisiblegorilla.com.)

The invisible gorilla in action.

Courtesy of Daniel Simons

While spotting gorillas may no longer be a critical skill to people outside of the jungle, subjectivities in perception can have serious consequences. For example, people with racial bias actually see the world differently. Stanford’s Jennifer Eberhardt, who studies racial prejudice and discrimination, has conducted a series of experiments that supports this notion. In the context of an experiment purportedly about how the human visual system works, Eberhardt told research participants to stare at a dot in the center of a computer screen, during which time she flashed photographs subliminally of black or white faces. The participants could see a brief color flash on the screen, but they weren’t consciously aware that there were pictures of people popping up in front of them, and none reported ever seeing them.

Subsequently, Eberhardt presented the research participants a series of images consisting of a few dots, and then a few more, and a few more, and a few more, etc., until they could identify the object she was trying to depict. She was studying how many dots it would take before they could recognize the emerging object. Some of the pictures were of everyday household objects, such as hand tools. When household objects were the pictures in question, the prior subliminal flashes of either black or white faces had no effect on the number of dots it took before participants could recognize the object being depicted. However, the flashes made a big difference for the recognition of one particular object—a handgun. The participants who had been exposed subliminally to the black faces perceived the handgun reliably sooner—that is, with less available sensory information (i.e., dots)—than those who had been exposed to the white faces. Eberhardt’s explanation is that the subliminal flashes of black faces had unconsciously activated violent racial stereotypes that primed her participants to see artifacts like a handgun, which are consistent with the stereotype. Outside of the laboratory, perhaps the priming effects that Professor Eberhardt discovered lead police to find more weapons when searching cars driven by blacks than those driven by whites, thereby reinforcing the idea of racial profiling.

Masked stimuli panels.

Courtesy of Crystal Nwaneri

Whether it’s a color that we see in a particular light, a gorilla we somehow miss, or a pattern we’re primed to detect, the evident variability of our perceptions undermines the common-sense notion of a hard-and-fast, fixed and static, easily defined reality. Ours is not a passive relationship, where reality is and we simply experience it; reality is, in fact, a product of our minds—an ever-changing program consisting of a constant stream of perceptions. And what we intend to show in the chapters ahead is how, in many ways, virtual reality is just an exercise in manipulating these perceptions.

THE PRINCIPLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RELATIVITY

Even though reality is an elusive target, most people easily divide the world between the real and the not-real. The takeaway message here is that the mind decides if perceptions are real. If the mind buys into an experience, it deems it real, otherwise it judges it to be unreal. And, if enough people share the perception that an alternative reality is real, then who’s to say it isn’t? The difference between heaven, which the great majority of Americans believe is real, and leprechauns, which are fiction to most, is determined largely by consensus, as opposed to scientific proof.

To bridge the gap between what is experienced as real and what is not, let’s take a cue from Einstein’s work on relativity. We’ve parsed human perceptions into two categories, real and virtual, via a concept called psychological relativity. Einstein introduced the modern notion of special relativity, theorizing that the perceived speed of objects depends on the observer’s own motion. In other words, what common sense tells people about movements is not always true. A speeding car appears to be moving faster if it passes you while you are stationary, than if you are driving on the highway with