Managing Water Resources

Managing Water Resources

Managing Water Resources

Bhagwanti Kakkar

Managing Water Resources

Bhagwanti Kakkar

ISBN - 9789361523267

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Preface

Water Resource and Management is a book that deals with the issues relating to different water resources, their quality and management. Since water is a precious resource for the maintenance and survival of living beings, and therefore it needs to be preserved. This book helps its readers study aspects like ecological implications of water like climate change, global warming, etc. and their effects on the quality of water in its resources.

This book helps one study phenomena like precipitation, hydrological cycle, evapotranspiration, infiltration, water table, etc. This then further explains why we have resulted in the continuous degrading of water quality and the measures that we can adopt to keep this in check and help preserve these water resources like groundwater, etc.

Precisely, we can say that this book gives an insight into these water resources, their continuation cycles, and how to maintain them and prevent them from depletion and degradation of their quality. This book will help its readers understand how even their smallest efforts have a big impact towards the conservation of these water resources and help sustain life on this planet. As we all know, water is our lifeline!

Table of Contents

1 Introduction 1

1.1 What Is Water? 1

1.1.1 Properties of Water 2

1.1.2 Odour and Taste 3

1.1.3 Appearance and Color 3

1.1.4 Hydrology and Water Distribution on Earth 4

1.1.5 Water Cycle 4

1.2 Water Resources and Related Problems 5

1.2.1 Sources of Freshwater 6

1.2.2 Increasing Water Scarcity 8

1.3 Ecological Implications of Water 9

1.3.1 Climate Change 9

1.4 Properties of Water 9

1.4.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Water 9

1.4.2 Biological Properties of Water 9

1.5 Conclusion 10

1.6 References 10

2 Water Resources Units 11

2.1 What are the Water Resources? 11

2.1.1 Renewable and Non-renewable Water Resources 13

2.2 Water Measurement Units 14

2.2.1 Conversion Table 16

2.3 Hydrologic Unit Map 16

2.3.1 Classification of the Map 16

2.4 Of Groundwater Recharge From Rainfall 17

2.4.1 Water Level Fluctuation Method 17

2.4.2 Rainfall infiltration Factor (RIF) Method 18

2.4.3 Groundwater Recharge During Monsoon Season 19

2.4.4 Annual Provisions for Groundwater Resources 19

2.4.5 Net Annual Groundwater Availability 19

2.5 Water Quality Units 19

2.5.1 What is a water quality unit ? 19

2.5.2 How does the unit work? 20

2.6 Groundwater resources of INDIA 21

2.6.1 Dynamic Groundwater Resources 21

2.6.2 Groundwater Development 22

2.6.3 Groundwater Utilization 22

2.7 Significant Digits 22

2.7.1 Significant Digit Rules 23

2.7.2 Uncertainty in Calculations 23

2.7.3 Deduction of Significant Figures 24

3 Hydrological Cycle 25

3.1 Different stages of Hydrological Cycle 26

3.2 Water Balance 29

3.3 Water Budget 30

3.4 Different Components of Water Budget 31

3.5 Summary 33

3.6 References 33

4 Precipitation 34

4.1 Introduction 34

4.2 Storms and Its Types 35

4.2.1 Blizzard 35

4.2.2 Bomb Cyclone 35

4.2.3 Coastal Storm 36

4.2.4 Derecho 36

4.2.5 Hail Storm 36

4.2.6 Snowstorm 37

4.2.7 Wind Storm 37

4.2.8 Thunderstorm 37

4.2.9 Firestorm 38

4.2.10 Hurricane 38

4.2.11 Tornado 39

4.3 Measurement of Precipitation 39

4.3.1 Observation Instruments 39

4.3.2 Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge 41

4.4 Average Methods of Precipitation 41

4.4.1 Arithmetic Mean 41

4.4.2 Theissen Polygon Method 42

4.4.3 Isohyetal Method 43

4.5 Precipitation Frequency Analysis 45

4.5.1 IDF Relationship 45

4.6 References 46

5 Evapotranspiration 47

5.1 Introduction 47

5.2 Evaporation 47

5.3 Transpiration 48

5.4 Evapotranspiration (ET) 48

5.5 Evapotranspiration Concepts 49

5.6 Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration 51

5.7 Geographical Pattern of Evapotranspiration 52

5.8 Measurement of Evapotranspiration 52

5.9 Potential Evapotranspiration 55

5.10 Summary 55

5.11 Reference 55

6 Infiltration and Soil Water 56

6.1 Introduction 56

6.2 Infiltration 56

6.2.1 Problems Concerning the Poor Functioning of

the Infiltration 57

6.2.2 Factors Affecting Infiltration 58

6.2.3 Solutions for the Problems of Infiltration 59

6.3 Soil Water 60

6.3.1 The Soil Composition 60

6.3.2 Soil Profile 61

6.3.3 Soil Structure 61

6.3.4 Soil Moisture Content and Saturation 62

6.3.5 Field capacity and Permanent Witling Point 62

6.3.6 Soil Water Retention 63

6.3.7 Soil Water Retention and Organism 63

6.3.8 Soil Retention and Organism 64

6.3.9 Retention of Soil Water, Water Balances, and other Components 64

6.3.10 Types of Soil Water 64

6.3.11 Soil Water Evaporation Process 65

6.4 Conclusion 66

6.5 Reference 66

7 Ground Water 67

7.1 An Aquifer 69

7.2 An Overview of the Water Cycle 70

7.3 Groundwater Flow 71

7.3.1 Preferential Flow of Water 72

7.3.2 Subsurface Flow of Water 72

7.3.3 Eco-hydrology 72

7.3.4 Equation of Continuity and the Law of Darcy under steady-state Condition 74

7.4 Effects of a Well 75

7.4.1 Potential Effects in the Health of a Human 75

7.5 Flow Net 76

7.6 Reference 77

8 Watershed Management 78

8.1 Watershed 78

8.2 Water Yield 80

8.2.1 Assessment of Water Yield 80

8.2.2 Advantages of Assessing Water Yield 82

8.2.3 Perspective of Water Management and Assessment 82

8.2.4 Impact of Afforestation on Water Yield 83

8.3 Streamflow Pattern 84

8.3.1 Discharge Measurement 84

8.3.2 Stream Flow Measurement by Pre-Calibrated Structures 85

8.3.3 Approaches for Determining the Characteristics

of Streamflow 87

8.4 Forest (vegetation) Management 88

8.5 Snowpack Management 88

8.5.1 Measurement of Snowfall 89

8.5.2 Snow Surveys 89

8.6 Urban Watershed Management 89

8.7 Reservoir Watershed Management 91

9 Introduction to Water Quality 92

9.1 Water Quality Definitions 92

9.2 Sources of Water Pollution 97

9.2.1 Other Sources of Water Pollution 98

9.3 Magnitude of the Water Quality Problem 101

9.4 Soil Quality 102

9.5 References 103

10 Physical Characteristics of Water 104

10.1 Introduction 104

10.2 Turbidity 105

10.3 Odor 107

10.4 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 108

10.5 Total Suspended Solids 110

10.6 Color 111

10.7 Temperature 111

10.8 Conductivity 112

10.9 Concluding Words 113

11 Chemical Characteristics of Water 114

11.1 What is Water? 114

11.2 Common Chemical Characteristics of Water 114

11.2.1 Inorganic Minerals 115

11.2.2 pH value of Water 116

11.2.3 Hardness of Water 117

11.3 Organic Indicators of Water Quality 119

11.3.1 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 119

11.3.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 120

11.4 Dissolved Gases 120

11.4.1 Solubility of Gases 121

11.4.2 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 122

11.5 Microscopic and Bacterial characteristics of water 122

11.6 Chemical Constituents of Water 122

11.6.1 Sampling Method for Analysis 124

12 Biological Characteristics of Water 128

12.1 Water Quality 128

12.2 Biological Characteristics of Water 130

12.2.1 Plankton 130

12.2.2 Macro Invertebrates 132

12.2.3 Macrophytes 134

12.2.4 Pathogens in Water 135

12.2.5 Bioassays 136

12.3 References 139

13 River Water Quality 140

13.1 Introduction 140

13.2 Physical Process in River 141

13.2.1 Erosion 141

13.2.2 Transportation 142

13.2.3 Deposition 142

13.3 Biological Characteristics of River 142

13.3.1 Autotrophic Organisms 143

13.3.2 Microbes and Protista 144

13.3.3 Macro Invertebrates 144

13.3.4 Adaptation and Characteristics of Aquatic Insects 145

13.4 Chemical Characteristics of River 146

13.4.1 Dissolved Oxygen and Aquatic Life 147

13.4.2 How to Measure Dissolved Oxygen? 148

13.5 Conclusion 148

13.6 Reference 148

14 Lakes and Reservoir Water Quality 149

14.1 Factors That Impact Water Quality 150

14.1.1 Pollution 150

14.1.2 Acid Rain 151

14.1.3 Harmful Algal Blooms 153

14.1.4 Eutrophication 154

14.2 Biological and Chemical Characteristic of Lakes 155

14.2.1 Homogenous Lakes 158

14.2.2 Stratified Lakes 159

14.2.3 Lake Restoration 159

14.3 Summary 159

14.4 References 160

15 Soil and Ground Water Quality 161

15.1 Introduction 161

15.2 Characteristics of Land Water 163

15.2.1 Hydrological Characteristics 163

15.2.2 Lakes and Reservoirs 164

15.3 Rivers 166

15.3.1 Tropical Rivers 166

15.4 Ground Water and its Characteristics. 168

15.4.1 Aquifer’s Types 169

15.4.2 Quality of Water 170

15.5 Process that Impact the Quality of Water 170

15.6 Human Health and Water 171

15.7 References 171

16 Best Management Practices 172

16.1 Introduction 172

16.2 Stormwater Management 173

16.2.1 Stormwater Management BMPs 173

16.2.2 Using Stormwater BMPs in Urban Areas 174

16.2.3 Application of Urban Stormwater BMPs 175

16.3 Agricultural Practices 176

16.4 Silvicultural Practices 177

16.4.1 Goals of Silvicultural Practices 179

16.5 References 179

17 Water Laws, Regulations and Standards 180

17.1 Crisis which Arise of Water Rights 181

17.2 Quality of the Water 183

17.3 Federal Rules and Regulations for the Quality of Water 187

17.3.1 Strategy to Control Pollution 187

17.3.2 Standards-based on Technology 188

17.3.3 Standards-based on Water Quality 188

17.4 Water Quantity 188

17.5 References 190

18 Water Policy 191

18.1 Introduction 191

18.2 Policy Formulation 193

18.2.1 Identification of the Problem 194

18.2.2 Establishing a Program or an Agenda 195

18.2.3 Making a Decision 195

18.2.4 Preparation of a Budget 195

18.2.5 Implementing the Program 195

18.2.6 Evaluation of the Program 195

18.3 Water Availability and Use 196

18.3.1 Sources of Water 196

18.3.2 Uses of Water 197

18.4 International Water Policy 198

18.5 Water and Environmental Justice 198

18.5.1 Globalization 200

18.6 Water and Environmental Justice 200

18.7 Sustainable Water Management 201

18.8 Concluding Words 203

18.9 Reference 204

19 Water Economics 205

19.1 Introduction 205

19.2 The Water Market 206

19.2.1 Conditions for Trading In Water Market 206

19.2.2 Issues in Water Trading Markets 208

19.3 Demand for Water 209

19.3.1 Types of Water Demand 210

19.3.2 Factors affecting the rate of demand for water 211

19.4 Supply of Water 212

19.4.1 Factors Affecting or Influencing Effective Supply of Water 213

19.4.2 Trade Barriers 214

19.5 Supply and Demand 215

19.6 Elasticity 215

19.6.1 Perfectly Elastic Water Demand (Ep = ∞) 216

19.6.2 Perfectly Inelastic Demand (Ep = 0) 216

19.6.3 Unitary Elastic Demand (Ep = 1) 216

19.7 Water Externalities 216

19.8 Costs of Production 217

19.8.1 Elements of Costs of Production 217

19.8.2 Calculation of Cost of Production 218

19.8.3 Steps to Calculate the Cost of Production 218

19.9 More on Efficiency 218

19.9.1 Types of Efficiency 219

19.10 Economic Policy Analysis 220

19.10.1 Goals and Objectives of Economic Policies 220

19.10.2 Types of Economic Policy 220

19.11 Water Pricing 221

19.11.1 Contents of Water Pricing 222

19.12 Cost-Benefit Analysis 223

19.12.1 Steps of Cost-Benefit Analysis 224

19.13 Direct and Indirect Economic Effects 225

19.13.1 Types of Economic Effects 225

19.13.2 Water and Economic Effects 225

19.14 Conclusion 226

19.15 Reference 226

Index 227

Chapter

1 Introduction

1.1 What Is Water?

An odourless and colorless liquid substance that flows on the surface of the earth is known as water. Billions molecules when packed together, forms water. One molecule of water consists of two hydrogen and one oxygen atom that are held together with the help of a very strong covalent bond. In earth, water can be found in different forms like liquid, solid and gas. The form of the appearance of water is dependent on the temperature of the region or place, where it exists. In our planet, the flow of water takes place in different places like oceans, streams and rivers; which are very commonly called as water bodies. In the north and south poles of the earth as well as in the relatively colder regions; water is found in the form of ice – the solid form of water. In the atmosphere of the planet, water exists in its gaseous form, called as water vapour. The presence of water can also be found inside animals and plants body. Every living being on the earth is very effectively dependent on water for survival although it does not provide any organic nutrient or calorie. Water changes its form continuously and move through the water cycle following precipitation, condensation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), evaporation and runoff that usually reaches to the sea.

More than 71 % surface of the earth is covered by water, most of which flows in oceans and seas. 1.7 % of the total water present in the earth’s surface now is groundwater and 1.7 % is in Greenland and Antarctica in the form of ice caps and glaciers. Water is also present in the air in the form of clouds, water vapour and precipitation (0.001%). Water is also an important element in the growth of the global economy. Almost 70 % of the freshwater of the earth that is used by the human beings goes into agriculture. In different parts of the world, fishing in both salt as well as freshwater is considered as one of the major sources of food. Most of the long-distance business of goods like natural gas and oil are operated by the water transportation through canals, lakes, rivers and seas. A large quantity of water is used in different industries as well as homes for heating and cooling with the help of steam and ice. Water is considered as the universal solvent and is excellent for some specific chemicals and is widely in use. Many entertainment phenomena like the sports activities are also done in or with the help of water like diving, sport fishing, surfing, boat racing, pleasure boating, and swimming.

1.1.1 Properties of Water

Water is a polar inorganic compound liquid substance that is tasteless when put in the room temperature and is almost colorless except an inherent touch of blue. Till today, water is considered as one of the most popularly studied chemical compound and it is also considered as the ‘universal solvent’. It is the only commonly known substance that can exist in all the three form of a matter – solid, liquid and gas. The molecules of water are strongly polar and hydrogen bonds are formed with each other. The polarity of water permits it to dissociate ions in salts and create bonds with other such polar substances like acids and alcohol, resulting into their dissolution. Most of the unique properties of water are caused because of its hydrogen bonding; like a high capacity of heat, a comparatively high boiling point; and possessing a liquid form that is denser than its solid form. Water is an amphoteric substance which means that it can react both in the form of a base or in the form of an acid. The amphoteric nature of water depends on the pH of a solution where it is in. Water can easily form both OH – and H + ions. Depending on the atmospheric nature or feature of water, it goes through self – ionization. Water is different from most of the liquids because it become lee dense when frozen and becomes solid. In its liquid form, the highest density of water is 62.43 lb/cu ft (1,000 kg/m³) at 1 atm; which takes place at 39.16 °F (3.98 °C). On the contrary, the density of ice (the solid form of water) is 57.25 lb/cu ft (917 kg / m³). Hence, when freezes 9 % of expansion of water takes place. The detailed chemical nature of water is hard to be understood accurately.

1.1.2 Odour and Taste

Usually pure water is found as odourless and tasteless but there are special sensors with the help of which the human beings can feel or understand the presence of water into their mouth. There are also facts which state that frogs can smell the odour of water. However, the bottled mineral water found these days consists of many chemicals because of which additional taste and odour can be felt from the water. Different animals including the human beings have the senses so as to evaluate water potability and help to avoid the putrid or salty water.

1.1.3 Appearance and Color

Figure 1.1 71 % of the surface of the earth is covered by water; 96.5 % is in the oceans. 61 % of the freshwater of the planet exists as ice sheets in Antarctica and is visible at the bottom of the planet.

Usually it believed and considered that water has no color of itself. But apparently, the color of water in the natural water bodies as well as in the swimming pools is often generated by the dissolved substances or sometimes by the reflection of the sky. In the visible range of electromagnetic spectrum, light can travel through a few meter in regards to the pure water or ice without being absorbed in a significant amount so that it can appear as colorless and transparent. Because of this factor, different photosynthetic organisms including algae, aquatic plants and others are able to live deep under hundreds of meter of oceans and seas as it is possible for the sunlight to reach there.

1.1.4 Hydrology and Water Distribution on Earth

The study of the quality, distribution and movement of water throughout the surface of the earth is called as hydrology. The discipline of hydrology is again subdivided, as the study of water distribution is called as hydrography; the study of movement and distribution of the glaciers is glaciology, of groundwater is hydrogeology of ocean water is oceanography and the distribution of inland water is called limnology. The different ecological practices along with hydrology are involved in the subject matter of ecohydrology. The collective volume of water found over, under and on the surface of the earth or any planet is referred as hydrosphere. The approximate water value of the earth (total supply of water) is 321 × 106 cu mi (1. 338 billion cubic kilometres). Water in its liquid form is found in the different water bodies like a puddle, pond, canal, stream, river, lake, sea and ocean. Most of the water present on the earth’s surface is mainly flow through the seas and oceans. Water also exists in aquifers as groundwater. In the atmosphere, it exists in the form of vapour, liquid and solid states. It is also important for the different geological activities; in most of the rocks groundwater is present and the pattern of faulting is affected by the pressure of this groundwater. The melt produced by the volcanoes at the subduction is because of the presence of water in mantle. Moreover, the importance of water is also significant on the earth’s surface in both physical and chemical weathering processes. Water along with ice (although in a very lesser extent), responsible for the movement of sediments in large degree, that takes place on the earth’s surface.

1.1.5 Water Cycle

The continuous exchange or movement of water of the hydrosphere among the plants, groundwater, surface water, soil water and the atmosphere is called as water cycle, which is also scientifically referred as hydrologic cycle. The movement of water takes place through each of the mentioned regions of the water cycle following the below-mentioned movement processes:

Figure 1.2 water cycle

• Runoff: the movement of water from the land that generally ends up to the sea.

• Precipitation: the movement of water from the air through condensation and reaching to the ocean or the earth’s surface.

• Evaporation: the movement of water that takes place from the different water bodies like oceans into the air or atmosphere.

• Transportation: the process of water movement that takes place from the animals and plants of the earth into the air.

The exchange of energy is involved in the process of water cycle and is also involved in leading to change in temperature. When evaporation takes place, the surrounding atmosphere becomes cool as the process absorbs energy. On the contrary, when condensation takes place, the atmosphere become becomes relatively cool as the process releases energy. This exchange of heat is profoundly influential towards bringing change in the climate. Water of the land is purifies with the process of evaporation and then plenishes the earth with the help of freshwater. The different geological features of the earth are also reshaped with the help of this process of water cycle through sedimentation and erosion. The process is also significant in terms of maintaining the ecosystem as well as the lives of the earth.

1.2 Water Resources and Related Problems

The potentially useful natural resources of water are called water resources. The uses of water have diversified and dynamic uses, some of the significant ones are environmental, recreational, household, industrial and agricultural activities. Water resources are significant for the survival of every living being of this planet. Three – fourth of the earth is surrounded by water, however only 3 % of it is freshwater because the rest is in the oceans which are too salty to be used. Freshwater is considered as one of the renewable resources of the earth but the range of groundwater is decreasing eventually, prominently affecting the regions of North America, South America and Asia. In this regard, it is important to mention here that it is not clear that how much of this usage of groundwater can be renewed, and whether the ecosystem of the planet is in danger or not.

1.2.1 Sources of Freshwater

Surface Water

The word surface water can be referred for the water that flows into the lakes, rivers, ponds or freshwater wetlands. Surface water is normally freshened up by the nature itself through precipitation and they are usually lost in the major water bodies like the oceans and seas because they are discharged through evaporation, evapotransportation and groundwater recharge. The quality and quantity of water depends on a number of factors and it is an established fact the natural qualities of the surface water depends hugely on the precipitation level within the drainage basin of the water body. The capacity to store of various water bodies like

The needs and requirements of water for human beings also influence the quantity of water at any water source as human beings are known to use innumerable quantities of water for various purposes. Farmers are known to use a great amount of water for farming purposes and to sustain the crops, an abundant quantity of water is obviously needed by the farmer. However, the quantity of water needed by the farmer also depends on the type of season, for example, a farmer might require an enormous quantity of water but that farmer might not require any water at all during winters. In order to get a regular supply of that kind of amount of water, a particular water body would need a bigger and better storage capacity to sustain and store water as well as to release it for a brief duration of time for multifarious purposes. There are also other needs and requirements of water, particularly by power plants that regularly require water for cooling purposes. So, a particular water body needs to have a sufficient storage capacity in order to supply water to the power plants. So, it can be deduced that the rate of precipitation on the surface level of individual water bodies greatly influences the supply of water from that water body and the average rate of precipitation in a drainage basin determines the consumption quality and quantity of water from that particular watershed. Importing surface water from a different kind of watershed through a pipeline or canal can greatly aid in the improvement of the quality of natural surface water. However, the surface water has the potential of being polluted or no longer suitable for use through the activities of human beings which contaminate water to a huge extent. According to the general estimate, Brazil is said to be the largest supplier of fresh water in the world after other major countries like Russia and Canada.

Ground Water

The subsurface pore space of soil and rocks that contains freshwater as well as the water that is contained and flowing in aquifers below the water table is known as groundwater. However, there is a difference between groundwater that is correlated with the surface water and the groundwater that is found in an aquifer, which is also known as deep groundwater or fossil water. Like surface water, groundwater is also calculated in terms of storage, output and usage. A pivotal difference between groundwater and surface water is that the former has greater capacity to hold a large volume of water because of its slow rate of turnover. This critical difference makes it extremely convenient for human beings to withdraw water from groundwater sources and use it implausibly for a long period of time without having to worry about any harsh consequences. Seepage from surface water is considered to be the natural input to groundwater. On the other hand, seepages to the ocean and springs are considered to be the natural outputs from groundwater. A groundwater source is likely to become saline if the surface water is exposed to superabundant evaporation. Soil salinization is caused by a groundwater source which has been used by humans resulting in the reversion of the direction of seepage into the ocean. Human beings are also likely to be the cause of detriment to groundwater on account of the pollution caused by their activities. However, by building reservoirs and detention ponds, human beings can also contribute to the growth of groundwater input.

Frozen Water

An important source of surface water is considered to be the glacier runoffs, but there have been several projects which proposed that icebergs should be used as a viable water source, but till date, the use of icebergs as a source of water has been confined only to research purposes. The Roof of the World, also known as the Himalayas, are considered to be the greatest source of glaciers and permafrost outside the poles as well as the most widespread and vast encompassing region comprising of high altitude areas. The Himalayas are also said to be responsible for the livelihoods of a vast number of people as well as the top ten greatest rivers of Asia are said to flow from the Himalayas. The