Breeding Site Characteristics and Associated Factors of Culex pipiens Complex in Lhasa, Tibet, P. R. China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Mosquito Larvae Sampling and Identification
2.3. Breeding Site Characterization
2.4. Ethics Statement
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. The Potential Mosquito Breeding Sites in Lhasa, 2013–2016
3.2. The Positive Breeding Sites and Species of Mosquito Larvae in Lhasa
3.3. The Main Characteristics of 184 Potential Mosquito Breeding Sites in Lhasa
3.4. Positive Breeding Sites and Key Factors Associated with the Presence of Mosquito Larvae
3.5. The Findings of Binary Logistic Regression Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year of investigation | Research sites | Direction from the Potala Palace | No mosquito larvae | With mosquito larvae | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2013 | Zongjiaolukang Park | North | 4 | 0 | 4 |
Tibet Medical College | North | 4 | 0 | 4 | |
Gesanghua Park | North | 2 | 0 | 2 | |
Lalu Wetland | Northwest | 2 | 0 | 2 | |
Potala Palace Square | South | 5 | 1 | 6 | |
Tibet TV Station | West | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Jinniu Park | West | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Lhasa River Fringe | South | 1 | 3 | 4 | |
Road Close to Lhasa River | South | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Jiacuo Community | West | 5 | 4 | 9 | |
Xiashasu Community | East | 2 | 1 | 3 | |
Bakuo Subdistrict | East | 2 | 0 | 2 | |
Tibet Tax Collection Bureau | North | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
Jiaerxi, Niangre | Northwest | 2 | 0 | 2 | |
Subtotal | 32 | 10 | 42 | ||
2014 | Lhasa River Fringe | South | 6 | 0 | 6 |
Fountain Close to Lhasa River | South | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Gesanghua Park | North | 6 | 4 | 10 | |
Mingzhu Park | North | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
First Aid Call Center, Tibet People’s Hospital | North | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Potala Palace Square | South | 4 | 0 | 4 | |
120 First Aid, Tibet | North | 3 | 2 | 5 | |
Zongjiaolukang Park | North | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
Subtotal | 22 | 8 | 30 | ||
2015 | Gesanghua Park | North | 1 | 1 | 2 |
Zhaxi Community, Zhaxi Street | East | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
Zaki Temple, Tibet | North | 8 | 0 | 8 | |
Water Park, Sela North Road | North | 3 | 0 | 3 | |
Shengcheng Park, Sela North Road | North | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Judicial Officer Hospital | North | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Lhasa City Environmental Protection Bureau North Suburb Transfer Station | North | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Lalu Community, Gongdelin Street | Northwest | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Lalu Wetland | Northwest | 8 | 0 | 8 | |
Bakuo Neighborhood Committee | East | 5 | 2 | 7 | |
Xiashasu Neighborhood Committee | East | 7 | 1 | 8 | |
Danjielin Community, Bakuo Street | East | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
Seladaguo Alley, Bakuo Street | East | 3 | 0 | 3 | |
Langmamu, Bakuo Street | East | 3 | 0 | 3 | |
Bakuo Community, Bakuo Street | East | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
Raosai Community, Bakuo Street | East | 1 | 1 | 2 | |
Bailin Community, Bakuo Street | East | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
Lugu Community, Bakuo Street | East | 4 | 0 | 4 | |
Lhasa River Fringe | South | 2 | 0 | 2 | |
Yaowangshan Park | West | 2 | 0 | 2 | |
Zongjiaolukang Park | North | 4 | 0 | 4 | |
Yunzhong Park | Southwest | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Tongjian Community, Gamagongsang | East | 4 | 0 | 4 | |
Najinglubei Community, Gamagongsang | East | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Luobulinka | West | 3 | 0 | 3 | |
Subtotal | 64 | 9 | 73 | ||
2016 | Ancient Architectural Art Company | East | 2 | 0 | 2 |
The Lawn Outside, Luobulinka | west | 4 | 1 | 5 | |
Construction Bank of China, Tibetan Branch | west | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Sichuan and Tibet Highway Monument | South | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
Lhasa Riverside Park Artificial Lake | South | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Roadside of Lhasa Hotel | South | 1 | 3 | 4 | |
Tibet Tax Collection Bureau | North | 2 | 3 | 5 | |
Lalu Wetland | Northwest | 5 | 0 | 5 | |
Gesanghua Park | North | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
Ruyi Park | North | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Tianhai Household Goods Market | North | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Tibet Audit Office | North | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Mingzhu Park | North | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Tibet Medical College and Its Vicinity | North | 3 | 0 | 3 | |
Zongjiaolukang Park | North | 5 | 0 | 5 | |
Gold Cattle Park | West | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Subtotal | 29 | 10 | 39 | ||
Total | 147 | 37 | 184 |
Variable 1 | N2 | % 3 | Variable 1 | N2 | % 3 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Breeding site types | Breeding site stability | ||||
River fringe | 8 | 4.3 | Permanent (≥2 weeks) | 104 | 56.5 |
Pond (≥50 m2) | 38 | 20.7 | Temporary (<2 weeks) | 80 | 43.5 |
Puddle (<50 m2) | 39 | 21.2 | Substrate types | ||
Irrigation/drainage ditch | 14 | 7.6 | Cement/concrete | 79 | 42.9 |
Container | 7 | 3.8 | Soil | 79 | 42.9 |
Temporary ground pool | 21 | 11.4 | Metal | 3 | 1.6 |
Footprint/tire mark | 4 | 2.2 | Ceramic | 2 | 1.1 |
Sewer/tube well | 37 | 20.1 | Others | 21 | 11.4 |
Others | 16 | 8.7 | Presence or absence of predators | ||
Distance to the nearest house | No | 151 | 82.1 | ||
<10 m | 61 | 33.2 | Yes | 33 | 17.9 |
10~100 m | 86 | 46.7 | Vegetation | ||
>100 m | 37 | 20.1 | No | 133 | 72.3 |
Artificial or natural | Yes | 51 | 27.7 | ||
Artificial | 136 | 73.9 | |||
Natural | 48 | 26.1 | Shade | ||
Flow or static | No | 30 | 41.1 | ||
Flow | 29 | 15.8 | Yes | 43 | 58.9 |
Static | 155 | 84.2 | Water depth | ||
Perimeter | ≥0.5 m | 86 | 46.7 | ||
<1 m | 16 | 8.7 | <0.5 m | 98 | 53.3 |
1~10 m | 80 | 43.5 | Water temperature (℃) | ||
>10 m | 88 | 47.8 | <15.85 | 17 | 23.3 |
pH (Quartiles) | 15.85~19.65 | 18 | 24.7 | ||
<7.0600 | 11 | 15.1 | 19.65~22.30 | 24 | 32.9 |
7.0600~7.2650 | 17 | 23.3 | >22.30 | 14 | 19.2 |
7. 2650~7.3925 | 12 | 16.4 | Turbidity | ||
>7.3925 | 33 | 45.2 | <7.495 | 21 | 28.8 |
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) | 7.495~19.77 | 24 | 32.9 | ||
<5.71 | 25 | 34.2 | 19.77~95.9750 | 11 | 15.1 |
5.71~6.055 | 13 | 17.8 | >95.9750 | 17 | 23.3 |
6.055~6.44 | 23 | 31.5 | Conductivity (µs/cm) | ||
>6.44 | 12 | 16.4 | <171.4 | 16 | 21.9 |
Soluble solids (mg/L) | 171.40~198.6 | 11 | 15.1 | ||
<84.475 | 15 | 20.5 | 198.6~247.25 | 14 | 19.2 |
84.475~98.75 | 11 | 15.1 | >247.25 | 32 | 43.8 |
98.75~121.775 | 13 | 17.8 | Resistance (Ω·cm) | ||
>121.775 | 34 | 46.6 | <3.535 | 30 | 41.1 |
Salinity (ppt) | 3.535~5.025 | 19 | 26.0 | ||
<0.08 | 18 | 24.7 | 5.025~5.7625 | 11 | 15.1 |
0.08~0.10 | 15 | 20.5 | >5.7625 | 13 | 17.8 |
0.10~0.135 | 11 | 15.1 | |||
>0.135 | 29 | 39.7 |
Variable | No Larvae | With Larvae | χ2 | p | Variable | No Larvae | With Larvae | χ2 | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Breeding site types | Breeding site stability | ||||||||
River fringe | 5 | 3 | 8.718 | 0.367 | Permanent (≥2 weeks) | 72 | 32 | 19.08 | 0.00 |
Pond (≥50 m2) | 33 | 5 | Temporary (<2 weeks) | 76 | 4 | ||||
Puddle (<50 m2) | 27 | 12 | Substrate types | ||||||
Irrigation/drainage ditch | 11 | 3 | Cement/concrete | 60 | 19 | ||||
Container | 7 | 0 | Soil | 67 | 12 | ||||
Temporary ground pool | 17 | 4 | Metal | 2 | 1 | ||||
Footprints/tire marks | 4 | 0 | Ceramic | 2 | 0 | ||||
Sewer/tube well | 31 | 6 | Others | 17 | 4 | ||||
Others | 13 | 3 | Presence or absence of predators | ||||||
Distance to the nearest house | No | 116 | 32 | 6.986 | 0.008 | ||||
<10 m | 47 | 14 | 1.308 | 0.520 | Yes | 35 | 1 | ||
10~100 m | 69 | 17 | Vegetation | ||||||
>100 m | 32 | 5 | No | 109 | 39 | 0.705 | 0.401 | ||
Artificial or natural | Yes | 24 | 12 | ||||||
Artificial | 108 | 28 | 0.347 | 0.556 | |||||
Natural | 40 | 8 | Shade | ||||||
Flow or static | No | 23 | 32 | 0.048 | 0.526 | ||||
Flow | 24 | 5 | 0.118 | 0.731 | Yes | 7 | 11 | ||
Static | 124 | 31 | Water depth | ||||||
Perimeter | ≥0.5 m | 71 | 15 | 0.463 | 0.496 | ||||
<1 m | 15 | 1 | 2.244 | 0.326 | <0.5 m | 77 | 21 | ||
1~10 m | 62 | 18 | Water temperature (℃) | ||||||
>10 m | 71 | 17 | <15.85 | 11 | 6 | 1.905 | 0.592 | ||
pH (Quartiles) | 15.85~19.65 | 14 | 4 | ||||||
<7.0600 | 7 | 4 | 3.110 | 0.375 | 19.65~22.30 | 18 | 6 | ||
7.0600~7.2650 | 12 | 5 | >22.30 | 12 | 2 | ||||
7. 2650~7.3925 | 8 | 4 | Turbidity | ||||||
>7.3925 | 28 | 5 | <7.495 | 14 | 7 | 2.998 | 0.392 | ||
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) | 7.495~19.77 | 17 | 7 | ||||||
<5.71 | 20 | 5 | 4.043 | 0.257 | 19.77~95.9750 | 10 | 1 | ||
5.71~6.055 | 7 | 6 | >95.9750 | 14 | 3 | ||||
6.055~6.44 | 18 | 5 | Conductivity (µs/cm) | ||||||
>6.44 | 10 | 2 | <171.4 | 11 | 5 | 4.906 | 0.179 | ||
Soluble solids (mg/L) | 171.40~198.6 | 10 | 1 | ||||||
<84.475 | 10 | 5 | 2.327 | 0.507 | 198.6~247.25 | 8 | 6 | ||
84.475~98.75 | 10 | 1 | >247.25 | 26 | 6 | ||||
98.75~121.775 | 9 | 4 | Resistance (Ω·cm) | ||||||
>121.775 | 26 | 8 | <3.535 | 22 | 8 | 0.359 | 0.949 | ||
Salinity (ppt) | 3.535~5.025 | 14 | 5 | ||||||
<0.08 | 13 | 5 | 5.273 | 0.153 | 5.025~5.7625 | 9 | 2 | ||
0.08~0.10 | 14 | 1 | >5.7625 | 10 | 3 | ||||
0.10~0.135 | 6 | 5 | |||||||
>0.135 | 22 | 7 |
Variables | B | S.E. | Walds | df | Sig | Exp(B) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predator | −3.157 | 1.043 | 9.156 | 1 | 0.002 | 0.043 |
Breeding site stability | −2.652 | 0.566 | 21.991 | 1 | 0.000 | 0.070 |
Constant | 2.373 | 0.700 | 11.497 | 1 | 0.001 | 10.728 |
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Liu, X.; Baimaciwang; Yue, Y.; Wu, H.; Pengcuociren; Guo, Y.; Cirenwangla; Ren, D.; Danzenggongga; Dazhen; et al. Breeding Site Characteristics and Associated Factors of Culex pipiens Complex in Lhasa, Tibet, P. R. China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1407. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16081407
Liu X, Baimaciwang, Yue Y, Wu H, Pengcuociren, Guo Y, Cirenwangla, Ren D, Danzenggongga, Dazhen, et al. Breeding Site Characteristics and Associated Factors of Culex pipiens Complex in Lhasa, Tibet, P. R. China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(8):1407. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16081407
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Xiaobo, Baimaciwang, Yujuan Yue, Haixia Wu, Pengcuociren, Yuhong Guo, Cirenwangla, Dongsheng Ren, Danzenggongga, Dazhen, and et al. 2019. "Breeding Site Characteristics and Associated Factors of Culex pipiens Complex in Lhasa, Tibet, P. R. China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 8: 1407. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16081407