Metals

1343 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comparison of Different Finite Element Methods in the Thermal Analysis of Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

by Bahman Meyghani, Mokhtar B. Awang, Seyed Sattar Emamian, Mohd Khalid B. Mohd Nor and Srinivasa Rao Pedapati

Metals 2017, 7(10), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100450 - 21 Oct 2017

Cited by 77 | Viewed by 9999

Abstract

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a novel kind of welding for joining metals that are impossible or difficult to weld by conventional methods. Three-dimensional nature of FSW makes the experimental investigation more complex. Moreover, experimental observations are often costly and time consuming, and [...] Read more.

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a novel kind of welding for joining metals that are impossible or difficult to weld by conventional methods. Three-dimensional nature of FSW makes the experimental investigation more complex. Moreover, experimental observations are often costly and time consuming, and usually there is an inaccuracy in measuring the data during experimental tests. Thus, Finite Element Methods (FEMs) has been employed to overcome the complexity, to increase the accuracy and also to reduce costs. It should be noted that, due to the presence of large deformations of the material during FSW, strong distortions of mesh might be happened in the numerical simulation. Therefore, one of the most significant considerations during the process simulation is the selection of the best numerical approach. It must be mentioned that; the numerical approach selection determines the relationship between the finite grid (mesh) and deforming continuum of computing zones. Also, numerical approach determines the ability of the model to overcome large distortions of mesh and provides an accurate resolution of boundaries and interfaces. There are different descriptions for the algorithms of continuum mechanics include Lagrangian and Eulerian. Moreover, by combining the above-mentioned methods, an Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE) approach is proposed. In this paper, a comparison between different numerical approaches for thermal analysis of FSW at both local and global scales is reviewed and the applications of each method in the FSW process is discussed in detail. Observations showed that, Lagrangian method is usually used for modelling thermal behavior in the whole structure area, while Eulerian approach is seldom employed for modelling of the thermal behavior, and it is usually employed for modelling the material flow. Additionally, for modelling of the heat affected zone, ALE approach is found to be as an appropriate approach. Finally, several significant challenges and subjects remain to be addressed about FSW thermal analysis and opportunities for the future work are proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Achievements in Rotary, Linear and Friction Stir Welding of Metals Alloys)

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5814 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D Modelling of Flash Formation in Linear Friction Welded 30CrNiMo8 Steel Chain

by Pedro Effertz, Franz Fuchs and Norbert Enzinger

Metals 2017, 7(10), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100449 - 21 Oct 2017

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5128

Abstract

Linear friction welding (LFW) is a solid-state welding process that has been thoroughly investigated for chain welding in recent years in order to replace the currently in use Flash Butt Welding (FBW) process. Modelling has proven to be an indispensable tool in LFW, [...] Read more.

Linear friction welding (LFW) is a solid-state welding process that has been thoroughly investigated for chain welding in recent years in order to replace the currently in use Flash Butt Welding (FBW) process. Modelling has proven to be an indispensable tool in LFW, thus providing necessary insight to the process, regardless of its final application. This article describes a 3D model developed in the commercial software DEFORM to study the LFW process of 30CrNiMo8 high strength steel in the Hero chain. Hence, a weakly coupled thermal and mechanical model were used, by means of the process experimental input such as displacement histories. The flash morphology and intervening mechanisms were analyzed. A thermal evaluation of different regions in the studied geometry was considered, and a correlation of the modeled and experimental width of the extrusion zone was established. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Achievements in Rotary, Linear and Friction Stir Welding of Metals Alloys)

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17069 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Fatigue Properties of AlZn6Mg0.8Zr Alloy Subjected to Low-Temperature Thermomechanical Processing

by Aleksander Kowalski, Wojciech Ozgowicz, Adam Grajcar, Marzena Lech-Grega and Andrzej Kurek

Metals 2017, 7(10), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100448 - 21 Oct 2017

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5072

Abstract

The paper presents results of the investigations on the effect of the low-temperature thermomechanical treatment on the microstructure of AlZn6Mg0.8Zr alloy (7003 alloy) and the relationships between microstructure and fatigue properties and fractography of fractured samples. Fatigue life has been determined in a [...] Read more.

The paper presents results of the investigations on the effect of the low-temperature thermomechanical treatment on the microstructure of AlZn6Mg0.8Zr alloy (7003 alloy) and the relationships between microstructure and fatigue properties and fractography of fractured samples. Fatigue life has been determined in a mechanical test at a simple state of loading under conditions of bending as well as torsion. The development of fatigue cracking has been described based on fractography investigations of the fractured samples making use of a scanning electron microscope (SEM). It was found that the factors determining the fatigue strength of the tested alloy are the microstructure as well as the type and size of the cyclic stresses. These factors determine the fractography of fatigue samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light Weight Alloys: Processing, Properties and Their Applications)

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4586 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Power Diode Laser (HPDL) for Fatigue Life Improvement of Steel: Numerical Modelling

by Stefano Guarino and Gennaro Salvatore Ponticelli

Metals 2017, 7(10), 447; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100447 - 21 Oct 2017

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4719

Abstract

This paper deals with the improvement of fatigue life of AISI 1040 steel components by using a High Power Diode Laser (HPDL). First, the meaningfulness of each operational parameter was assessed by varying the experimental laser power and scan speed. After laser treatment, [...] Read more.

This paper deals with the improvement of fatigue life of AISI 1040 steel components by using a High Power Diode Laser (HPDL). First, the meaningfulness of each operational parameter was assessed by varying the experimental laser power and scan speed. After laser treatment, fatigue tests were performed to investigate the influence of laser processing parameters on the material resistance. The fatigue tests were carried out by using a rotating bending machine. Wöhler curves were obtained from the analysis of experimental results. Second, in the light of experimental findings, a 3D transient finite element method for a laser heat source, with Gaussian energy distribution, was developed to predict the temperature and the depth of the heat affected zone on the workpiece. The model allows us to understand the relationship between the laser treatment parameters and the fatigue enhancement of the components. HPDL was found to significantly increase the fatigue life of the irradiated workpieces, thus revealing its suitability for industrial applications. Full article

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165 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Intermetallics

by Ana Sofia Ramos

Metals 2017, 7(10), 446; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100446 - 20 Oct 2017

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2956

Abstract

The combination of low density, high strength, and good corrosion resistance makes intermetallics promising for structural applications, especially at high temperatures and under severe environments [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intermetallics 2016)

3685 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Strain on the Formation of an Intermetallic Layer in an Al-Ni Laminated Composite

by Monireh Azimi, Mohammad Reza Toroghinejad, Morteza Shamanian and Leo A. I. Kestens

Metals 2017, 7(10), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100445 - 20 Oct 2017

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4375

Abstract

In the present work, the influence of strain on phase formation at the Al/Ni interface was investigated during cold roll bonding and annealing. A sandwich sample composed of an Al-Ni-Al stack was cold rolled with reductions in the range of 50% to 90%, [...] Read more.

In the present work, the influence of strain on phase formation at the Al/Ni interface was investigated during cold roll bonding and annealing. A sandwich sample composed of an Al-Ni-Al stack was cold rolled with reductions in the range of 50% to 90%, followed by annealing at 450 °C for 60 min. The crystallography of the annealed sandwich samples was analyzed by XRD (X-ray diffraction), whereas the microstructure was studied by scanning electron microscopy, equipped with EDS (energy dispersive spectrometer) analysis, and optical microscope. In the annealed samples, the intermetallic phase Al₃Ni has formed at the Ni/Al interface, preferentially on the Al side of the interface. It is found that the applied strains did not have an effect on the type of intermetallic phase that was formed. However, the rolling reduction has a significant effect on the morphology of the intermetallic layer, as it was observed that after the lowest reduction of 50% only some scattered intermetallic nuclei were present, whereas at the highest rolling reduction of 90% a continuous intermetallic layer of 4.1 μm was exhibited. The formation of the intermetallic layer is discussed in terms of Al and Ni diffusion at the interface and irregular nature of the Al/Ni bonded interface after rolling reductions. Full article

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Graphical abstract

1596 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Free Volume Contributing to the Different Yield Behaviors between Tension and Compression Deformations in Metallic Glasses

by Pengwei Wang, Haiyang Li and Liang Yang

Metals 2017, 7(10), 444; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100444 - 20 Oct 2017

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4097

Abstract

The different deformation behaviors in the yield stage, in particular, of metallic glasses under uniaxial tension and compression are investigated from an atomic structural perspective, by applying both experimental and simulation methods. A new computational approach for quantitatively calculating free volumes (FVs) in [...] Read more.

The different deformation behaviors in the yield stage, in particular, of metallic glasses under uniaxial tension and compression are investigated from an atomic structural perspective, by applying both experimental and simulation methods. A new computational approach for quantitatively calculating free volumes (FVs) in structural models is developed, based on which the manner in which FVs contribute to deformation is studied. It is found that FVs have different expansion behaviors in terms of their saturation sizes and corresponding strain values, which are essential structural causes of different yield behaviors in these two deformations in metallic glasses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallic Glasses: Pathways to Viable Applications)

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6172 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Influence of the Powder Stream on High-Deposition-Rate Laser Metal Deposition with Inconel 718

by Chongliang Zhong, Norbert Pirch, Andres Gasser, Reinhart Poprawe and Johannes Henrich Schleifenbaum

Metals 2017, 7(10), 443; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100443 - 20 Oct 2017

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 8206

Abstract

For the purpose of improving the productivity of laser metal deposition (LMD), the focus of current research is set on increasing the deposition rate, in order to develop high-deposition-rate LMD (HDR-LMD). The presented work studies the effects of the powder stream on HDR-LMD [...] Read more.

For the purpose of improving the productivity of laser metal deposition (LMD), the focus of current research is set on increasing the deposition rate, in order to develop high-deposition-rate LMD (HDR-LMD). The presented work studies the effects of the powder stream on HDR-LMD with Inconel 718. Experiments have been designed and conducted by using different powder feeding nozzles—a three-jet and a coaxial powder feeding nozzle—since the powder stream is mainly determined by the geometry of the powder feeding nozzle. After the deposition trials, metallographic analysis of the samples has been performed. The laser intensity distribution (LID) and the powder stream intensity distribution (PID) have been characterized, based on which the processes have been simulated. Finally, for verifying and correcting the used models for the simulation, the simulated results have been compared with the experimental results. Through the conducted work, suitable boundary conditions for simulating the process with different powder streams has been determined, and the effects of the powder stream on the process have also been determined. For a LMD process with a three-jet nozzle a substantial part of the powder particles that hit the melt pool surface are rebounded; for a LMD process with a coaxial nozzle almost all the particles are caught in the melt pool. This is due to the different particle velocities achieved with the two different nozzles. Moreover, the powder stream affects the heat exchange between the heated particles and the melt pool: a surface boundary condition applies for a powder stream with lower particle velocities, in the experiment provided by a three-jet nozzle, and a volumetric boundary condition applies for a powder stream with higher particle velocities, provided by a coaxial nozzle. Full article

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6059 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogen Reduction in MEP Niobium Studied by Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)

by Tadeusz Hryniewicz, Piotr Konarski and Ryszard Rokicki

Metals 2017, 7(10), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100442 - 20 Oct 2017

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4182

Abstract

Niobium, as pure metal and alloying element, is used in a variety of applications, among them in nuclear industries. Niobium is incorporated into nuclear fission reactors due to its enormous strength and low density. Surface finishing of niobium is often performed in electrochemical [...] Read more.

Niobium, as pure metal and alloying element, is used in a variety of applications, among them in nuclear industries. Niobium is incorporated into nuclear fission reactors due to its enormous strength and low density. Surface finishing of niobium is often performed in electrochemical polishing processes in view of improving its smoothness, corrosion resistance and its surface cleanability. However, the presently used electropolishing process (EP) is intrinsically linked to the subsurface hydrogenation of niobium, which measurably degrades its properties. This is why the annealing operation is used to remove hydrogen from electropolished niobium that is a costly and time-consuming process. The traditional electrolyte consisting of a mixture of 96% H₂SO₄/49% HF acids by volume in a 9:1 ratio has been substituted for the new one, being a mixture of 70% methanesulfonic acid with 49% hydrofluoric acid by volume in a 3:1 ratio. Moreover, the additional imposition of a magnetic field during the electropolishing process (MEP) further increases hydrogen removal, when compared to the hydrogen content achieved by the electropolishing process alone. The aim of the study is to reveal a methodic approach and showing decreasing hydrogenation of niobium samples after consecutive steps of electrochemical polishing. Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) was used to measure the hydrogen content in the surface layer of as-received AR niobium and in the samples after EP and MEP processes. Full article

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Graphical abstract

14328 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Increasing Feed Rate on Tool Deterioration and Cutting Force during End Milling of 718Plus Superalloy Using Cemented Tungsten Carbide Tool

by Nurul H. Razak, Zhan W. Chen and Timotius Pasang

Metals 2017, 7(10), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100441 - 19 Oct 2017

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5389

Abstract

Understanding how feed rate (f_t) affects tool deterioration during milling of Ni-based superalloys is practically important, but this understanding is currently insufficient. In the present study using a 718Plus Ni-based alloy and cemented tungsten carbide tool inserts, milling experiments were [...] Read more.

Understanding how feed rate (f_t) affects tool deterioration during milling of Ni-based superalloys is practically important, but this understanding is currently insufficient. In the present study using a 718Plus Ni-based alloy and cemented tungsten carbide tool inserts, milling experiments were conducted with f_t = 0.10 mm/tooth under either dry or wet (with coolant) conditions. The results are compared to those based on using f_t = 0.05 mm/tooth from previous studies. The milling force (F) was monitored, the cutting tool edge was examined and the flank wear (VB_max) was measured. As would be expected, an increase in f_t increased F. It was found that F correlated well with VB_max for the high f_t (0.1 mm/tooth) experiments, as opposed to the previously observed poor F-VB_max relationship for the lower f_t (0.05 mm/tooth) value. This is explained, supported by detailed failure analysis of the cutting tool edges, by the deterioration mode to be dominantly edge chipping with a low occurrence of fracturing along the flank face when the high f_t was used. This dominancy of the deterioration mode means that the tool edge and workpiece contact was consistent and thus resulted in a clear F-VB_max relationship. A clear F-VB_max relationship should then mean monitoring VB_max through monitoring F is possible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metals Machining – Recent Advances in Experimental and Modeling of the Cutting Process)

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15932 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Ultrasonic Surface Impact on the Fatigue Behavior of Ti-6Al-4V Subject to Simulated Body Fluid

by Xiaojian Cao, Xiaoli Xu, Chong Wang, Youngshik Pyoun and Qingyuan Wang

Metals 2017, 7(10), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100440 - 18 Oct 2017

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5414

Abstract

The effect of ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modification (UNSM) on the fatigue behavior of Ti6Al4V (TC4) in simulated body fluid (SBF) was investigated. UNSM with the condition of a static load of 25 N, vibration amplitude of 30 μm and 36,000 strikes per unit [...] Read more.

The effect of ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modification (UNSM) on the fatigue behavior of Ti6Al4V (TC4) in simulated body fluid (SBF) was investigated. UNSM with the condition of a static load of 25 N, vibration amplitude of 30 μm and 36,000 strikes per unit produced about 35 μm surface severe plastic deformation (SPD) layers on the TC4 specimens. One group was treated with a hybrid surface treatment (UNSM + TiN film). UNSM technique improves the micro hardness and the compressive residual stress. The surface roughness is increased slightly, but it can be remarkably improved by the TiN film. The fatigue strength of TC4 is improved by about 7.9% after UNSM. Though the current density of corrosion is increased and the pitting corrosion is accelerated, UNSM still improved the fatigue strength of TC4 after pre-soaking in SBF by 10.8%. Interior cracks initiate at the deformed carbide and oxide inclusions due to the ultrasonic impacts of UNSM. Corrosion products are always observed at the edge of fracture surface to both interior cracks and surface cracks. Coating a TiN film on the UNSMed surface helps to improve the whole properties of TC4 further. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fracture Behaviour of Innovative Materials under Different Enviromental Conditions)

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1949 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Co and Mn for a Co-Mn-Br or Co-Mn-C₂H₃O₂ Petroleum Liquid Catalyst from the Cathode Material of Spent Lithium Ion Batteries by a Hydrometallurgical Route

by Sung-Ho Joo, Dong Ju Shin, Chang Hyun Oh, Je-Pil Wang, Jin Tae Park and Shun Myung Shin

Metals 2017, 7(10), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100439 - 18 Oct 2017

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5382

Abstract

We investigated the preparation of CMB (cobalt-manganese-bromide) and CMA (cobalt-manganese-acetate) liquid catalysts as petroleum liquid catalysts by simultaneously recovering Co and Mn from spent Li-ion battery cathode material. To prepare the liquid catalysts, the total preparation process for the liquid catalysts consisted of [...] Read more.

We investigated the preparation of CMB (cobalt-manganese-bromide) and CMA (cobalt-manganese-acetate) liquid catalysts as petroleum liquid catalysts by simultaneously recovering Co and Mn from spent Li-ion battery cathode material. To prepare the liquid catalysts, the total preparation process for the liquid catalysts consisted of physical pre-treatments, such as grinding and sieving, and chemical processes, such as leaching, solvent extraction, and stripping. In the physical pre-treatment process, over 99% of Al was removed from material with a size of less than 0.42 mm. In the chemical process, the leaching solution as obtained under the following conditions: 2 mol/L sulfuric acid, 10 vol % H₂O₂, 0.1 of solid/liquid ratio, and 60 °C. In the solvent extraction process, the optimum concentration of bis (2,4,4-trimethylpentyl) phosphinic acid (Cyanex 272), the equilibrium pH, the degree of saponification, the organic phase/aqueous phase ratio isotherm, and the stripping study for the extraction of Co and Mn were investigated. As a result, Co and Mn were recovered by 0.85 M Cyanex 272 with 50% saponification in counter current two extraction stages. Finally, a CMB and CMA liquid catalyst containing 33.1 g/L Co, 29.8 g/L Mn, and 168 g/L Br and 12.67 g/L Co, 12.0 g/L Mn, and 511 g/L C₂H₃O₂, respectively, was produced by 2 M hydrogen bromide and 50 vol % acetic acid; it was also found that a shortage in the concentration can be compensated with cobalt and manganese salts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Valuable Metal Recycling)

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3923 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Size Effect and Deformation Mechanism in Twinned Copper Nanowires

by Jiapeng Sun, Cheng Li, Jing Han, Xiaoyan Shao, Xiaowei Yang, Huan Liu, Dan Song and Aibin Ma

Metals 2017, 7(10), 438; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100438 - 18 Oct 2017

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5035

Abstract

Molecular dynamics simulations were performed to demonstrate the synergistic effects of the extrinsic size (nanowire length) and intrinsic size (twin boundary spacing) on the failure manner, yield strength, ductility and deformation mechanism of the twinned nanowires containing high density coherent twin boundaries CTBs [...] Read more.

Molecular dynamics simulations were performed to demonstrate the synergistic effects of the extrinsic size (nanowire length) and intrinsic size (twin boundary spacing) on the failure manner, yield strength, ductility and deformation mechanism of the twinned nanowires containing high density coherent twin boundaries CTBs paralleled to the nanowires’ axis. The twinned nanowires show an intense extrinsic size effect, i.e., shorter is stronger and more ductile, and an intense intrinsic size effect, i.e., thinner is stronger. Notably, the strengthening effect degradation of CTBs in the twinned nanowires is observed with an increase in nanowire length: remarkable strengthening effect can be obtained for the short nanowires, but the strengthening effect becomes less pronounced for the long nanowires. The twinned nanowires fail via a ductile manner or via a brittle manner depending on the synergistic effect of the nanowire length and twin boundary spacing. By atomic-level observation of the plastic deformation, we found that the emission of a trailing 30° partial from the free surface controls the yield behavior of the twinned nanowires. We also found that the special zigzag extended dislocations are formed by the dislocation–CTBs interactions, and propagate to sustain the plastic deformation. Full article

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9552 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Compression Process of MWCNT-Reinforced Al6061 Powder on Densification Characteristics and Its Mechanical Properties

by Hyung Yoon Seo, Long Rui Jiang, Chung Gil Kang and Chul Kyu Jin

Metals 2017, 7(10), 437; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100437 - 18 Oct 2017

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4385

Abstract

In this paper, aluminium-based (Al6061) composites with 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10 vol % of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) are investigated. The composites are fabricated by high-energy ball milling, cold-compacting at room temperature under compacting pressures of 400–1600 MPa, and sintering at [...] Read more.

In this paper, aluminium-based (Al6061) composites with 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10 vol % of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) are investigated. The composites are fabricated by high-energy ball milling, cold-compacting at room temperature under compacting pressures of 400–1600 MPa, and sintering at 620 °C in an argon gas atmosphere. Thereafter, the hardness and microstructure of MWCNTs/Al6061 composites are examined. Further, to improve the relative density and hardness level of the complex material, open-die forging is performed after cold-compacting under 1 GPa pressure at room temperature and sintering at 620 °C. The open-die forging parameters include 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10 vol % MWCNTs/Al6061, and Al6061. The experimental results show that the mechanical properties of the composites are significantly superior to that of the Al6061 alloy after undergoing cold-compacting, sintering, and open-die forging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Mechanical Testing of Powder Metallurgy Alloys)

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10106 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbides Evolution and Tensile Property of 4Cr5MoSiV1 Die Steel with Rare Earth Addition

by Hanghang Liu, Paixian Fu, Hongwei Liu, Chen Sun, Jinzhu Gao and Dianzhong Li

Metals 2017, 7(10), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100436 - 18 Oct 2017

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 4885

Abstract

Studies of 4Cr5MoSiV1 die steel suggest that under appropriate conditions, additions of rare earth (RE) can enhance tensile property. This improvement is apparently due to the more uniform distribution of carbides and the enhancement of precipitation strengthening after RE additions. In this present [...] Read more.

Studies of 4Cr5MoSiV1 die steel suggest that under appropriate conditions, additions of rare earth (RE) can enhance tensile property. This improvement is apparently due to the more uniform distribution of carbides and the enhancement of precipitation strengthening after RE additions. In this present work, the effect of the RE addition on the carbides evolution and tensile property of 4Cr5MoSiV1 steel with various RE contents (0, 0.018, 0.048 and 0.15 wt %) were systematically investigated. The two-dimensional detection techniques such as optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to investigate the carbides evolution of as-cast, annealed and tempered with RE addition. The results indicated that the carbides in 4Cr5MoSiV1 steels were modified by adding the suitable amount of RE. The eutectic structure and coarse eutectic carbides were all refining and the morphology of the annealed carbides initiated change from strip shape to ellipsoidal shape compared with the unmodified test steel (0RE). In addition, the amount of the tempered M₈C₇ carbides increased initially and then decreased with the alteration of RE addition from 0.018 to 0.15 wt %. Notably, the tensile test indicated that the average value of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and elongation rate of 0.048RE steel increased slightly to 1474 MPa and 15%, higher than the 1452 MPa and 12% for the unmodified test steel (0RE), respectively. Such an addition of RE (0.048 wt %) would have a significant effect on the carbides evolution of as-cast, annealed and tempered and resulting in the tensile property of 4Cr5MoSiV1 die steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alloy Steels)

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6143 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microscopic Analysis and Electrochemical Behavior of Fe-Based Coating Produced by Laser Cladding

by Jinlin Chen, Yajun Zhou, Chen Shi and Daheng Mao

Metals 2017, 7(10), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100435 - 18 Oct 2017

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5399

Abstract

The effect of laser cladding on the surface microstructure and corrosion properties of coated/uncoated specimens were investigated. Fe-based alloy coating was produced on 35CrMo steel by laser cladding. The phase composition, microstructure, interface element distribution, microhardness and corrosion resistance of the cladding coating [...] Read more.

The effect of laser cladding on the surface microstructure and corrosion properties of coated/uncoated specimens were investigated. Fe-based alloy coating was produced on 35CrMo steel by laser cladding. The phase composition, microstructure, interface element distribution, microhardness and corrosion resistance of the cladding coating were measured. The results show that the cladding layer is mainly composed of α-Fe phases, the microstructure presents a gradient distribution, and a good metallurgical bond is formed at the boundary with the substrate. Microhardness profiles show that the average microhardness of the cladding coating is about 2.1 times higher than that of the uncoated specimen. In addition, the electrochemical results show that the coated specimen exhibits far better corrosion resistance than to the uncoated specimen. Full article

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4778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Trajectory Analysis of Copper and Glass Particles in Electrostatic Separation for the Recycling of ASR

by Beom-uk Kim, Oh-hyung Han, Ho-seok Jeon, Sang-ho Baek and Chul-hyun Park

Metals 2017, 7(10), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100434 - 17 Oct 2017

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6487

Abstract

Automobile-shredder-residue (ASR) recycling techniques have been widely applied for improving the total recycling rate of end-of-life vehicles. In this study, to obtain useful information for predicting or improving ASR-separation efficiency, trajectory analyses of conductors (copper) and non-conductors (glass) were performed using a lab-scale [...] Read more.

Automobile-shredder-residue (ASR) recycling techniques have been widely applied for improving the total recycling rate of end-of-life vehicles. In this study, to obtain useful information for predicting or improving ASR-separation efficiency, trajectory analyses of conductors (copper) and non-conductors (glass) were performed using a lab-scale induction electrostatic separator. The copper-wire trajectories obtained showed a good agreement depending significantly on the electric field strength and particle size. The observed copper-wire trajectories showed consistent congruity with the coarse-particles simulation (0.5 and 0.25 mm). The observed fine-particles (0.06 mm) trajectory was deflected toward the (−) attractive electrode, owing to the charge density effects due to the particle characteristics and relative humidity. This results in superior separation performance because more copper enters the conductor products bin. The actual dielectric-glass trajectory was deflected toward the (−) attractive electrode, thus showing characteristics similar to conductive-particle characteristics. Through analyses conducted using a stereoscopic microscope, scanning electron microscope, and energy dispersive spectroscope, we found heterogeneous materials (fine ferrous particles and conductive organics) on the glass surface. This demonstrates the separation-efficiency decrease for non-ferrous metals during electrostatic separation in the recycling of ASR. Future work should include a pretreatment process for eliminating impurities from the glass and advanced trajectory-simulation processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Valuable Metal Recycling)

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6765 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Amplitude Dependent Internal Friction in a Mg-Al-Zn Alloy Studied after Thermal and Mechanical Treatment

by Zuzanka Trojanová, Pavel Lukáč, Ján Džugan and Kristýna Halmešová

Metals 2017, 7(10), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100433 - 17 Oct 2017

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4349

Abstract

The amplitude-dependent internal friction of continuously-cast and rolled AZ31 magnesium alloy was measured in this study. Samples were annealed and quenched step by step; immediately after the treatment, the amplitude dependence of the logarithmic decrement was measured. Changes in the microstructure due to [...] Read more.

The amplitude-dependent internal friction of continuously-cast and rolled AZ31 magnesium alloy was measured in this study. Samples were annealed and quenched step by step; immediately after the treatment, the amplitude dependence of the logarithmic decrement was measured. Changes in the microstructure due to thermomechanical treatment were reflected in changes in the damping. Internal friction is influenced by the dislocation substructure and its modification due to solute atoms migration, microplastic deformation, and twins’ formation. Internal friction in the rolled sheets is affected by the rolling texture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Developments in Magnesium Technology—Alloying, Processing, Microstructure, Deformation Mechanism and Mechanical Properties)

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19547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Crack Propagation in Nanoscale Polycrystal Nickel Based on Different Strain Rates

by Yanqiu Zhang and Shuyong Jiang

Metals 2017, 7(10), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100432 - 16 Oct 2017

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6924

Abstract

Based on the strain rates of 2 × 108 s−1 and 2 × 1010 s−1, molecular dynamics simulation was conducted so as to study mechanisms of crack propagation in nanoscale polycrystal nickel. The strain rate has an important effect on the mechanism of [...] Read more.

Based on the strain rates of 2 × 108 s−1 and 2 × 1010 s−1, molecular dynamics simulation was conducted so as to study mechanisms of crack propagation in nanoscale polycrystal nickel. The strain rate has an important effect on the mechanism of crack propagation in nanoscale polycrystal nickel. In the case of a higher strain rate, local non-3D-crystalline atoms are induced and Lomer-Cottrell locks are formed, which plays a critical role in crack initiation and propagation. Orientation difference between adjacent grains leads to the slipping of dislocations along the different directions, which results in the initiation of a void near the triple junction of grain boundaries and further contributes to accelerating the crack propagation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue First-Principles Approaches to Metals, Alloys, and Metallic Compounds)

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5316 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Application of SKSSIM Simulation Software for the Oxygen Bottom Blown Copper Smelting Process

by Qinmeng Wang, Xueyi Guo, Qinghua Tian, Tao Jiang, Mao Chen and Baojun Zhao

Metals 2017, 7(10), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100431 - 16 Oct 2017

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5496

Abstract

The oxygen bottom blown copper smelting process (SKS process) is a newly developed intense smelting process, which has been widely applied to copper production in China. A multiphase equilibrium model for the SKS process was established based on its mechanism characteristics and the [...] Read more.

The oxygen bottom blown copper smelting process (SKS process) is a newly developed intense smelting process, which has been widely applied to copper production in China. A multiphase equilibrium model for the SKS process was established based on its mechanism characteristics and the principle of Gibbs energy minimization, and an efficient simulation software—SKSSIM (SKS Simulation)—was developed based on the model. Industrial data from the SKS process were used to compare with the calculated data from the SKSSIM software. The calculated data on the compositions of slag and matte as well as the distribution ratios of minor elements (such as Pb, Zn, As, Sb and Bi) among the slags, mattes and off-gases were in good agreement with the actual plant data. Accordingly, the SKSSIM simulation software has the potentail to be used for the prediction of smelting production and for optimizing the operating parameters of the SKS process. Full article

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179 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Non-Destructive Metallic Materials Testing—Recent Research and Future Perspectives

by João Manuel R. S. Tavares and Victor Hugo C. De Albuquerque

Metals 2017, 7(10), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100430 - 16 Oct 2017

Viewed by 3067

Abstract

Non-destructive testing (NDT) has become extremely important formicrostructural characterization, mainly by allowing the assessment of metallic material properties in an effective and reasonable manner, in addition to maintaining the integrity of the evaluated metallic samples and applicability in service in many cases [...]
[...] Read more.

Non-destructive testing (NDT) has become extremely important formicrostructural characterization, mainly by allowing the assessment of metallic material properties in an effective and reasonable manner, in addition to maintaining the integrity of the evaluated metallic samples and applicability in service in many cases [...]
Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-Destructive Metallic Materials Testing—Recent Research and Future Perspectives)

19734 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phase Diagram of Al-Ca-Mg-Si System and Its Application for the Design of Aluminum Alloys with High Magnesium Content

by Nikolay A. Belov, Evgenia A. Naumova, Torgom K. Akopyan and Vitaliy V. Doroshenko

Metals 2017, 7(10), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100429 - 13 Oct 2017

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 16132

Abstract

The phase transformations in the Al-Ca-Mg-Si system have been studied using thermodynamic calculations and experimental methods. We show that at 10% Magnesium (Mg), depending on the concentrations of calcium (Ca) and silicon (Si), the following phases crystallize first (apart from the aluminum (Al) [...] Read more.

The phase transformations in the Al-Ca-Mg-Si system have been studied using thermodynamic calculations and experimental methods. We show that at 10% Magnesium (Mg), depending on the concentrations of calcium (Ca) and silicon (Si), the following phases crystallize first (apart from the aluminum (Al) solid solution): Al₄Ca, Mg₂Si, and Al₂CaSi₂. We have found that the major part of the calculated concentration range is covered by the region of the primary crystallization of the Al₂CaSi₂ phase. Regardless of the Ca and Si content, the solidification of the aluminum-magnesium alloys ends with the following nonvariant eutectic reaction: L → (Al) + Al₄Ca + Mg₂Si + Al₃Mg₂. With respect to the temperature and composition of the liquid phase, this reaction is close to the eutectic reaction in the Al-Mg binary system. The addition of Ca and Si to the Al-10% Mg base alloy increases its hardness, reduces its density, and has no negative influence on its corrosion resistance. We have also established that the near-eutectic alloy containing about 3% Ca and 1% Si has the optimum structure. Full article

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8138 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Al-5Mg-0.8Mn Alloys with Various Contents of Fe and Si Cast under Near-Rapid Cooling

by Yulin Liu, Yimeng Sun, Li Zhang, Yuhua Zhao, Jijie Wang and Chunzhong Liu

Metals 2017, 7(10), 428; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100428 - 13 Oct 2017

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5907

Abstract

Al-5Mg-0.8Mn alloys (AA5083) with various iron and silicon contents were cast under near-rapid cooling and rolled into sheets. The aim was to study the feasibility of minimizing the deteriorating level of the harmful Fe-rich phases on the mechanical properties through refining the intermetallics [...] Read more.

Al-5Mg-0.8Mn alloys (AA5083) with various iron and silicon contents were cast under near-rapid cooling and rolled into sheets. The aim was to study the feasibility of minimizing the deteriorating level of the harmful Fe-rich phases on the mechanical properties through refining the intermetallics by significantly increasing the casting rate. The results showed that the size and density of the intermetallic particles that remained in the hot bands and the cold rolled sheets increased as the contents of iron and silicon in the alloys were increased. However, the increment of the particle sizes was limited due to the significant refinement of the intermetallics formed during casting under near-rapid cooling. The mechanical properties of the alloys reduced as the contents of iron and silicon in the alloys increased. However, the decrement of tensile strengths and ductility was quite small. Therefore, higher contents of iron and silicon could be used in the Al-5Mg-0.8Mn alloy (AA5083 alloy) when the material is cast under near-rapid cooling, such as in the continuous strip casting process. Full article

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12719 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Deep Cryogenic Treatment on the Corrosion Behavior of Mg-7Y-1.5Nd Magnesium Alloy

by Quantong Jiang, Lihui Yang and Baorong Hou

Metals 2017, 7(10), 427; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100427 - 13 Oct 2017

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5300

Abstract

The effect of quenching on the corrosion resistance of Mg-7Y-1.5Nd alloy was investigated. The as-cast alloy was homogenized at 535 °C for 24 h, followed by quenching in air, water, and liquid nitrogen. Then, all of the samples were peak-aged at 225 °C [...] Read more.

The effect of quenching on the corrosion resistance of Mg-7Y-1.5Nd alloy was investigated. The as-cast alloy was homogenized at 535 °C for 24 h, followed by quenching in air, water, and liquid nitrogen. Then, all of the samples were peak-aged at 225 °C for 14 h. The microstructures were studied by scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive spectrometry, and X-ray diffraction. Corrosion behavior was analyzed by using weight loss rate and gas collection. Electrochemical characterizations revealed that the T4-deep cryogenic sample displayed the strongest corrosion resistance among all of the samples. A new square phase was discovered in the microstructure of the T6-deep cryogenic sample; this phase was hugely responsible for the corrosion property. Cryogenic treatment significantly improved the corrosion resistance of Mg-7Y-1.5Nd alloy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion of Magnesium Alloys)

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9093 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Tool Path Strategy and Cooling Condition Effects on the Cutting Force and Surface Quality in Micromilling Operations

by Ugur Koklu and Gültekin Basmaci

Metals 2017, 7(10), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100426 - 13 Oct 2017

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6179

Abstract

Compared to milling on a macro scale, the micromilling process has several cumbersome points that need to be addressed. Rapid tool wear and fracture, severe burr formation, and poor surface quality are the major problems encountered in the micromilling process. This study aimed [...] Read more.

Compared to milling on a macro scale, the micromilling process has several cumbersome points that need to be addressed. Rapid tool wear and fracture, severe burr formation, and poor surface quality are the major problems encountered in the micromilling process. This study aimed to reveal the effect of cutting path strategies on the cutting force and surface quality in the micromilling of a pocket. The hatch zigzag tool path strategy and the contour climb tool path strategy under different cooling conditions (e.g., dry, air blow, and flood coolant) at fixed cutting parameters. The micromilling tests revealed that better results were obtained with the use of the contour tool path strategy in terms of cutting forces (by up to ~43% compared to the dry condition) and surface quality (by up to ~44% compared to the air blow condition) when compared to the hatch tool path strategy. In addition, the flood coolant reduces the cutting temperature and eliminates chips to significantly enhance the quality of the micro milled surface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metals Machining – Recent Advances in Experimental and Modeling of the Cutting Process)

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7055 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formation of Nanoscale Metallic Glassy Particle Reinforced Al-Based Composite Powders by High-Energy Milling

by Weiwen Zhang, Yuan Hu, Guanqun Zhang and Zhi Wang

Metals 2017, 7(10), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100425 - 12 Oct 2017

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5149

Abstract

The initial microstructure and mechanical properties of composite powders have a vital role in determining the microstructure and mechanical properties of the subsequent consolidated bulk composites. In this work, Al-based matrix composite powders with a dense and uniform distribution of metallic glass nanoparticles [...] Read more.

The initial microstructure and mechanical properties of composite powders have a vital role in determining the microstructure and mechanical properties of the subsequent consolidated bulk composites. In this work, Al-based matrix composite powders with a dense and uniform distribution of metallic glass nanoparticles were obtained by high-energy milling. The results show that high-energy milling is an effective method for varying the microstructure and mechanical properties of the composite powders, thereby offering the ability to control the final microstructure and properties of the bulk composites. It was found that the composite powders show a deformed layer combined with an undeformed core after milling. The reinforcements, metallic glass microparticles, are fractured into dense distributed nanoparticles in the deformed layer, owing to the severe plastic deformation, while in the undeformed core, the metallic glass microparticles are maintained. Therefore, a bimodal structure was obtained, showing a mechanical bimodal structure that has much higher hardness in the outer layer than the center core. The hardness of the composite particles increases significantly with increasing milling time, due to dispersion strengthening and work hardening. Full article

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14463 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of Resistance Spot Welded Ti6Al4V Titanium Alloy Sheets

by Xinge Zhang, Jiangshuai Zhang, Fei Chen, Zhaojun Yang and Jialong He

Metals 2017, 7(10), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100424 - 12 Oct 2017

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7450

Abstract

Ti6Al4V titanium alloy is applied extensively in the aviation, aerospace, jet engine, and marine industries owing to its strength-to-weight ratio, excellent high-temperature properties and corrosion resistance. In order to extend the application range, investigations on welding characteristics of Ti6Al4V alloy using more welding [...] Read more.

Ti6Al4V titanium alloy is applied extensively in the aviation, aerospace, jet engine, and marine industries owing to its strength-to-weight ratio, excellent high-temperature properties and corrosion resistance. In order to extend the application range, investigations on welding characteristics of Ti6Al4V alloy using more welding methods are required. In the present study, Ti6Al4V alloy sheets were joined using resistance spot welding, and the weld nugget formation, mechanical properties (including tensile strength and hardness), and microstructure features of the resistance spot-welded joints were analyzed and evaluated. The visible indentations on the weld nugget surfaces caused by the electrode force and the surface expulsion were severe due to the high welding current. The weld nugget width at the sheets’ faying surface was mainly affected by the welding current and welding time, and the welded joint height at weld nugget center was chiefly associated with electrode force. The maximum tensile load of welded joint was up to 14.3 kN in the pullout failure mode. The hardness of the weld nugget was the highest because of the coarse acicular α′ structure, and the hardness of the heat-affected zone increased in comparison to the base metal due to the transformation of the β phase to some fine acicular α′ phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light Weight Alloys: Processing, Properties and Their Applications)

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0 pages, 8370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Metallographic Etchants for the Microstructure Evolution of A6082-T6 BFSW Welds

by Abbas Tamadon, Dirk J. Pons, Kamil Sued and Don Clucas

Metals 2017, 7(10), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100423 - 11 Oct 2017

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 10578 | Correction

Abstract

BACKGROUND—The solid-phase joining of A6082-T6 plates by bobbin friction stir welding (BFSW) is problematic. Better methods are needed to evaluate the microstructural evolution of the weld. However, conventional Al reagents (e.g., Keller’s and Kroll’s) do not elucidate the microstructure satisfactorily, specifically regarding grain [...] Read more.

BACKGROUND—The solid-phase joining of A6082-T6 plates by bobbin friction stir welding (BFSW) is problematic. Better methods are needed to evaluate the microstructural evolution of the weld. However, conventional Al reagents (e.g., Keller’s and Kroll’s) do not elucidate the microstructure satisfactorily, specifically regarding grain size and morphology within the weld region. APPROACH—We developed innovative etchants for metallographic observations for optical microscopy. RESULTS—The macrostructure and microstructure of A6082-T6 BFSW welds were clearly demonstrated by optical microscopy analysis. The microetching results demonstrated different microstructures of the Stir Zone (S.Z) distinct from the Base Metal (B.M) and Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) & Thermo-mechanical Affected Zone (TMAZ). The micrographs showed a significant decrease in grain size from 100 μm in B.M to ultrafine 4–10 μm grains for the S.Z. Also, the grain morphology changed from directional columnar in the B.M to equiaxed in the S.Z. Furthermore, thermomechanical recrystallization was observed by the morphological flow of the grain distortion in HAZ and TMAZ. The etchants also clearly show the polycrystalline structure, microflow patterns, and the incoherent interface around inclusion defects. ORIGINALITY—Chemical compositions are identified for a suite of etchant reagents for metallographic examination of the friction-stir welded A6082-T6 alloy. The reagents have made it possible to reveal microstructures not previously evident with optical microscopy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Achievements in Rotary, Linear and Friction Stir Welding of Metals Alloys)

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168 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Metals Are Main Actors in the Biological World

by Giuseppe Grasso

Metals 2017, 7(10), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100422 - 11 Oct 2017

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3134

Abstract

The word “metallomics” was introduced for the first time in 2004 [1] to describe the emerging scientific field of investigation addressing the role that metal ions have in the biological world, including their trafficking, uptake, transport, and storage.[...]
Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallomics)

6134 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Vibration during Friction Stir Welding on Corrosion Behavior, Mechanical Properties, and Machining Characteristics of Stir Zone

by Sajad Fouladi, Amir H. Ghasemi, Mahmoud Abbasi, Morteza Abedini, Amir Mahyar Khorasani and Ian Gibson

Metals 2017, 7(10), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7100421 - 10 Oct 2017

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6401

Abstract

Different methods have been applied to refine various characteristics of the zone (or nugget) obtained by friction stir welding (FSW). In the current research, joining components are vibrated normal to the weld line during FSW to refine the zone microstructure. This process is [...] Read more.

Different methods have been applied to refine various characteristics of the zone (or nugget) obtained by friction stir welding (FSW). In the current research, joining components are vibrated normal to the weld line during FSW to refine the zone microstructure. This process is described as friction stir vibration welding (FSVW). The effect of FSVW on mechanical properties, corrosion behavior, and machining characteristics of the zone are investigated. Al5052 alloy specimens are welded using FSW and FSVW processes and their different characteristics are compared and discussed. The results show that the strength and ductility of the welded parts increase when the vibration is applied. The outcomes also show that corrosion resistance of the nugget for FSV-welded specimens is lower than FS welded samples, and machining force of the former specimens is higher than the latter ones. These are related to smaller grain size in the zone of FSV-welded specimens compared to FS welded parts. Smaller grain size leads to a greater volume fraction of grain boundaries and, correspondingly, higher strength and hardness, as well as lower corrosion resistance. Full article

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