Literature Review of the Principal Diagnostic Tests to Detect Bovine Respiratory Disease in Pre-Weaned Dairy and Veal Calves
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Clinical Respiratory Scoring Systems
2.1. Clinical Respiratory Scoring Systems Used in Pre-Weaned Dairy and Veal Calves
2.2. Performance of Clinical Respiratory Scoring Systems Used in Pre-Weaned Dairy and Veal Calves
2.3. Agreement between Operators of Clinical Respiratory Scoring Systems
3. Thoracic Auscultation
3.1. Technique of Thoracic Auscultation
3.2. Interpretation of Thoracic Auscultation
3.3. Performance and Agreement between Thoracic Auscultation
4. Imaging Tests
4.1. Thoracic Ultrasonography
4.1.1. Technique of Thoracic Ultrasonography
4.1.2. Interpretation of Thoracic Ultrasonography
4.1.3. Performance and Agreement of Thoracic Ultrasonography
4.2. Thoracic Radiography
4.2.1. Technique of Thoracic Radiography
4.2.2. Interpretation of Thoracic Radiography
4.2.3. Performances and Agreement of Thoracic Radiography
5. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Clinical Respiratory Scoring System | Developing Population | Predictors | Assessment of Predictors | Weight 1 | Interpretation of the Final Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
WISCONSIN SCORE McGuirk [26] | Pre-weaned dairy calves housed in group. | 5 predictors Rectal temperature Nasal discharge Ocular discharge Cough Ear droop or head tilt | Severity (0–3) 2 | ♦ x 1 for all predictors | Subjective threshold. two thresholds reported: ≥6 [25] ≥5 [26] |
CALIFORNIA SCORE Love et al. [27] | Pre-weaned dairy calves housed individually. | 6 predictors The same 5 predictors as the Wisconsin score + Abnormal breathing | Presence or absence | ♦ x 2 Ocular discharge, cough, abnormal breathing, rectal temperature (≥39.2 °C) ♦ x 4 Nasal discharge ♦ x 5 Ear droop or head tilt | Threshold statistically estimated to optimize the performance of the score. Threshold ≥ 5 |
CALIFORNIA SCORE from QUÉBEC Buczinski et al. [28] | Pre-weaned dairy calves housed individually or in group. | 6 predictors The same 6 predictors as the California score | Presence or absence | ♦ x 20 Abnormal breathing ♦ x 16 Ear droop or head tilt, cough ♦ x 10 Nasal discharge ♦ x 7 Rectal temperature ♦ x − 1 Ocular discharge | Threshold statistically estimated to optimize the performance of the score. Thresholds vary according to the prevalence in a group. Threshold varying from 9 to 16. The more the prevalence is elevated, the more the threshold is decreased. |
BERMAN SCORE–VEAL CALVES Berman et al. [29] | Veal calves housed individually. | 3 Predictors Cough Rectal temperature Ear droop or head tilt | Presence or absence | ♦ x 10 Cough ♦ x 9 Ear droop or head tilt ♦ x 6 Rectal temperature (≥39.7 °C) | Threshold statistically estimated to reduce economic losses due to a wrong diagnosis. Individual: ≥15 or the presence of 2 signs on 3. Group: 3 positive calves among 10 sampled calves. |
Clinical Respiratory Scoring System | Reference | Study Population | Comparator Test to Confirm the Disease | Performance | Limits |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
WISCONSIN SCORE | Buczinski et al. [30] | Pre-weaned dairy calves housed in group or individually from a population of high prevalence [30] or low prevalence [31]. | Latent class Bayesian analysis using imperfect thoracic ultrasonography results (positive if lung consolidation ≥ 1 cm). | Se = 0.62 (95%BCI: 0.48; 0.76) Sp = 0.74 (95%BCI: 0.65; 0.83) | ♦ Imprecisions around Se and Sp values. ♦ Performance for BRD (upper infection, active and inactive BP). |
Love et al. [32] | Pre-weaned dairy calves housed individually, with calves randomly selected for the estimation of screening sensitivity (SSe), and suspected sick calves selected for an estimation of confirmatory sensitivity (CSe). | Composite standard test = 2 imperfect tests interpreted in parallel. ♦ Thoracic ultrasonography (positive if extensive or focal consolidation, abscess > 2 cm, pleural effusion). ♦ Thoracic auscultation (positive if abnormal breath sounds are present). | SSe = 0.46 (95%CI: 0.39; 0.53) CSe = 0.71 (95%CI: 0.64; 0.78) Sp = 0.91 (95%CI: 0.87; 0.94) | ♦ Spectral bias–case-control design. ♦ Classification bias–imperfect comparator test. ♦ Performance for BRD (upper infection, active and inactive BP). | |
Lowie et al. [33] | Database from 297 dairy calves, including pre-weaned and weaned calves, and 399 veal calves. | Single comparator test: thoracic ultrasonography (positive if consolidation ≥ 1 and ≥3 cm). | Pre-weaned dairy and veal calves Se = 0.27 (≥1 cm) and 0.22 (≥3 cm) Sp = 0.94 (≥1 cm) and 0.86 (≥3 cm) | ♦ No CI calculation to assess precision of values. ♦ Classification bias–imperfect comparator test. ♦ Performance for BRD (upper infection, active and inactive BP). | |
CALIFORNIA SCORE | Love et al. [32] | Pre-weaned dairy calves housed individually, with calves randomly selected for the estimation of screening sensitivity (SSe), and suspected sick calves selected for an estimation of confirmatory sensitivity (CSe). | Composite standard test = 2 imperfect tests interpreted in parallel. ♦ Thoracic ultrasonography (positive if extensive or focal consolidation, abscess > 2 cm, pleural effusion). ♦ Thoracic auscultation (positive if presence of abnormal sounds). | SSe = 0.47 (95%CI: 0.40; 0.54) CSe = 0.73 (95%CI: 0.65; 0.79) Sp = 0.87 (95%CI: 0.83; 0.91) | ♦ Spectral bias–case-control design. ♦ Classification bias–imperfect comparator test. ♦ Performance for BRD (upper infection, active and inactive BP). |
Lowie et al. [33] | Database from 297 dairy calves, including pre-weaned and weaned calves, and 399 veal calves. | Single comparator test: thoracic ultrasonography (positive if consolidation ≥ 1 and ≥3 cm). | Pre-weaned dairy and veal calves Se = 0.33 (≥1 cm) and 0.23 (≥3 cm) Sp = 0.83 (≥1 cm) and 0.86 (≥3 cm) | ♦ No CI calculation to assess the precision of values. ♦ Classification bias–imperfect comparator test. ♦ Performance for BRD (upper infection, active and inactive BP). | |
CALIFORNIA SCORE from QUÉBEC | Buczinski et al. [28] | Pre-weaned dairy calves housed individually or in group. | Latent class Bayesian analysis using imperfect results of thoracic ultrasonography (positive if lung consolidation ≥ 1 cm) | Se from 0.83 to 0.67 for a threshold from 9 to 13, respectively, according to the prevalence in the group. Sp from 0.69 to 0.83 for a threshold from 9 to 13, respectively, according to the prevalence in the group. | ♦ Performance for BRD (upper infection, active and inactive BP). |
BERMAN SCORE–VEAL CALVES | Berman et al. [29] | Veal calves housed individually. | Latent class Bayesian analysis using imperfect results of thoracic ultrasonography (positive if lung consolidation ≥ 3 cm) and haptoglobin dosage (positive if ≥0.25 mg/L). | Se = 0.31 (95%BCI: 0.10; 0.70) Sp = 1.00 (95%BCI: 0.99; 1.0) | ♦ Imprecisions around Se values because of the low prevalence. ♦ Performance of active BP. |
Audible Sound | Definition | Pathologic Signification |
---|---|---|
Normal breath sounds | Normal velocity of respiratory gases. | Physiologic |
Increased breath sounds | Increase of the velocity of respiratory gases secondary to the respiratory frequency increased, or the breathing depth increased. | ♦ Physiologic (e.g., intense training, excitation, elevated environmental temperature). ♦ Pathologic (e.g., fever, acidosis, beginning of pulmonary oedema). |
Increased bronchial sounds | Sounds audible in the pulmonary area, such as tracheal sounds. Increased bronchial sounds occur when bronchi are surrounded by consolidated lung parenchyma, enhancing sound amplification. | Pathologic (infectious bronchopneumonia with lesions of lung consolidation with bronchograms (i.e., bronchi are not filled by liquid)). |
Crackles | Clicking, rattling, or cracking noises. Two phenomena can cause this sound: (1) liquid bubble bursting into respiratory tracts, or (2) respiratory tract that remains closed during a part of the inspiration and opens suddenly. | Pathologic (pulmonary edema, interstitial pneumonia). |
Wheezes | Vibration of respiration of the airways or air passing through the narrowed airways. | Pathologic (allergic pneumonia, infectious bronchopneumonia, interstitial pneumonia). |
Pleural friction rubs | Noises similar to the use of sandpaper are caused by inflammation of the pleural cavity and the friction between both visceral and parietal pleura. | Pathologic (pleurobronchopneumonia). |
Decreased breath sounds | Decrease in the velocity of respiratory gases caused by: (1) obstruction of the transmission of breath sounds (fluid accumulation (pleural effusion), air (pneumothorax), pus (pleural abscess or pyothorax), obesity); (2) severe lung consolidation with bronchograms (i.e., bronchi filled of liquids); (3) superficial respiration (pain, weakness, meningoencephalitis). | ♦ Physiologic (obesity). ♦ Pathologic (infectious bronchopneumonia, pleurobronchopneumonia, pain, weakness, meningoencephalitis). |
Sounds from thoracic area | Respiratory grunts, cardiac sounds, ruminal sounds, cutaneous friction sounds. |
Study | Population | Definition of a Positive Test | Comparator Test to Confirm the Disease | Performance | Limits |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Buczinski et al. [38] | Pre-weaned dairy calves | Wheezes, crackles, decreased breath sounds, pleural friction rubs. | Thoracic ultrasonography (positive if lung consolidation ≥ 1 cm) used as gold standard test. | Se = 0.06 between 0 to 0.17 according to auscultation area Sp = 0.99 between 0.97 to 1.0 according to auscultation area | ♦ Classification bias: imperfect comparator test. ♦ Performance for active and inactive BP. |
Buczinski et al. [44] | Veal calves around three weeks old | Wheezes, crackles, decreased breath sounds, pleural friction rubs, and increased breath sounds. | Latent class Bayesian analysis using imperfect results of thoracic ultrasonography (positive if lung consolidation ≥ 1 cm). | Se = 0.73 (95%BCI: 0.50; 0.96) Sp = 0.53 (95%BCI: 0.43; 0.64) | ♦ Imprecisions around Se and Sp values. ♦ Performance for active and inactive BP. |
Pardon et al. [45] | 3 sections with 8–10 veal calves of 5, 10, and 13 weeks old. | According to the operator. | Thoracic ultrasonography (positive if lung consolidation ≥ 1 cm) used as gold standard test. | Se = 0.63 (SD = 0.2) Sp = 0.46 (SD = 0.3) SD: Standard deviation | ♦ Classification bias: imperfect comparator test. ♦ Imprecisions around Se and Sp values. ♦ Performance for active and inactive BP. |
Boccardo et al. [40] | 330 pre-weaned and weaned dairy calves | AUSC 1: Increased breath sounds, wheezes, crackles, increased bronchial sounds, and pleural friction rubs. | Latent class Bayesian analysis using imperfect results of thoracic ultrasonography (positive if lung consolidation ≥ 3 cm) and Wisconsin Score (positive if score ≥ 5). | AUSC 1 Se = 0.90 (95%BCI: 0.81; 0.98) Sp = 0.57 (95%BCI: 0.47; 0.72) | ♦ Imprecisions around Se and Sp values ♦ Performance for active and inactive BP |
AUSC 2: Wheezes, crackles, increased bronchial sounds, and pleural friction rubs. | AUSC 2 Se = 0.82 (95%BCI: 0.69; 0.95) Sp = 0.91 (95%BCI: 0.81; 0.99) | ||||
AUSC 3: Increased branchial sounds and pleural friction rubs. | AUSC 3 Se = 0.68 (95%BCI: 0.56; 0.83) Sp = 0.99 (95%BCI: 0.94; 1.0) |
Study | Population | Definition of a Positive Test | Comparator Test to Confirm the Disease | Performance | Limits |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rabeling et al. [66] | Weaned dairy calves with severe BP. | Comet tails, abscesses, consolidation (>0 cm). | Test gold standard = necropsy | Se = 0.85 Sp = 0.98 | ♦ Spectral bias, case-control design and cases being severely or chronically infected. |
Jung and Bostedt. [71] | Pre-weaned dairy calves of 0 to 14 days old. | Comet tails, abscesses, pleural effusion, pneumothorax, consolidation (>0 cm). | Imperfect single test = thoracic radiography | Se = 0.77 Sp = 1.0 | ♦ Classification bias: imperfect comparator test. ♦ Spectral bias–case-control design. ♦ Performance for active BP. |
Ollivett et al. [58] | Pre-weaned dairy calves without clinical signs (score of Wisconsin < 5). | Comet tails, abscesses, pleural effusion, pneumothorax, consolidation (>0 cm). | Test gold standard = necropsy | Se = 0.94 (95%CI: 0.69; 1) Sp = 1.0 (95%CI: 0.64; 1) | ♦ Spectral biases, including solely subclinical cases. ♦ Imprecision around Se and Sp values. ♦ Performance for inactive and active BP. |
Buczinski et al. [30] | Pre-weaned dairy calves housed in group or individually from a population of high prevalence [30] or low prevalence [31]. | Consolidation (≥1 cm). | Latent class Bayesian analysis performance when estimating the performance of Wisconsin score and using priors from experts regarding performance of thoracic ultrasonography. | Se = 0.79 (95%BCI: 0.66; 0.91) Sp = 0.94 (95%BCI: 0.88; 0.98) | ♦ Previous performances included thoracic ultrasonography and a small number of calves (n = 191), which could have influenced the results of Bayesian analysis. ♦ Imprecision around Se values (low prevalence). ♦ Performance for inactive and active BP. |
Buczinski et al. [44] | Veal calves around three-weeks old. | Consolidation (≥1 cm). | Latent class Bayesian analysis performance to estimate the performance of thoracic auscultation and using priors from experts for the performance of thoracic ultrasonography. | Se = 0.77 (95%BCI: 0.60; 0.89) Sp = 0.93 (95%BCI: 0.87; 0.97) | ♦ Previous performances used thoracic ultrasonography and a small number of calves (n = 209), which could have influenced the results of Bayesian analysis. ♦ Imprecision around Se values (low prevalence). ♦ Performance for inactive and active BP. |
Berman et al. [69] | Veal calves around three-weeks old and pre-weaned dairy calves. | Different thresholds of consolidation (0, 1 or 3 cm) et different sites (caudal versus cranial). | Latent class Bayesian analysis performance to estimate performance of thoracic ultrasonography and using priors from experts for performance of Wisconsin scoer and haptoglobin dosage. | Best performances for the threshold of 3 cm, caudal Se = 0.89 (95% BCI: 0.55; 1.0) Sp = 0.95 (95% BCI: 0.92; 0.98) | ♦ Imprecision around Se values (low prevalence). ♦ Performance for active BP. |
Berman et al. [72] | Dairy calves weighting ≤ 100 kg. | All lesions, consolidation (≥1 cm). | Diagnostic panel including 3 experts in bovine medicine with an inter-operator agreement of 0.58. | Se = 0.84 (95%CI: 0.60; 0.97) Sp = 0.74 (95%CI: 0.57; 0.86) | ♦ Imprecision around Se and Sp values (low number of calves (n = 50) and lack of power). ♦ Performance for active BP. |
Berman et al. [73] | Dairy calves weighting ≤ 100 kg. | All lesions, consolidation (≥1 cm). | Latent class Bayesian analysis in two-steps using CT scan as gold-standard test on positive calves on thoracic ultrasonography and/or thoracic radiography. | Se = 0.81 (95%BCI: 0.65; 0.92) Sp = 0.90 (95% BIC: 0.81; 0.96) | ♦ Imprecision around Se and Sp values (low number of calves (n = 50) and lack of power). ♦ Performance for active and inactive BP (lung lesions). |
Study | Population | Definition of a Positive Test | Comparator Test to Confirm the Disease | Performances | Limits |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Berman et al. [72] | Dairy calves weighting ≤ 100 kg. | All the lesions | Diagnostic panel including 3 experts in bovine medicine with an inter-operator agreement of 0.58. | Se = 0.89 (95%CI: 0.67; 0.99) Sp = 0.58 (95%CI: 0.39; 0.75) | ♦ Imprecision around Se and Sp values (low number of calves (n = 50) and lack of power). ♦ Performance for active BP. |
Berman et al. [73] | Dairy calves weighting ≤ 100 kg. | All the lesions | Latent class Bayesian analysis in two-steps using CT scan as gold-standard test on positive calves on thoracic ultrasonography and\or thoracic radiography. | Se = 0.86 (95%BCI: 0.62; 0.99) Sp = 0.89 (95%BCI: 0.67; 0.99) | ♦ Imprecision around Se and Sp values (low number of calves (n = 50) and lack of power). ♦ Performance for active and inactive BP (lung lesions). |
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Berman, J. Literature Review of the Principal Diagnostic Tests to Detect Bovine Respiratory Disease in Pre-Weaned Dairy and Veal Calves. Animals 2024, 14, 329. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14020329
Berman J. Literature Review of the Principal Diagnostic Tests to Detect Bovine Respiratory Disease in Pre-Weaned Dairy and Veal Calves. Animals. 2024; 14(2):329. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14020329
Chicago/Turabian StyleBerman, Julie. 2024. "Literature Review of the Principal Diagnostic Tests to Detect Bovine Respiratory Disease in Pre-Weaned Dairy and Veal Calves" Animals 14, no. 2: 329. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14020329