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Lineage Diversification and Population Dynamics of the Qinghai Toad-Headed Agama (Phrynocephalus vlangalii) on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, with Particular Attention to the Northern Slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains
1
Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610213, China
2
Chengdu Library and Information Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610299, China
3
Department of Pathogenic Biology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Animals 2025, 15(3), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15030400
Submission received: 1 December 2024
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Revised: 19 January 2025
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Accepted: 28 January 2025
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Published: 31 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evolution, Diversity, and Conservation of Herpetofauna: Second Edition)
Simple Summary
This study investigates the phylogeography and population genetics of the Qinghai toad-headed agama (Phrynocephalus vlangalii) on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. We analyzed genetic data from 130 new individuals and from 253 individuals from GenBank and identified six distinct clades, including a new genetic lineage and the subspecies P. v. lidskii on the northern slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains. The study found high genetic diversity and significant divergence between the clades, driven by geographical and environmental variables. The ancestry of the species dates back 2.55 million years, influenced by geological movements and glacial cycles. There was no population decline during the Last Glacial Maximum, and ecological niche modeling predicts future habitat expansion. Morphological data also confirmed clade differences, improving our understanding of P. vlangalii diversification and adaptation to geological and climatic changes in the region.
Abstract
The Kunlun, Arjin, and Qilian mountain ranges mark the northern edge of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP), where rapid uplift and Quaternary glacial cycles have shaped a unique cold desert ecosystem and species distribution. Despite sampling challenges, phylogeographic studies are crucial for understanding reptile populations such as the Qinghai toad-headed agama (Phrynocephalus vlangalii), a viviparous lizard with limited dispersal and multiple subspecies in the northeastern QTP. Our fieldwork identified populations of P. vlangalii on the northern slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains, similar to the controversial subspecies P. v. lidskii. We analyzed 130 individuals from the northern slope of the Kunlun–Arjin–Qilian Mountains and 253 individuals from GenBank, using three mitochondrial genes and two nuclear genes to assess intraspecific differentiation and demographic history. We found high haplotype diversity and low nucleotide diversity in P. vlangalii, with phylogenetic analyses revealing six distinct clades. Clade VI, confirmed as P. v. lidskii, and Clade IV, a new genetic lineage, were identified alongside three recognized subspecies. Genetic variation was largely attributed to clade splitting, indicating significant divergence. The Mantel test indicated that geographical and environmental factors drove population differentiation. Bayesian molecular clock analysis suggested that the most recent common ancestor of P. vlangalii lived 2.55 million years ago, influenced by the Qinghai–Tibet Movement and glacial cycles. Demographic history and ecological niche modeling (ENM) indicated no population decline during the Last Glacial Maximum, supporting the glacial maximum expansion model, with ENM predicting future habitat expansion for P. vlangalii. In addition, morphological data from 13 meristic and 15 metric characters confirmed clade differences. Our findings significantly advance our understanding of P. vlangalii diversification, population dynamics and response to geological and climatic changes in the QTP.
