Environments

20 pages, 5042 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advancing Water Security and Agricultural Productivity: A Case Study of Transboundary Cooperation Opportunities in the Kabul River Basin

by Yar M. Taraky, Ed McBean, Andrew Binns and Bahram Gharabaghi

Environments 2024, 11(11), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110253 - 13 Nov 2024

Abstract

The Kabul River Basin (KRB) is witnessing frequent flood and drought events that influence food production and distribution. The KRB is one of the world’s poorest regions regarding food security. Food security issues in the KRB include shifts in short-term climate cycles with [...] Read more.

The Kabul River Basin (KRB) is witnessing frequent flood and drought events that influence food production and distribution. The KRB is one of the world’s poorest regions regarding food security. Food security issues in the KRB include shifts in short-term climate cycles with significant river flow variations that result in inadequate water distribution. Due to the lack of hydro-infrastructure, low irrigation efficiency, and continuing wars, the Afghanistan portion of the KRB has experienced low agricultural land expansion opportunities for food production. This research assesses the relationship between flood mitigation, flow balances, and food production and, cumulatively, assesses the social and economic well-being of the population of the KRB. SWAT modeling and climate change (CCSM4) implications are utilized to assess how these relationships impact the social and economic well-being of the population in the KRB. The intricacies of transboundary exchange and cooperation indicate that the conservation of ~38% of the water volume would nearly double the low flows in the dry season and result in the retention of ~2B m³/y of water for agricultural developmental use. Results show that the peak flood flow routing in reservoirs on the Afghanistan side of the KRB would have a substantial positive impact on agricultural products and, therefore, food security. Water volume conservation has the potential to provide ~44% more arable land with water, allowing a ~51% increase in crop yield, provided that improved irrigation efficiency techniques are utilized. Full article

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13 pages, 1825 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conceptual Design of an Urban Pocket Park Located in the Site of the Occurrence of a Nineteenth-Century Chapel Using Representatives of Local Xerothermic Vegetation

by Weronika Kopeć, Ewa Hanus-Fajerska and Leszek Bylina

Environments 2024, 11(11), 252; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110252 - 13 Nov 2024

Abstract

The 19th century neo-Gothic chapel located in the Stradom district of Czestochowa, Southern Poland and built at the intersection of the main streets is a recognizable landmark of great historical value. Unfortunately, the current condition of the surroundings depreciates the charm of such [...] Read more.

The 19th century neo-Gothic chapel located in the Stradom district of Czestochowa, Southern Poland and built at the intersection of the main streets is a recognizable landmark of great historical value. Unfortunately, the current condition of the surroundings depreciates the charm of such a chapel, and thus does not encourage people to admire it. Therefore, in order to expose such a valuable object, we planned to create a conceptual design of a pocket park around this cultural monument. When choosing the location of any park, it is recommended to know the needs of the local residents, so we conducted a survey regarding their wishes. When designing the area, we intended to use species representing the vegetation characteristic of the Krakow–Czestochowa Upland located in Southern Poland. At the same time, we used a material typical of the area, namely limestone. Design principles around the chapel were taken into account, separating the sacred and profane zones with the intention of giving this site a unique character and creating the first urban pocket park of this kind. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Sequestration Potential of Urban Parks)

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14 pages, 926 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Trophic Status and Trend Using the Transitional Water Eutrophication Assessment Method: A Case Study from Venice Lagoon

by Emanuele Ponis, Federica Cacciatore, Valentina Bernarello, Rossella Boscolo Brusà, Marta Novello, Adriano Sfriso, Fabio Strazzabosco, Michele Cornello and Andrea Bonometto

Environments 2024, 11(11), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110251 - 12 Nov 2024

Abstract

The Transitional Water Eutrophication Assessment Method (TWEAM) is a multi-index set up for assessing the eutrophication risk and trend in transitional waters. It includes a selection of environmental variables, an ecological status indicator (i.e., Macrophyte Quality Index, MaQI) and the Transitional Water Quality [...] Read more.

The Transitional Water Eutrophication Assessment Method (TWEAM) is a multi-index set up for assessing the eutrophication risk and trend in transitional waters. It includes a selection of environmental variables, an ecological status indicator (i.e., Macrophyte Quality Index, MaQI) and the Transitional Water Quality Index (TWQI). Possible outcomes of the TWEAM include three trophic classes in terms of eutrophication risk: (i) eutrophic; (ii) non-eutrophic; (iii) mesotrophic. The method was applied on data collected at 28 stations in the Venice Lagoon over four triennial monitoring cycles (MC I-IV) in the period 2011–2022. The spatial variability and medium-term trend of eutrophication risk were investigated, highlighting a general improvement in trophic conditions over time, with a decrease in mesotrophic stations (representing 46% of total in MC-I and 25% in MC-IV) in favor of non-eutrophic stations (46% of total in MC-I and 73% in MC-IV). The main driver of observed positive changes is related to the colonization of sensitive macroalgae and aquatic angiosperms, resulting in an increase in the percentage of stations with MaQI in good/high ecological status from 25% in MC-I to 54% in MC-IV. Eutrophic sites showed a non-linear trend, particularly in choked areas of the central lagoon, with anthropogenic disturbances and low water renewal. Full article

14 pages, 6173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Cover Management Factor Classification Through Imbalanced Data Resolution

by Kieu Anh Nguyen and Walter Chen

Environments 2024, 11(11), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110250 - 12 Nov 2024

Abstract

This study addresses the persistent challenge of class imbalance in land use and land cover (LULC) classification within the Shihmen Reservoir watershed in Taiwan, where LULC is used to map the Cover Management factor (C-factor). The dominance of forests in the LULC categories [...] Read more.

This study addresses the persistent challenge of class imbalance in land use and land cover (LULC) classification within the Shihmen Reservoir watershed in Taiwan, where LULC is used to map the Cover Management factor (C-factor). The dominance of forests in the LULC categories leads to an imbalanced dataset, resulting in poor prediction performance for minority classes when using machine learning techniques. To overcome this limitation, we applied the Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique (SMOTE) and the 90-model SMOTE-variants package in Python to balance the dataset. Due to the multi-class nature of the data and memory constraints, 42 models were successfully used to create a balanced dataset, which was then integrated with a Random Forest algorithm for C-factor classification. The results show a marked improvement in model accuracy across most SMOTE variants, with the Selected Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique (Selected_SMOTE) emerging as the best-performing method, achieving an overall accuracy of 0.9524 and a sensitivity of 0.6892. Importantly, the previously observed issue of poor minority class prediction was resolved using the balanced dataset. This study provides a robust solution to the class imbalance issue in C-factor classification, demonstrating the effectiveness of SMOTE variants and the Random Forest algorithm in improving model performance and addressing imbalanced class distributions. The success of Selected_SMOTE underscores the potential of balanced datasets in enhancing machine learning outcomes, particularly in datasets dominated by a majority class. Additionally, by addressing imbalance in LULC classification, this research contributes to Sustainable Development Goal 15, which focuses on the protection, restoration, and sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems. Full article

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9 pages, 475 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Investigation (1968–2023) of ¹³⁷Cs in Apples

by Branko Petrinec, Tomislav Bituh, Zdenko Franić, Branimir Zauner and Dinko Babić

Environments 2024, 11(11), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110249 - 12 Nov 2024

Abstract

Due to the consequences of nuclear and/or radiological accidents in the past (Chernobyl, Fukushima, etc.), and potential future events of that kind, the constant monitoring of environmental radioactivity is important. There are different pathways of the transfer of radionuclides from environment to humans [...] Read more.

Due to the consequences of nuclear and/or radiological accidents in the past (Chernobyl, Fukushima, etc.), and potential future events of that kind, the constant monitoring of environmental radioactivity is important. There are different pathways of the transfer of radionuclides from environment to humans (ingestion, inhalation and external). Food ingestion greatly contributes to the total effective dose; hence, it is of great importance to investigate exposure to radionuclides through food. This paper presents the results of a long-term investigation of ¹³⁷Cs activity concentration in apples in northwestern Croatia for the period 1968–2023. The highest ¹³⁷Cs activity concentration in apples was measured in 1986, decreasing exponentially ever since. The Fukushima-Daiichi accident in 2011 did not cause a significant increase in ¹³⁷Cs activity concentration, although the presence of the consequent fallout was detected via the appearance of ¹³⁴Cs in some parts of the environment. The observed residence time for ¹³⁷Cs in apples was estimated to be 4.5 and 3.9 years for the pre-Chernobyl and post-Chernobyl periods, respectively. The correlation between ¹³⁷Cs in fallout and apples is very good, the correlation coefficients being 0.99, which indicates that fallout is the main source of contamination. The estimated effective dose received by adult members of the Croatian public due to intake of radiocaesium from apples over the overall observed period is 6.4 µSv. Therefore, the consumption of apples was not a critical pathway for the transfer of radiocaesium to humans. Full article

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18 pages, 3908 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Landfilling with Sustainable Waste Management Methods for Municipal Solid Wastes

by Angelika Sita Ouedraogo, Ajay Kumar, Robert Frazier and Khaled A. Sallam

Environments 2024, 11(11), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110248 - 11 Nov 2024

Abstract

Municipal solid waste (MSW) generation continues to increase exponentially, leading to the need for better disposal methods. Approximately 50% of the MSW is landfilled in the United States (US). Landfilling is known for its negative effects on the environment and human health. The [...] Read more.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) generation continues to increase exponentially, leading to the need for better disposal methods. Approximately 50% of the MSW is landfilled in the United States (US). Landfilling is known for its negative effects on the environment and human health. The objective of this study was to conduct a life cycle assessment (LCA) of some of the most common waste treatment methods and propose an alternative and environmentally friendly integrated waste management method (IWM). The LCA was conducted using OpenLCA. Replacing landfilling, incineration, and composting with recycling, gasification, and anaerobic digestion (IWM) reduced the global warming potential from 899 kg CO₂ eq to −14.6 kg CO₂ eq. The same trend was observed for acidification (from 0.21 kg SO₂ eq to −1.1 kg SO₂ eq), ecotoxicity (from 2363.8 CTUe to 1.22 CTUe), eutrophication (from 0.5 kg N eq to 0.3 kg N eq), smog formation (from 4.4 kg O₃ eq to 1.85 kg O₃ eq), ozone depletion (from 2.1 × 10⁻⁵ kg CFC-11 eq to 0 kg CFC-11 eq), respiratory effects (from 2.8 × 10⁻³ kg PM2.5 eq to −7.25 × 10⁻³ kg PM2.5 eq), cancer (from 2 × 10⁻⁵ CTUh to 1.2 × 10⁻⁷ CTUh), and non-cancer effects (from 6 × 10⁻⁵ to 1.4 × 10⁻⁵ CTUh). The results show that an integrated waste management approach with recycling, gasification, and anaerobic digestion can dramatically reduce the environmental and health impacts of municipal solid waste disposal. Policy reforms, technical innovation, economic investment, and social engagement are needed to change waste management paradigm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Waste Management and Life Cycle Assessment)

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18 pages, 2878 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of War on Heavy Metal Concentrations and the Seasonal Variation of Pollutants in Soils of the Conflict Zone and Adjacent Areas in Mosul City

by Zena Altahaan and Daniel Dobslaw

Environments 2024, 11(11), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110247 - 7 Nov 2024

Abstract

The present study addresses the war-related soil contamination with heavy metals in the urban area of Mosul/Iraq as a result of the war of liberation from ISIS (2014–2017). In order to cover seasonal influences, a total of eight sample sets from soils in [...] Read more.

The present study addresses the war-related soil contamination with heavy metals in the urban area of Mosul/Iraq as a result of the war of liberation from ISIS (2014–2017). In order to cover seasonal influences, a total of eight sample sets from soils in the conflict area and adjacent areas were collected over the course of the year in two three-month test series, and the parameters pH, E.C., salinity and the heavy metals Cd, Pb, Zn, Cr and Ni were taken as indicators for contamination. Results showed average heavy metal levels in the conflict areas above the global average limits, with some limits also being exceeded in the adjacent areas. All sampling sites were highly contaminated with Cd and moderately contaminated with Pb. The Igeo contamination factors indicated that the sampling sites in the conflict area were moderately to heavily contaminated with Cd, Pb, Zn, Cr and Ni, while the pollution load index indicated that all sites in the conflict zone were extremely to heavily contaminated with heavy metals. The study data give cause for concern that heavy metals may be released into other ecosystems. Full article

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17 pages, 1561 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Scrutinizing the Statistical Distribution of a Composite Index of Soil Degradation as a Measure of Early Desertification Risk in Advanced Economies

by Vito Imbrenda, Marco Maialetti, Adele Sateriano, Donato Scarpitta, Giovanni Quaranta, Francesco Chelli and Luca Salvati

Environments 2024, 11(11), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110246 - 6 Nov 2024

Abstract

Using descriptive and inferential techniques together with simplified metrics derived from the ecological discipline, we offer a long-term investigation of the Environmental Sensitive Area Index (ESAI) as a proxy of land degradation vulnerability in Italy. This assessment was specifically carried out on a [...] Read more.

Using descriptive and inferential techniques together with simplified metrics derived from the ecological discipline, we offer a long-term investigation of the Environmental Sensitive Area Index (ESAI) as a proxy of land degradation vulnerability in Italy. This assessment was specifically carried out on a decadal scale from 1960 to 2020 at the province (NUTS-3 sensu Eurostat) level and benefited from a short-term forecast for 2030, based on four simplified assumptions grounded on a purely deterministic (‘what … if’) approach. The spatial distribution of the ESAI was investigated at each observation year (1960, 1970, 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, 2020, 2030) calculating descriptive statistics (central tendency, variability, and distribution shape), deviation from normality, and the increase (or decrease) in diversification in the index scores. Based on nearly 300 thousand observations all over Italy, provinces were considered representative spatial units because they include a relatively broad number of ESAI measures. Assuming a large sample size as a pre-requisite for the stable distribution of the most relevant moments of any statistical distribution—because of the convergence law underlying the central limit theorem—we found that the ESAI scores have increased significantly over time in both central values (i.e., means or medians) and variability across the central tendency (i.e., coefficient of variation). Additionally, ecological metrics reflecting diversification trends in the vulnerability scores delineated a latent shift toward a less diversified (statistical) distribution with a concentration of the observed values toward the highest ESAI scores—possibly reflecting a net increase in the level of soil degradation, at least in some areas. Multiple exploratory techniques (namely, a Principal Component Analysis and a two-way hierarchical clustering) were run on the two-way (data) matrix including distributional metrics (by columns) and temporal observations (by rows). The empirical findings of these techniques delineate the consolidation of worse predisposing conditions to soil degradation in recent times, as reflected in a sudden increase in the ESAI scores—both average and maximum values. These trends underline latent environmental dynamics leading to an early desertification risk, thus representing a valid predictive tool both in the present conditions and in future scenarios. A comprehensive scrutiny of past, present, and future trends in the ESAI scores using mixed (parametric and non-parametric) statistical tools proved to be an original contribution to the study of soil degradation in advanced economies. Full article

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18 pages, 3636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Much Hatchery-Reared Brown Trout Move in a Large, Deep Subalpine Lake? An Acoustic Telemetry Study

by Stefano Brignone, Luca Minazzi, Christophe Molina, Tiziano Putelli and Pietro Volta

Environments 2024, 11(11), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110245 - 6 Nov 2024

Abstract

Fish movement into large, deep lakes has been rarely investigated due to the complexity and extent of such ecosystems. Among the different monitoring methods available, acoustic telemetry enables the study of the spatial ecology and behavior of aquatic organisms in lentic environments. In [...] Read more.

Fish movement into large, deep lakes has been rarely investigated due to the complexity and extent of such ecosystems. Among the different monitoring methods available, acoustic telemetry enables the study of the spatial ecology and behavior of aquatic organisms in lentic environments. In this study, the movement of 69 hatchery-reared adult brown trout (size 43–61 cm) marked with acoustic transmitters was monitored in the large and deep subalpine Lake Lugano (Switzerland and Italy). Trout were tracked for six consecutive months by seven acoustic receivers (March–August 2022), positioned in a non-overlapping array. Trout movement was reconstructed using R packages specific for acoustic telemetry (actel and RSP), which also allowed us to translate tracking information into utilization distribution (UD) areas for each fish. The effects of different environmental variables (rainfall, water discharge of the two main tributaries of Lake Lugano, atmospheric pressure, cloud coverage, and moon phases) on trout movement were tested, but none of these variables seemed to significantly correlate with fish movement. After release, most of the tagged fish exhibited reiterative movements during the initial month, with some maintaining this behavior throughout the entire study period. This spatial behavior can be particularly evident in hatchery-reared fish due to their aggressive and bold attitude. The association of these behavioral traits, shaped by domestication, could expose hatchery-reared fish to high risks and post-release mortality in the wild. Indeed, within a few months after the release, most of the tagged fish were no longer detected by the acoustic receivers. In addition, 26% of the total tagged fish were caught by recreational or professional fishermen. Full article

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19 pages, 2889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulating Agricultural Water Recycling Using the APEX Model

by Luca Doro, Xiuying Wang and Jaehak Jeong

Environments 2024, 11(11), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110244 - 6 Nov 2024

Abstract

Irrigation plays a vital role in many agricultural crop production regions. Drainage water recycling (DWR) is a popular irrigation water management system that collects excess water drained from cropland fields and stores it in on-site reservoirs for reuse. The efficacy of these systems [...] Read more.

Irrigation plays a vital role in many agricultural crop production regions. Drainage water recycling (DWR) is a popular irrigation water management system that collects excess water drained from cropland fields and stores it in on-site reservoirs for reuse. The efficacy of these systems varies by location, climate, irrigation frequency, and crop demands. Simulating this system would be beneficial for assessing the impact of water and land management practices on agriculture and natural resources. This study presents the development of computational algorithms for DWR simulation with the Agricultural Policy Environmental eXtender (APEX) model, along with the results for 39 testing sites where both reservoir and drainage systems are adopted. Simulating a DWR system with the revised reservoir module, the APEX model simulates irrigation water reuse ranging between 29% and 93%; sediment reduction of around 66%; nitrogen loss reduction of 23% and 73% for the mineral and organic forms, respectively; and phosphorus loss reduction of 22% and 79% for the soluble and sediment-transported forms, respectively. In conclusion, the results provided by the APEX model for sediment loss reduction align with field data, but discrepancies for nitrogen and phosphorus losses emerged from this test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrological Modeling and Sustainable Water Resources Management)

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16 pages, 2974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Atlantic Forest Regeneration Dynamics Following Human Disturbance Cessation in Brazil

by Deicy Carolina Lozano Sivisaca, Celso Anibal Yaguana Puglla, José Raimundo de Souza Passos, Renata Cristina Batista Fonseca, Antonio Ganga, Gian Franco Capra and Iraê Amaral Guerrini

Environments 2024, 11(11), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110243 - 2 Nov 2024

Abstract

The Brazilian Atlantic Forest (BAF) is one of the most important biodiversity hotspots and species-rich ecosystems globally. Due to human activities, it has been significantly reduced and fragmented. This study examined both biotic (floristic composition, diversity, and structure) and abiotic (topographic and soil) [...] Read more.

The Brazilian Atlantic Forest (BAF) is one of the most important biodiversity hotspots and species-rich ecosystems globally. Due to human activities, it has been significantly reduced and fragmented. This study examined both biotic (floristic composition, diversity, and structure) and abiotic (topographic and soil) factors in BAF fragments undergoing varying levels and durations of human disturbance cessation: approximately 20 years (20 y), ~30 years (30 y), and over 40 years (>40 y). We aimed to understand the recovery dynamics of floristic composition, diversity, and structure in BAF fragments in relation to abiotic factors. Several statistical tools were employed to examine similarities/differences and relationships. Forests of the 30 y group exhibit significantly greater homogeneity in terms of floristic composition, while forests of the 20 y group are characterized by lower species abundance and diversity. The floristic composition was primarily influenced by soil features and the time of disturbance. Under “Environmental Protection Areas”, soil–vegetation recovery can occur more swiftly than usually observed for BAF. A significant BAF recovery was observed approximately 40 years after the end of human disturbance. A partial recovery featured 30 y disturbed areas, while in 20 y forests, recovery is in its early stages. Human-disturbed BAF can gradually rebound when effective management practices are implemented. Full article

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19 pages, 942 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eco-Friendly Detergent Based on Exhausted Edible Vegetable Oils: Impact on Marine and Freshwater Environments, a Case Study Focusing on SARS-CoV-2

by Karin Schlappa, Tecla Bentivoglio, Francesca Provenza, Serena Anselmi, Manuela Piccardo and Monia Renzi

Environments 2024, 11(11), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110242 - 31 Oct 2024

Abstract

On 30 January 2020, the World Health Organization declared a public health emergency of international concern due to the rapid spread among humans, on a global scale, of SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19. Although international authorities have recommended the use of common [...] Read more.

On 30 January 2020, the World Health Organization declared a public health emergency of international concern due to the rapid spread among humans, on a global scale, of SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19. Although international authorities have recommended the use of common detergents known to be effective against coronaviruses, one of the practices implemented to control the expansion of the virus has been the massive use of disinfectants on indoor and outdoor surfaces, a modality that has raised concern in the scientific community because of its impact on the aquatic environment. Considering possible future scenarios related to ongoing global change, in which further public health emergencies may become more frequent, and given the need to contribute to the identification of eco-friendly alternatives or strategies to mitigate the environmental and human health impacts of the massive use of disinfectants, the aim of this study was to quantify the effects of a liquid surface detergent based on exhausted edible oils of vegetable origin (eco-product). This was done by exposing organisms representing the main trophic levels of the marine and freshwater environment to the eco-detergent before and after a five-day biodegradation process, together with studies on biological oxygen demand and microbiology. The results indicated that the eco-product has potential antimicrobial activity and can be considered as a suitable alternative, although the use of a standardized agent for the production phase of the eco-product in liquid form is recommended to further reduce the impact on the aquatic environment. However, massive and indiscriminate use is a behavior to be discouraged, and limited and restricted use to appropriate areas and contexts is recommended. Full article

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38 pages, 2806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Removal of Organic Micropollutants and Microplastics via Ozonation Followed by Granular Activated Carbon Filtration

by Zoé Béalu, Johanna Walther, Attaallah Abusafia, Korinna Altmann, Maren Meurer, Oliver Gretzschel, Michael Schäfer and Heidrun Steinmetz

Environments 2024, 11(11), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110241 - 31 Oct 2024

Abstract

Discharge from Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) can result in the emission of organic micropollutants (OMPs) and microplastics (MPs) into the aquatic environment. To prevent this harmful release, a pilot plant consisting of an ozonation followed by a granular activated carbon (GAC) filter was [...] Read more.

Discharge from Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) can result in the emission of organic micropollutants (OMPs) and microplastics (MPs) into the aquatic environment. To prevent this harmful release, a pilot plant consisting of an ozonation followed by a granular activated carbon (GAC) filter was operated at a WWTP in Germany, and its side-effects on the concentrations of nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) compounds were measured. Over 80% of OMPs and transformation products were removed during the operating time (around 6000 bed volumes) no matter the ozone dose (from around 0.1 to 0.5 mg_O3/mg_DOC), except for Diatrizoic acid, whose breakthrough appeared at 3500 BV. Formation of the oxidation by-product, NDMA, increased with higher ozone doses, but the concentration remained below 100 ng/L. Bromate was formed at a higher ozone dose (>0.4 mg_O3/mg_DOC) but at a low concentration—below 10 µg/L. The MP particles detected in the inflow (PE, SBR, PP, and PS) were effectively eliminated to a high degree, with a removal rate of at least 92%. Carbon parameters (COD, DOC, and SAC₂₅₄) were removed further by the pilot plant, but to different extents. As expected, nitrate was formed during ozonation, while nitrite’s concentration decreased. Further, nitrite decreased and nitrate increased within the GAC filter, while ammonium was eliminated by at least 90%. Total P concentration decreased after the pilot, but the concentration of PO₄-P increased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies of Water and Wastewater Treatment (2nd Edition))

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24 pages, 5860 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal and Spatial Variations in Microplastic Concentrations in Small Headwater Basins in the Southern Blue Ridge Mountains, North Carolina, USA

by Jerry Miller, Nathaniel Barrett, Jason Love, Austin Gray, Robert Youker, Chloe Hall, Noa Meiri, Megan Gaesser, Georgeanna Randall, Reagan Jarrett and Juliet Spafford

Environments 2024, 11(11), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110240 - 30 Oct 2024

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous contaminants of emerging concern that require additional study in freshwater streams. We examined the spatial-temporal variations in MP concentrations and characteristics within two headwater basins in the Southern Appalachian Mountains of western North Carolina over ~1 year. Atmospheric samples [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous contaminants of emerging concern that require additional study in freshwater streams. We examined the spatial-temporal variations in MP concentrations and characteristics within two headwater basins in the Southern Appalachian Mountains of western North Carolina over ~1 year. Atmospheric samples were also collected to determine the significance of atmospheric MP deposition to these relatively small streams. MP concentrations in both basins were within the upper quartile of those reported globally, reaching maximum values of 65.1 MPs/L. Approximately 90% of MPs were fibers. MP composition was dominated by polystyrene, polyamides, and polyethylene terephthalate. Spatially, concentrations were highly variable and increased with development, indicating anthropogenic inputs from urbanized areas. MP concentrations were also elevated in forested tributary subbasins with limited anthropogenic activity, suggesting atmospheric deposition was an important MPs source. Significant atmospheric inputs are supported by high atmospheric depositional rates (ranging between 7.6 and 449.8 MPs/m²/day across our study sites) and similarities in morphology, color, and composition between atmospheric and water samples. Temporally, MP concentrations during storm events increased, decreased, or remained the same in comparison to base flows, depending on the site. The observed spatial and temporal variations in concentrations appear to be related to the complex interplay between precipitation and runoff intensities, channel transport characteristics, and MP source locations and contributions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics Pollution in Aquatic Ecosystems: Challenges and Perspectives)

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31 pages, 1849 KiB

Open AccessReview

Reviewing Digestate Thermal Valorization: Focusing on the Energy Demand and the Treatment of Process Water

by Ebtihal Abdelfatah-Aldayyat, Silvia González-Rojo and Xiomar Gómez

Environments 2024, 11(11), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110239 - 29 Oct 2024

Abstract

Anaerobic digestion is a feasible solution for the treatment of organic wastes. The process can reduce the amount of biowaste by stabilizing the organic material and producing biogas susceptible to energetic valorization. However, the digestate needs further valorization when land application is considered [...] Read more.

Anaerobic digestion is a feasible solution for the treatment of organic wastes. The process can reduce the amount of biowaste by stabilizing the organic material and producing biogas susceptible to energetic valorization. However, the digestate needs further valorization when land application is considered unfeasible. Thermal treatments, such as gasification, pyrolysis, and hydrothermal carbonization, are alternatives capable of transforming this material into valuable syngas, obtaining, in many cases, a carbonized stream known as biochar. The feasibility of the process depends on the energy demand for the drying stage and the treatments available for removing contaminants from the syngas, attaining high-quality products, and treating the process-derived water. In the present manuscript, these critical aspects were reviewed considering the characteristics of digestates based on their origin, the modifications of this material during anaerobic digestion, and the way digestate structure affects the final thermal valorization outcome. Emphasis was placed on the energy demand of the global approach and byproduct treatments. Full article

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20 pages, 2702 KiB

Open AccessReview

Lost in the Dark: Current Evidence and Knowledge Gaps About Microplastic Pollution in Natural Caves

by Manuela Piccardo and Stanislao Bevilacqua

Environments 2024, 11(11), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110238 - 29 Oct 2024

Abstract

In this study, a systematic review of the scientific literature was carried out to summarize the emerging evidence on microplastic pollution in natural caves. After the screening of 655 papers on the topic from a combined search on the Web of Knowledge and [...] Read more.

In this study, a systematic review of the scientific literature was carried out to summarize the emerging evidence on microplastic pollution in natural caves. After the screening of 655 papers on the topic from a combined search on the Web of Knowledge and the Scopus databases, we found only 14 studies reporting quantitative data on microplastics from a total of 27 natural caves. Most of the assessments focused on water and sediment, with very limited investigations concerning the cave biota. Overall, the most common types of particles found in caves were small (<1 mm) fibers (~70–90% of items), transparent or light-colored, mostly made of polyethylene and polyethylene terephthalate. Anthropogenic cellulosic materials, however, represented a non-negligible portion of particles (i.e., ~20–30%). Microplastic concentrations in caves varied between 0.017 and 911 items/L for water and 7.9 and 4777 items/kg for sediment, thus falling within the levels of microplastic pollution found in other terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments. Levels of microplastic pollution appear largely variable among caves, stressing the need to extend the geographic and environmental ranges of the assessments, which are currently concentrated on Italian caves on land, with very few case studies from other regions of the world and from marine caves. Despite their putative isolation, natural caves have a high vulnerability to microplastic contamination, requiring much more research effort to understand the potential risk that plastics pose to these fragile ecosystems. Full article

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14 pages, 5639 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Indoor Air Quality in Residential Environments: A Study of PM_2.5 and CO₂ Dynamics Using Low-Cost Sensors

by Kabir Bahadur Shah, Dylan Kim, Sai Deepak Pinakana, Mkhitar Hobosyan, Armando Montes and Amit U. Raysoni

Environments 2024, 11(11), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110237 - 28 Oct 2024

Abstract

Indoor air quality (IAQ) poses a significant public health concern, and exposures to high levels of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) could have detrimental health impacts. This study focused on assessing the indoor air pollutants in [...] Read more.

Indoor air quality (IAQ) poses a significant public health concern, and exposures to high levels of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) could have detrimental health impacts. This study focused on assessing the indoor air pollutants in a residential house located in the town of Mission, Hidalgo County, South Texas, USA. The PM_2.5 and CO₂ were monitored indoors: the kitchen and the bedroom. This investigation also aimed to elucidate the effects of household activities such as cooking and human occupancy on these pollutants. Low-cost sensors (LCSs) from TSI AirAssure™ were used in this study. They were deployed within the breathing zone at approximately 1.5 m above the ground. Calibration of the low-cost sensors against Federal Equivalent Method (FEM) instruments was undertaken using a multiple linear regression method (MLR) model to improve the data accuracy. The indoor PM_2.5 levels were significantly influenced by cooking activities, with the peak PM_2.5 concentrations reaching up to 118.45 μg/m³. The CO₂ levels in the bedroom increased during the occupant’s sleeping period, reaching as high as 1149.73 ppm. The health risk assessment was assessed through toxicity potential (TP) calculations for the PM_2.5 concentrations. TP values of 0.21 and 0.20 were obtained in the kitchen and bedroom, respectively. The TP values were below the health hazard threshold (i.e., TP < 1). These low TP values could be attributed to the use of electric stoves and efficient ventilation systems. This research highlights the effectiveness of low-cost sensors for continuous IAQ monitoring and helps promote better awareness of and necessary interventions for salubrious indoor microenvironments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Quality, Health and Climate)

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3 pages, 157 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Innovations in Wastewater Treatment

by Simeone Chianese and Dino Musmarra

Environments 2024, 11(11), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110236 - 25 Oct 2024

Abstract

The rapid growth of the world population and climate change are two key factors that immensely affect freshwater availability [...] Full article

3 pages, 148 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Pathways to Net-Zero—Innovations and Challenges in Achieving Carbon Neutrality

by Shu-Yuan Pan

Environments 2024, 11(11), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110235 - 25 Oct 2024

Abstract

The global pursuit of net-zero carbon emissions has become one of the most critical challenges of the 21st century, as extreme climate events, rising temperatures, and environmental degradation force a reckoning with the carbon-intensive practices that define many of our industrial, agricultural, and [...] Read more.

The global pursuit of net-zero carbon emissions has become one of the most critical challenges of the 21st century, as extreme climate events, rising temperatures, and environmental degradation force a reckoning with the carbon-intensive practices that define many of our industrial, agricultural, and energy systems [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Net-Zero Principles and Practices)

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