Location via proxy:   [ UP ]  
[Report a bug]   [Manage cookies]                
Next Article in Journal
Effect of Carbonization Pressure on CO2 Sequestration and Rheological Properties of Coal Gangue-Based Backfilling Slurry
Next Article in Special Issue
Biological Potential of Tsuga canadensis: A Study on Seed, Cone Essential Oils, and Seed Lipophilic Extract
Previous Article in Journal
Additively Manufactured Inconel 718 Low-Cycle Fatigue Performance
Previous Article in Special Issue
The Optimisation of Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction for the Polyphenols Content and Antioxidant Activity on Sanguisorba officinalis L. Aerial Parts Using Response Surface Methodology
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Applied Sciences
Volume 15
Issue 3
10.3390/app15031655
applsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Physicochemical, Functional, and Antioxidative Characteristics of Oyster Mushrooms

by
Alona Tiupova
1,
Remigiusz Olędzki
1,2 and
Joanna Harasym
1,2,*
1
Department of Biotechnology and Food Analysis, Wroclaw University of Economics and Business, Komandorska 118/120, 53-345 Wroclaw, Poland
2
Adaptive Food Systems Accelerator-Science Centre, Wroclaw University of Economics and Business, 53-345 Wroclaw, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 1655; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031655
Submission received: 31 December 2024 / Revised: 2 February 2025 / Accepted: 3 February 2025 / Published: 6 February 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants in Natural Plant Products: From Biological Activities to Applied Efficiency Evaluation)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:

Featured Application

Oyster mushrooms can be effectively utilized in developing functional foods and nutraceuticals due to their rich nutritional profile and bioactive compounds. Their versatile properties make them suitable for creating meat alternatives, fortified food products, and natural preservatives. Low-grade oyster mushrooms can be repurposed for industrial food production through processing into powders or pastes, while their biopolymers show promise in 3D food printing applications. Additionally, coloured varieties offer potential as natural food colourants, with the pink chromoprotein from Pleurotus djamor showing particular thermal stability at temperatures up to 80 °C.

Abstract

Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus species) have gained significant attention in food science and nutrition due to their exceptional nutritional and functional properties. This review examines various oyster mushroom species’ comprehensive physicochemical characteristics, functional attributes, and antioxidative properties. Through analysis of current literature, we establish that oyster mushrooms contain substantial amounts of protein (15–30%), carbohydrates (43–60%), dietary fibre, and essential micronutrients while maintaining low-fat content (~1.2%). The mushrooms demonstrate significant antioxidant activity through compounds such as ergothioneine, phenolics, and flavonoids, with different species showing varying levels of bioactive compounds. Scientific studies reveal that processing methods, particularly different drying techniques, significantly impact their nutritional composition and functional properties. Notable findings include the identification of specific compounds in coloured varieties, such as pink chromoprotein in Pleurotus djamor and various melanin types, which contribute to both aesthetic and functional properties.

1. Introduction

Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus) are known for their impressive physicochemical properties, functional traits, and various health benefits. They are rich in essential nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. They also contain abundant polysaccharides, such as chitin and glucan, which play a critical role in the structure and function of the mushroom. The carbohydrate content usually counts around 50–60% dry matter, contributing to the high dietary fibre content [1].
Although lower than animal sources, P. ostreatus proteins include essential amino acids such as lysine and leucine, making them a valuable alternative to animal proteins [2]. Products combining mushroom-derived proteins and potatoes showed potential as meat alternatives, characterized by structural stability and a visually appealing brown appearance due to the inclusion of mushrooms. However, further research is needed to optimize their sensory and nutritional profiles for broader use in plant-based diets [3].
Oyster mushrooms are recognized as functional foods due to their diverse bioactive compounds, including antioxidants, β-glucans, prebiotics, and immune-modulating substances. The β-glucans in mushrooms enhance immune function, reduce inflammation, and exhibit prebiotic effects, promoting a healthy gut microbiome [2,4]. Furthermore, their low-fat and high-fibre content supports digestive health, weight management, and cholesterol reduction [5]. Additionally, ergothioneine, a potent antioxidant in oyster mushrooms, helps combat oxidative stress.
Processing methods significantly impact the nutritional composition and functional properties of oyster mushrooms. Among the commonly used methods, drying techniques have been extensively studied for their effects on nutrient retention, structural integrity, and bioactivity [6]. The choice of drying method profoundly impacts oyster mushrooms’ nutritional and functional properties [2]. While freeze-drying excels in preserving bioactive compounds and structural integrity [7], vacuum-pulse and microwave drying offer advantages in enhanced nutrient content and reduced processing time [4,8]. Dry-air drying, although less effective in retaining bioactivity, can improve digestibility through increased free amino acid and glucose contents.
Also, the health benefits of oyster mushrooms are extensive, as they have been linked to a reduced risk of heart disease, improved immune responses, and even potential anti-cancer properties. Antioxidants like ergothioneine, phenolic compounds, and flavonoids help protect the body from oxidative stress associated with ageing and chronic disease [1,2]. Research also suggests that oyster mushrooms may help control blood sugar levels, making them useful for diabetes management [9]. This aligns with earlier studies highlighting their potential role in metabolic health [10]. Additionally, they have been shown to have anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and hepatoprotective properties [3].
Oyster mushrooms’ physicochemical and functional properties contribute significantly to their high nutritional value and medicinal potential. Rich in essential nutrients and bioactive compounds and low in fat, they have numerous health benefits, making them an essential component of functional foods to improve human health. However, in commercial settings, not all oyster mushrooms maintain their market value, as physical imperfections can reduce their consumer appeal, creating an opportunity to explore alternative applications for these nutritionally valuable but commercially downgraded mushrooms.
Low-grade oyster mushrooms in Poland can be classified as mushrooms that do not have significant market value due to certain physical defects that reduce their attractiveness to consumers. Such defects include the following:
  • Small cap size: usually, the diameter of such mushrooms is significantly smaller than that of higher-grade oyster mushrooms, which does not meet standard quality requirements.
  • Deformed shape: mushrooms may have an irregular or damaged structure, including cracks or irregularities.
  • Structural defects: according to Polish law, mushrooms cannot be cut (except for one incision along the axis of the crown), and the number of crowns should not exceed the number of caps.
Although poor-quality oyster mushrooms are often undervalued or discarded, their preserved nutritional value and the correlation between morphological traits and cultivation efficiency highlight their potential for optimized use and waste reduction [11]. Due to preserving nutritional value, such mushrooms can be used for industrial food production, where their physical shortcomings are irrelevant. In particular, promising areas include the following:
  • Processing ingredients into powder or paste for use in soups, sauces, or as thickeners [12];
  • Use as raw material for 3D printing of food products, as their biopolymers (proteins and polysaccharides) provide good structural stability and printability [13].
Although low-quality oyster mushrooms have a lower market value in fresh form, they remain a valuable ingredient from the food industry’s point of view. Due to their nutritional properties and the possibility of using modern technologies, these mushrooms can find a wide range of applications, helping to reduce food waste and support sustainable development.
This review examines the physicochemical characteristics, functional attributes, and antioxidative properties of oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus species), particularly emphasizing their applications in food processing and the development of functional ingredients. Given the increasing global demand for sustainable protein sources, natural food additives, and functional foods, this work focuses specifically on the relationship between processing methods and the retention of bioactive compounds, especially in coloured varieties such as Pleurotus djamor and Pleurotus citrinopileatus.
The review addresses the practical aspects of utilizing low-grade mushrooms in industrial food applications, analysing their potential for value addition in food processing. By consolidating current research on oyster mushrooms’ properties and applications, this work provides targeted insights for food scientists, product developers, and researchers working on innovative food solutions and functional ingredients, with particular attention to their role in sustainable food production systems.

2. Review Criteria

This study aims to generalize and analyse existing data on the chemical composition, functional properties, and antioxidant activity of oyster mushrooms and evaluate their potential for use in the food industry. For the review, publications published in the databases PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar in 2010–2025 were used. The main criteria were articles describing the chemical composition, antioxidant properties, and use of oyster mushrooms in functional products. The review includes articles containing data on the chemical composition, antioxidant activity, and functional characteristics of Pleurotus spp. Publications with insufficient details of analysis methods were excluded.

3. Physicochemical Properties of Oyster Mushroom

3.1. Nutritional and Bioactive Properties and the Impact of Cultivation and Processing Methods

Oyster mushrooms are widely recognized as a nutrient-dense food with a broad spectrum of health benefits due to their rich macronutrient, micronutrient, and bioactive compound profiles. These mushrooms are particularly valued in functional and sustainable diets for their contributions to human health and environmental sustainability.
Oyster mushrooms comprise carbohydrates (43–60%), including dietary fibre and β-glucans, which enhance immune function and promote gut health [14,15]. Their protein content (15–30%) includes all essential amino acids, making them an excellent source of non-animal protein. Low in fat (~1.2%), most of their lipid content consists of unsaturated fatty acids that support cardiovascular health [16,17].
Micronutrient concentrations in oyster mushrooms are notable for their diversity. Key elements such as selenium and iron enhance cellular protection and oxygen transport, respectively; studies show that the content of oyster mushrooms can vary depending on the drying and enrichment method, with freeze-drying preserving more iron and selenium enrichment, increasing its overall concentration [18]. Additionally, vitamins B-complex (notably riboflavin/B2), D2, and E contribute to energy metabolism, bone health, and immune system support [5]. Oyster mushrooms are rich in bioactive compounds with anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties. Among these, β-glucans, especially (1→3)-β-d-glucans, have been extensively studied for their immunomodulatory effects, including enhanced macrophage activity and potential applications in anti-cancer therapies [19,20]. Antioxidants such as ergothioneine, phenolic compounds, and flavonoids play a crucial role in scavenging free radicals, thereby reducing oxidative stress and mitigating cellular damage. These compounds are particularly beneficial in managing chronic conditions such as cardiovascular diseases and diabetes [21]. Lectins in P. ostreatus exhibit antiviral, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory activities, making them interesting for therapeutic applications [22]. Additionally, these mushrooms produce enzymes like laccase, protease, and cellulase. Laccase has demonstrated antiviral activity, while protease and cellulase contribute to the breakdown of organic material, providing potential applications in bioremediation and agriculture [23,24,25].
The substrate used during cultivation highly influences oyster mushrooms’ bioactive composition and nutritional properties. Substrate composition affects yield and growth productivity and determines the concentration of specific bioactive compounds. For example, substrate optimization can enhance β-glucans, antioxidants, or other desired compound concentrations, allowing the mushrooms to be tailored for specific health or industrial applications [23,24].
The chemical composition of oyster mushrooms, bioactive compounds, average content and their properties are summarized in Table 1.

3.2. Physical Properties

Oyster mushrooms exhibit a firm but flexible texture, with hardness, springiness, and chewiness that can vary depending on how they are processed. Studies using texture profile analysis (TPA) found that compression tests on mushroom stems show their ability to retain structure when compressed, making them suitable as meat substitutes in some culinary applications. Processing methods like drying also affect the texture, with sun and vacuum drying showing the least effect on firmness compared to hot air drying, which can increase hardness levels due to moisture reduction [26,27,28,29].
The colour profile of oyster mushrooms is typically measured using the L*, a*, and b* values, indicating lightness, red–green, and yellow–blue scales, respectively. Fresh oyster mushrooms generally display a light, off-white colour with slight yellowish hues. However, drying can darken them; for example, vacuum drying helps retain a closer-to-fresh colour; sun drying or hot air drying can result in browner shades, impacting visual appeal and potential application in food products [30,31].
Oyster mushrooms are known for their high moisture content, often around 85–90% in fresh samples, making them highly perishable. Drying methods significantly impact water retention, where methods like vacuum and hot air drying reduce moisture to below 10%, making mushrooms less prone to spoilage and lighter in weight. This high water retention also affects their rehydrated texture and enhances their utility in foods that require water absorption, such as soups or sauces [32,33].
Table 1. Chemical composition, average content, and properties of oyster mushrooms and their bioactive compounds.
Table 1. Chemical composition, average content, and properties of oyster mushrooms and their bioactive compounds.
Species/FamilyGroupCompoundPropertiesContent [/100 g DM]Refs.
Pleurotus ostreatusPolysaccharidesBeta-glucansImmunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, cholesterol-lowering~6 g–7 g [20,21]
Pleurotus florida
Singer		Complex sugarsAntioxidative, immune-boosting, anti-tumor effects~50 g–60 g[22,23,24]
Pleurotaceae *PolysaccharidesTotal dietary fibreStimulation of intestinal bacterial flora, regulation of intestinal function, prevention of intestinal diseases, stabilization of blood glucose levels.42.87 g–52.31 g[12]
Saccharides/
Carbohydrates		Total carbohydratesMacronutrients45.25 g–63.22 g
ProteinsTotal proteinsMacronutrients23.48 g–33.16 g
LipidsTotal fatsMacronutrients0.91 g–2.6 g
MicronutrientsSodium (Na)Electrolyte balance of body fluids, ensuring the functioning of muscles and nerve cells.42.07 mg–138.65 mg
Potassium (K)Nerve function and regulation of muscle contractions, including the heart muscle; regulation of blood pressure.722.24 mg–1139.40 mg
Calcium (Ca)Influence on the blood clotting process, influence on muscle contractility, functioning of the nervous system and heart muscle.155.21 mg–1110.11 mg
Iron (Fe)Contained in haemoglobin, it determines the delivery of oxygen to tissues and organs, and present in myoglobin, it determines the oxygenation of muscles.50.98 mg–83.077 mg
Pleurotus ostreatusHeavy metalsArsenic (As)within acceptable limits, safe for consumption, or is absent0.008 mg–0.05 mg/kg[12]
Lead (Pb)within acceptable limits, safe for consumption, or is absent0.02 mg–0.07 mg/kg
Pleurotaceae *AntioxidantsPhenolic
compounds		Free radical scavenging, food preservation, anti-inflammatory properties279.96 mg to 644.75 mg[12,25,34]
FlavonoidsAnti-inflammatory, cardiovascular benefits, free radical scavenging279.96 mg–644.75 mg[9,12,22]
ErgothioneinePotent antioxidant, anti-ageing, immune system support0.4 mg–0.6 mg[35,36,37]
TanninsPotent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antitumor effects, strengthen the immune system and protect cells from damage.402.13 mg–920.00 mg[12]
PleurotusostreatusEnzymesLaccase,
protease,
cellulase		Food digestion, bioremediation, bioactive compound enhancementVaried trace quantities[7,19,38,39]
Pleurotaceae *VitaminsAscorbic acid
(Vitamin C)		Supporting the functioning of the immune system, removing free oxygen radicals, and regulating collagen production.0.020 mg–0.416 mg[12]
Pleurotus pulmonarius
Pleurotus ostreatus		Thiamine
(Vitamin B1)		Active in glucose metabolism and the functioning of nerves, muscles, and the heart.~3.8 mg[12,26,40]
Pleurotus pulmonarius
Pleurotus ostreatus		Riboflavin
(Vitamin B2)		Active in energy production and the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.~5.7 mg[12,26,40]
Pleurotus pulmonarius
Pleurotus ostreatus		Tocopherols
(Vitamin E)		Protection of cells against oxidative damage, inhibition of lipid oxidation in cell membranes.~17.4 mg[12,26,40]
* Pleurotaceae: Pleurotus ostreatus, Pleurotus djmore, Pleurotus sajor-caju, Pleurotus citrinopileatus, Pleurotus florida, Pleurotus cystidiosus, Pleurotus ostreatus-white snow, Pleurotus ostreatus-Oyster small [12,26].
These properties—texture, colour stability, and water retention—are crucial for processing and culinary uses, especially when developing mushroom-based food products. Therefore, effective pretreatments and drying methods are essential to maintaining quality for extended shelf life and desirable sensory characteristics in final products [41].

4. Oyster Mushrooms as Functional Food Ingredients

Due to their diverse nutritional profile, oyster mushrooms are increasingly integrated into functional food applications to enhance the nutritional content of common foods. Recent research demonstrates their use in fortifying products like bread, soups, and flour to boost fibre, protein, and essential minerals while enriching antioxidant and polysaccharide contents [36,42]. Studies highlight the effectiveness of oyster mushroom flour as a protein-rich supplement in wheat-based products, providing amino acids and essential nutrients while maintaining a favourable calorie-to-nutrient ratio. Additionally, soups and broths enhanced with oyster mushrooms improve the flavour profile and contribute compounds like ergothioneine and selenium, known for their antioxidant properties [8]. This type of fortification not only meets consumer demand for healthier alternatives but aligns with sustainable food production practices by using bioavailable and easily cultivated mushrooms. Further studies emphasize the potential for these mushrooms to improve both the nutritional and sensory properties of functional foods, demonstrating their broad applicability across food categories [43].
Oyster mushrooms show significant potential for use in food processing due to their unique textural properties, taste, and functional components that contribute to preservation and sensory enhancement in food products. Studies have shown that drying methods, such as microwave drying, influence their texture and moisture-retention properties, with microwave-dried mushrooms generally maintaining higher rehydration and water solubility indexes [44,45]. These properties make them effective in soups, sauces, and various rehydrated food products, where a stable texture and rich taste profile are valued [46]. Regarding taste and consumer appeal, oyster mushrooms contain a range of flavours, from mild umami to sweet and nutty notes, making them suitable for enhancing the taste of processed foods. Research involving sensory analysis has identified that their umami-rich profile can improve flavour in products that rely on savoury depth, such as broths and meat substitutes [47]. Oyster mushrooms also support functional applications by improving nutritional density in fortified food items like mushroom-flavoured flours used in baked goods and ready-to-eat meals [48,49].
These applications illustrate the versatility of oyster mushrooms in food processing, both as an ingredient and a functional food component, helping enhance taste, texture, and preservation across diverse food categories.

5. Biological and Industrial Value of Multi-Coloured Oyster Mushrooms

In addition to the commonly grown oyster mushroom (P. ostreatus), there are vibrantly coloured varieties such as the pink oyster mushroom (P. djamor) and golden oyster mushroom (P. citrinopileatus) (Figure 1). These species stand out not only for their vibrant colours but also for their rich nutritional and bioactive profiles. Both types are known for their high levels of antioxidants, essential amino acids, and immunomodulatory polysaccharides, making them valuable as functional foods. Their unique chemical composition offers potential health benefits, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic properties, contributing to their growing popularity in both culinary and health applications [19,50].
Pink oyster mushrooms have significant biological value due to their bioactive compounds and nutritional profile. Studies have found high antioxidant activity in P. djamor, primarily related to its phenolic compounds and β-glucans, which play a role in immunomodulation and free radical scavenging. Polysaccharides extracted from this species have also demonstrated cytotoxic properties against cancer cell lines, suggesting potential as a functional food or nutraceutical. P. djamor is also known for its antimicrobial properties, effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, further enhancing its health benefits [51,52,53].
Applsci 15 01655 g001
Figure 1. Coloured Pleurotus mushroom species. (a) P. ostreatus (Oyster mushroom) [54]. (b) P. citrinopileatus (golden oyster mushroom) [55]. (c) P. djamor (pink oyster mushroom) [56].
Figure 1. Coloured Pleurotus mushroom species. (a) P. ostreatus (Oyster mushroom) [54]. (b) P. citrinopileatus (golden oyster mushroom) [55]. (c) P. djamor (pink oyster mushroom) [56].
Applsci 15 01655 g001
Golden oyster mushrooms (P. citrinopileatus) are renowned for their rich content of essential nutrients and bioactive molecules, including flavonoids and carotenoids, contributing to their antioxidant capacity. This species is particularly effective at mitigating oxidative stress, making it valuable in diets to reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease. Moreover, its nutritional value includes a good balance of essential amino acids and minerals, making it an excellent dietary supplement for various population groups [57,58]
These results highlight the potential of oyster mushrooms not only as culinary delicacies but also as valuable components of dietary regimens that promote health.
The colour of the fruit bodies of P. ostreatus mushrooms is due to some substances that may play an essential bioactive and health-promoting role in the human body (such as carotenoids and flavonoids). It may also be a source of colour substances used in industry, such as melanins, azaphylones, and polyketides [59].
Studies indicate that the colour of the P. salmoneostramineus or P. djamor mushrooms, commonly known as pink oyster mushroom varieties, comes from the presence of a pink protein pigment (pink chromoprotein), for which the sequence of amino acid residues has been determined. It has been confirmed that this molecule is a protein with a molecular weight of 23.712 kDa and an isoelectric point of 7.505. Pink chromoprotein also exhibits the ability to oligomerize into dimeric forms and the property of glycation in the Ser6 residue. It is also indicated that the pink chromoprotein’s amino acid residues Leu5, Leu8, Lys211, Ala214, and Gln215 bind the prosthetic group to the protein [60].
It is suggested that the identified pink chromoprotein is a melanosomal protein and probably plays a key role in melanogenesis and melanin polymerization in the cells of the mushroom cap and spore structures. For this reason, melanin in the fungal cells plays an essential role in mycelium colour adaptation to the environment and in protection against the harmful effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation [60].
HPLC analysis indicated that melanin in oyster mushrooms (primarily located in the cell wall) is a mixture of eumelanin and pheomelanin, and differences in the amounts and relative proportions of eumelanin to pheomelanin determine the high colour variation of oyster mushroom caps [61].
An additional property of the pigment derived from the pink oyster mushroom (P. djamor) is its high stability when heated to temperatures from 40 °C to 80 °C. As a result of the conducted studies, it was found that the yellow pigment derived from P. citrinopileatus is an unstable substance at temperatures above 40 °C [62].
On the other hand, studies on the fungus P. salmoneostramineus have shown the presence of a strongly conjugated polyene ligand in the form of 2-dehydro-3-deoxylaetiporic acid A (which is a chromophore ligand of the pink P. salmoneostramineus protein), the aqueous solution of which shows a yellow colour [51].
Studies of the properties of various oyster mushroom species have shown that these fungi can also be used to remove dyes from industrial wastewater via absorption. P. ostreatus can be effective in removing some azo dyes, such as methyl orange and methyl red, from the liquid environment, and the efficiency of mycoremediation (from solutions containing 0.05% (w/v) of the dye) was confirmed at 97% for methyl orange and 93% for methyl red [63].
Studies of P. erinii have shown that to remove azo contaminants (dyes), this fungus can use a versatile, broad-spectrum (heme-containing) peroxidase that can degrade many structurally distinct azo contaminants [64].

6. Antioxidant Activity of Oyster Mushrooms

The antioxidant activity of Pleurotus species shows marked variations due to their unique bioactive compound profiles. P. ostreatus protects against oxidative damage by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby mitigating oxidative stress. The high antioxidant activity is attributed to phenolic compounds such as flavonoids, effective free radical scavengers. Polysaccharides, particularly β-glucans, contribute to radical scavenging activity and inhibition of lipid peroxidation [21,25,65,66].
P. djamor (Pink Oyster Mushroom) exhibits antioxidant effects but is less effective in scavenging ROS than P. ostreatus and P. citrinopileatus, suggesting limited application in high antioxidant demand scenarios. This is due to moderate levels of phenolic compounds and flavonoids compared to other species. The presence of ascorbic acid enhances its antioxidant potential, although to a lesser extent [50,51,66].
P. citrinopileatus (Golden Oyster Mushroom) has an excellent antioxidant profile, positioning it as an exceptional candidate to combat oxidative stress. Rich in phenolic compounds and polysaccharides, it has a robust free radical scavenging capacity. It is particularly effective in inhibiting lipid peroxidation, which increases its value in functional and therapeutic foods [57,58,67].
The antioxidant efficacy of P. species is inextricably linked to their bioactive composition. P. ostreatus is a reliable source of balanced antioxidant activity. P. djamor has a moderate effect but does not have the biochemical richness of other species. P. citrinopileatus stands out due to its superior phenolic content, which is superior in preventing oxidative damage and controlling lipid peroxidation. These results highlight the critical role of bioactive compounds in enhancing mushrooms’ therapeutic and nutritional value.
Research indicates that P. ostreatus extracts also contain alkaloids (187.6 mg/100 g), tannins (25.12 mg/100 g), saponins (0.16 mg/100 g), flavonoids (104.83 mg/100 g), and cardiac glycosides (20.18 mg/100 g) [39]. Analysis of the quantitative composition of ethanol extracts from another species—P. pulmonarius—showed that the amount of tannins (18.74 mg/100 g) and cardiac glycosides (24.19 mg/100 g) may be even higher than in P. ostreatus [68].
Due to cardiac glycoside contents in P. ostreatus, this raw material may play a particular role in producing functional and therapeutic foods aimed at people with heart diseases, which can only be used according to the recommended medical dosage regimen. Research results confirm that cardiac glycosides such as digitoxin, digoxin, ouabain, and oleandrin may also effectively combat certain types of cancer, such as ovarian cancer and leukaemia [69].
It was also confirmed that P. ostreatus and P. pulmonarius mushrooms can be a significant source of phlobatannins (16.96 mg/100 g and 15.81 mg/100 g, respectively)—bioactive substances with high antioxidant properties [68]. Phlobatannins are increasingly credited with significant anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and wound-healing properties [70,71].
Animal studies have confirmed that the bioactive substances contained in P. ostreatus can also have a hepatoprotective effect. In an experiment in which rats under metabolic and oxidative stress took crushed raw or cooked powder of P. ostreatus (at a dose of 250 mg/kg body weight), a decrease in the levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALAT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) was observed [72]. The obtained result indicates that consuming P. ostreatus may reduce the risk of developing inflammatory processes in the liver and toxic liver damage [73].
The results of studies conducted on an animal model have shown that consuming P. ostreatus mushrooms can have a therapeutic effect in treating hyperlipidaemia and limiting the accompanying oxidative stress. In rats in which hypercholesterolemia was experimentally induced and which were given oyster mushroom extract in the amount of 100–200 mg/kg body weight, a 15% reduction in total cholesterol (TC) level, a 34% reduction in triglyceride (TG) levels, a 22% reduction in very low-density lipoproteins (vLDLs) and a 22% increase in the level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) fraction in the blood were observed [74].
In the conducted studies, in which adults (average age 46 years and with an average BMI of 28.3 kg/m2) consumed (84 g of P. ostreatus mushrooms per day for 8 weeks), it was shown that there was a reduction in the level of anxiety, a reduction in the severity of depression, and a significant improvement in the state of short-term memory (immediate memory). The described study confirms that bioactive compounds and antioxidants contained in P. ostreatus mushrooms can cross the blood–brain barrier and thus affect critical neurological processes in the brain in middle-aged and older people [75].
Studies have shown that mushroom extracts can produce liposomes that release bioactive substances into the body’s cells via endocytosis and adsorption. It has been shown that during liposome formulations, the main bioactive substances that pass from methanolic, aqueous, and mixed (methanol/aqua) P. ostreatus extracts into liposomes are ferulic and cinnamic acids. It is suggested that ferulic and cinnamic acids (derived from P. ostreatus extracts) present in liposomes make these structures highly effective in inhibiting the activity of enzymes such as acetylcholinesterase, tyrosinase, amylase, and glucosidase. This means that liposomes containing P. ostreatus extract, and used as natural acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, could find application in the future in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease [76] and as tyrosinase inhibitors, which consequently reduce melanin production and can therefore be used in the treatment of skin discolouration [77]. In turn, liposomes containing P. ostreatus extract acting as α-amylase inhibitors limit starch decomposition, thus helping to maintain normal blood glycemia levels [78].
Liposomes acting as α-glucosidase inhibitors inhibit the breakdown of complex carbohydrates (disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides) into simple sugars. This consequently limits the absorption of glucose from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood and ultimately leads to a reduction in postprandial glycemia [79].
Studies have also been conducted to improve the nutritional and antioxidant properties of the oyster mushroom P. eryngii var. Ferulae by using different types of culture media. It has been shown that a substrate prepared by mixing poplar sawdust and lavender extraction waste, such as lavender straw and lavender flower extraction waste, increases both the yield and biomass production efficiency of the oyster mushroom and improves the nutritional profile and antioxidant properties of the P. eryngii var. Ferulae mushroom [80].
It was confirmed that the production of the P. eryngii var. Ferulae mushroom was most efficient (yield of 216.3 g/kg) using a growing medium in which poplar sawdust, lavender straw, and lavender flower extraction waste were used in a ratio of 5:3:2. On the other hand, when a medium prepared from a mixture of poplar sawdust and lavender straw (in a ratio of 7:3) was used, the mycelium was obtained with a protein content of 17.94 g/100 g and total phenolic content of 5.09 mg GAE/1 g. The described raw material was also characterized by total antioxidant activity (ABTS method) (54.36 μmol TE/g) and total reducing activity (FRAP method) (58.89 μmol TE/g) [80].

7. Conclusions

Oyster mushrooms have great potential in the food industry due to their exceptional nutritional and functional properties. Rich in dietary fibre, essential amino acids, vitamins and minerals, these mushrooms offer significant health benefits, including improved cardiovascular health, immune function, and gut microbiome balance due to their prebiotic effects, mainly from β-glucans and ergothioneine. Their composition makes them an excellent low-fat, high-protein alternative for vegan and healthy diets [1,4,14,15,16,51].
The functional physicochemical properties of P. ostreatus, such as high water-holding capacity and flexible texture, make them versatile in the food industry [26]. They are widely used as meat substitutes or texture enhancers in products such as soups, sauces, and baked goods. In addition, their antioxidant properties help preserve food quality and extend its shelf life, especially in minimally processed products. Fortifying products such as flour, bread, and soups with oyster mushrooms is in line with dietary trends that emphasize health and sustainability [26,42,46].
The inclusion of colourful oyster mushrooms, such as the pink oyster mushroom (P. djamor) and golden oyster mushroom (P. citrinopileatus), enriches our understanding of the genus Pleurotus. These mushrooms have remarkable nutritional and functional properties, including high levels of antioxidants and bioactive compounds, highlighting their potential for promoting health and a variety of applications in functional foods [50,78,81].

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.H.; methodology, J.H.; formal analysis, A.T.; investigation, A.T. and R.O.; data curation, J.H.; writing—original draft preparation, A.T. and R.O.; writing—review and editing, J.H.; supervision, J.H.; project administration, J.H.; funding acquisition, J.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are available within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Haris, H.; Rachmat, R.; Fitrilia, T.; Syarbaini, A.; Ma’ruf, A.; Djuanda, D.; Histifarina, D.; Sembiring, B. Physicochemical Quality of Oyster Mushroom for Functional Food. J. Tek. Pertan. Lampung (J. Agric. Eng.) 2023, 12, 818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Mahesh, A.G.; Dauner, L.; Sumedha, M.; Samantha, C.K. Nutritional and Medicinal Benefits of Oyster (Pleurotus) Mushrooms: A Review. Fungal Biotec 2021, 1, 65–87. [Google Scholar]
  3. Jayakumar, D.; Santhapur, R.; Mcclements, D.J. Preparation and Characterization of Plant Protein-Mushroom Hybrids: Toward More Healthy and Sustainable Foods. Food Biophys. 2024, 19, 1077–1094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Moutia, I.; Lakatos, E.; Kovács, A.J. Impact of Dehydration Techniques on The Nutritional and Microbial Profiles of Dried Mushrooms. Foods 2024, 13, 3245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Effiong, M.E.; Umeokwochi, C.P.; Afolabi, I.S.; Chinedu, S.N. Assessing The Nutritional Quality of Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushroom). Front. Nutr. 2023, 10, 1279208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Nurul-Izzah, M.O.; Nasim, P.; Inshirah, I.; Aida, F.M.N.A.; Farhat, A.; Shahin, R.; Patmawati, R.S. Drying treatments of oyster (Pleurotus spp.) and shiitake (Lentinula edodes) mushrooms: A review. Food Res. 2023, 7, 146–159. [Google Scholar]
  7. Piskov, S.; Timchenko, L.; Rzhepakovsky, I.; Avanesyan, S.; Sizonenko, M.; Areshidze, D.; Kovalev, D. The influence of the drying method for food properties and hypolidemic potential of oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus). Vopr. Pitan. 2018, 87 2, 65–76. [Google Scholar]
  8. Ucar, T.M.; Karadag, A. The Effects of Vacuum and Freeze-Drying on The Physicochemical Properties and in Vitro Digestibility of Phenolics in Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus). J. Food Meas. Charact. 2019, 13, 2298–2309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Patninan, K.; Sermwittayawong, D.; Nuinamwong, S.; Khimmaktong, W.; Noipha, K.; Nongporn, H. Purified Polysaccharides Extracted from Gray Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus sajor-caju (Fr.) Sing.) Stimulate Glucose Uptake in C2C12 Myotubes through the activation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) and Glucose Transporter 1 (GLUT1) Proteins. Sains Malays. 2023, 52, 2815–2827. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Khatun, K.; Mahtab, H.; Khanam, P.A.; Sayeed, M.A.; Khan, K.A. Oyster mushroom reduced blood glucose and cholesterol in diabetic subjects. Mymensingh Med. J. 2007, 16, 94–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Argaw, B.; Tesfay, T.; Godifey, T.; Asres, N. Growth and Yield Performance of Oyster Mushroom (P. ostreatus (Jacq.: Fr.) Kummer) Using Waste Leaves and Sawdust. Int. J. Agron. 2023, 1, 8013491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Rosyida, V.T.; Hayati, S.N.; Darsih, C.; Nisa, K.; Handayani, S.; Ratih, D.; Mardjan, M.I.D.; Hanifah, F.N. Effect of Drying Method on The Bioactive Properties of Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus). AIP Conf. Proc. 2024, 2957, 060056. [Google Scholar]
  13. Gbadamosi, A.; Patil, S.; Kamal, M.S.; Adewunmi, A.A.; Yusuff, A.S.; Agi, A.; Oseh, J. Application of Polymers for Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery: A Review. Polymers 2022, 14, 1433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Kerezoudi, E.N.; Mitsou, E.K.; Gioti, K.; Terzi, E.; Avgousti, I.; Panagiotou, A.; Koutrotsios, G.; Zervakis, G.I.; Mountzouris, K.C.; Tenta, R.; et al. Fermentation of: Pleurotus ostreatus and Ganoderma Lucidum Mushrooms and Their Extracts By The Gut Microbiota of Healthy and Osteopenic Women: Potential Prebiotic Effect and Impact of Mushroom Fermentation Products on Human Osteoblasts. Food Funct. 2021, 12, 1529–1546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Dimopoulou, M.; Kolonas, A.; Mourtakos, S.; Androutsos, O.; Gortzi, O. Nutritional Composition and Biological Properties of Sixteen Edible Mushroom Species. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8074. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Devi, P.V.; Islam, J.; Narzary, P.; Sharma, D.; Sultana, F. Bioactive Compounds, Nutraceutical Values and Its Application in Food Product Development of Oyster Mushroom. J. Future Foods 2023, 4, 335–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Sultana, S.; Shamsuzzaman, M.; Miah, M.A.S.; Kakon, A.J.; Mafi, A.H.; Sen, A.; Siddiqui, M.N.; Bhattacharjya, D.K. Assessment of Proximate Composition, Mineral Element Profile and Antioxidant Properties of The Edible Oyster Mushroom Grown in Bangladesh. Discov. Food 2024, 4, 126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Oliveira, A.P.d.; Naozuka, J. Preliminary Results on the Feasibility of Producing Selenium-Enriched Pink (Pleurotus djamor) and White (Pleurotus ostreatus) Oyster Mushrooms: Bioaccumulation, Bioaccessibility, and Se-Proteins Distribution. Microchem. J. 2019, 145, 1143–1150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Golak-Siwulska, I.; Kałuzewicz, A.; Spizewski, T.; Siwulski, M.; Sobieralski, K. Bioactive Compounds and Medicinal Properties of Oyster Mushrooms (Pleurotus sp.). Folia Hortic. 2018, 30, 191–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Brazkova, M.; Angelova, G.; Mihaylova, D.; Stefanova, P.; Pencheva, M.; Gledacheva, V.; Stefanova, I.; Krastanov, A. Bioactive Metabolites From The Fruiting Body and Mycelia of Newly-Isolated Oyster Mushroom and Their Effect on Smooth Muscle Contractile Activity. Foods 2022, 11, 3983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Arunachalam, K.; Sreeja, P.S.; Yang, X. The Antioxidant Properties of Mushroom Polysaccharides Can Potentially Mitigate Oxidative Stress, Beta-Cell Dysfunction and Insulin Resistance. Front. Pharmacol. 2022, 13, 874474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Mesele, E.; Yaekob, A.T.; Zeslassie, A. Valuation of The Growth Response of Oyster (Pleurotus ostreatus) Mushroom on Partially Composted Sesame Stalk With Different Blends of Wheat Straw. Discov. Food 2024, 4, 80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Dissasa, G. Cultivation of Different Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus Species) on Coffee Waste and Determination of Their Relative Biological Efficiency and Pectinase Enzyme Production, Ethiopia. Int. J. Microbiol. 2022, 2022, 5219939. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Lavelli, V.; Proserpio, C.; Gallotti, F.; Laureati, M.; Pagliarini, E. Circular Reuse of Bio-Resources: The Role of: Pleurotus Spp. in The Development of Functional Foods. Food Funct. 2018, 9, 1353–1372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Liu, Q.; Kong, W.; Cui, X.; Hu, S.; Shi, Z.; Wu, J.; Zhang, Y.; Qiu, L. Dynamic Succession of Microbial Compost Communities and Functions During Pleurotus ostreatus Mushroom Cropping on A Short Composting Substrate. Front. Microbiol. 2022, 13, 946777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Macit, C.; Eyupoglu, O.E.; Macit, M.; Zengin, G. Chemical Characterization and Biological Properties of Oyster and Shiitake Mushrooms Extracts and Their Liposomal formulations. Food Biosci. 2024, 61, 104737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Mazlan, M.M.; Talib, R.A.; Chin, N.L.; Shukri, R.; Taip, F.S.; Nor, M.Z.M.; Abdullah, N. Physical and Microstructure Properties of Oyster Mushroom-Soy Protein Meat Analog Via Single-Screw Extrusion. Foods 2020, 9, 1023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Los Baños, C.D.M.; Jovita, M.M.C.; Laquinta, C.M.J.; Angeles, D.K.L.; Largo, A.C.; Cerezo, J.S.B. Potential of Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) Powder As An Alternative for Monosodium Glutamate. Cogniz. J. Multidiscip. Stud. 2024, 4, 117–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Tokarczyk, G.; Felisiak, K.; Adamska, I.; Przybylska, S.; Hrebień-Filisińska, A.; Biernacka, P.; Bienkiewicz, G.; Tabaszewska, M. Effect of Oyster Mushroom Addition on Improving the Sensory Properties, Nutritional Value and Increasing the Antioxidant Potential of Carp Meat Burgers. Molecules 2023, 28, 6975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Maray, A.R.M.; Mostafa, M.K.; El-Fakhrany, A.E.D.M.A. Effect of Pretreatments and Drying Methods on Physico-Chemical, Sensory Characteristics and Nutritional Value of Oyster Mushroom. J. Food Process Preserv. 2018, 42, e13352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Altikat, S.; Alma, M.H.; Gulbe, A.; Küçükerdem, K.; Kuş, E. Effects of Different Power Levels Used in Microwave Drying Method on Color Changes of Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus). Iğdır Üniversitesi Fen. Bilim. Enstitüsü Derg. 2022, 12, 2045–2053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Zeng, X.; Li, J.; Lyu, X.; Chen, X.-M.; Guo, S. Nutritional Characterization and Untargeted Metabolomics of Oyster Mushroom Produced Using Astragalus Membranaceus Var. Mongolicus Stems and Leaves As Substrates. Front. Plant Sci. 2022, 13, 802801. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  33. Stavropoulou, N.A.; Giannakourou, M.C. Combined Effect of Bioactive Compound Enrichment Using Rosa Damascena Distillation Side Streams and An Optimized Osmotic Treatment on The Stability of Frozen Oyster Mushrooms. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 9734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Baeva, E.; Bleha, R.; Lavrova, E.; Sushytskyi, L.; Čopíková, J.; Jablonsky, I.; Klouček, P.; Synytsya, A. Polysaccharides From Basidiocarps of Cultivating Mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus: Isolation and Structural Characterization. Molecules 2019, 24, 2740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Jaffali, С.; Synytsya, A.; Bleha, R.; Khadhri, A.; Aschi-Smiti, S.; Smrčková, P.; Klouček, P. Characterization of Two Tunisian Strains of Culinary Oyster Mushroom Pleurotus Eryngii: Differences in The Biopolymer Composition. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2024, 132, 106300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Meng, Q.; Niu, Y.; Wang, R.; Niu, W.; Zhang, L. Structural Characterization and Immunobiological Activity of Polysaccharides From Astragalus Oyster Mushroom. Molecules 2023, 28, 5280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Mishra, V.; Tomar, S.; Yadav, P.; Singh, M.P. Promising Anticancer Activity of Polysaccharides and Other Macromolecules Derived From Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus sp.): An Updated Review. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2021, 182, 1628–1637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Effiong, M.E.; Umeokwochi, C.P.; Afolabi, I.S.; Chinedu, S.N. Comparative Antioxidant Activity and Phytochemical Content of Five Extracts of Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushroom). Sci. Rep. 2024, 14, 3794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Nadjamuddin, M.; Auliah, N.; Mulyadin; Tajuddin, Z.; Andriawan, R. Test The Antioxidant Effectiveness of Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) Ethyl Acetate Fraction Cream formula Using FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power) and ABTS (2,2′-Azino-Bis (3-3) Ethylbenzothiazoline-6-Sulphonic Acid) Methods). J. Penelit. Pendidik. IPA 2023, 9, 10985–10990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Koutrotsios, G.; Kalogeropoulos, N.; Kaliora, A.C.; Zervakis, G.I. Toward An Increased Functionality in Oyster (Pleurotus) Mushrooms Produced on Grape Marc Or Olive Mill Wastes Serving As Sources of Bioactive Compounds. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2018, 66, 5971–5983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Adebayo, E.A.; Oloke, J.K. Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus Species); A Natural Functional Food. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. Food Sci. 2017, 7, 254–264. [Google Scholar]
  42. Ishara, J.R.; Sila, D.N.; Kenji, G.M.; Buzera, A.K. Nutritional and Functional Properties of Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus & Pleurotus ostreatus) and Their Blends With Maize Flour. Am. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 6, 33–41. [Google Scholar]
  43. Bulam, S.; Üstün, N.; Pekşen, A. Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) As a Healthy Ingredient for Sustainable Functional Food Production. J. Fungus 2022, 13, 131–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Kumar, C.; Singh, M.; Zalpouri, R.; Kaur, P. An In-Depth Analysis of Various Technologies Used for Mushroom Drying. Food Eng. Rev. 2023, 15, 491–524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Silva, N.T.F.; Venancio, A.R.; Martos, E.T.; Oliveira, A.C.G.; Oliveira, A.A.A.; Mutz, Y.; Da, S.; Nunes, C.A.; Mondragón-Bernal, O.L.; Alves, J.G.L.F. Fish Fillet Analogue Using formulation Based on Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) and Enzymatic Treatment: Texture, Sensory, Aromatic Profile and Physicochemical Characterization. Foods 2024, 13, 2358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Dicks, L.; Ellinger, S. Effect of The Intake of Oyster Mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus) on Cardiometabolic Parameters—A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Oh, M.; Ju, J.H.; Ju, S. What Are The Sensory Attributes Associated With Consumer Acceptance of Yellow Oyster Mushrooms (Pleurotus citrinopileatus)? Foods 2024, 13, 2061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Irakiza, P.N.; Chuma, G.B.; Lyoba, T.Z.; Mweze, M.A.; Mondo, J.M.; Zihalirwa, P.K.; Mapatano, S.; Balezi, A.Z.; Mushagalusa, G.N. fortification With Mushroom Flour (Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm) and Substitution of Wheat Flour By Cassava Flour in Bread-Making: Nutritional and Technical Implications in Eastern DR Congo. Agric. Food Secur. 2021, 10, 28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Cardoso, R.V.C.; Carocho, M.; Fernandes, Â.; Pinela, J.; Stojković, D.; Soković, M.; Zied, D.C.; Cobos, J.D.V.; González-Paramás, A.M.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R.; et al. Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Influence on Oyster Mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus) from Substrate Supplementation of Calcium Silicate. Sustainability 2021, 13, 5019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Nayak, H.; Kushwaha, A.; Behera, P.C.; Shahi, N.C.; Kushwaha, K.P.S.; Kumar, A.; Mishra, K.K. The Pink Oyster Mushroom, Pleurotus djamor (Agaricomycetes): A Potent Antioxidant and Hypoglycemic Agent. Int. J. Med. Mushrooms 2021, 23, 29–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Inci, Ş.; Akyüz, M.; Kirbag, S. Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Cytotoxicity and DNA Protective Properties of the Pink Oyster Mushroom, Pleurotus djamor (Agaricomycetes). Int. J. Med. Mushrooms 2023, 25, 55–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Wang, H.; Gao, J.; Gao, J.; Ng, T. A new lectin with highly potent antihepatoma and antisarcoma activities from the oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2000, 275, 810–816. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Maity, G.; Maity, P.; Choudhuri, I.; Bhattacharyya, N.; Acharya, K.; Dalai, S.; Mondal, S. Structural studies of a water insoluble β-glucan from Pleurotus djamor and its cytotoxic effect against PA1, ovarian carcinoma cells. Carbohydr. Polym. 2019, 222, 114990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Wikimedia Commons. Available online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17375021 (accessed on 31 December 2024).
  55. Wikimedia Commons. Available online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25660444 (accessed on 31 December 2024).
  56. Wikimedia Commons. Available online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23140998 (accessed on 31 December 2024).
  57. Yin, C.; Fan, X.; Liu, C.; Fan, Z.; Shi, D.; Yao, F.; Cheng, W.; Gao, H. The Antioxidant Properties, Tyrosinase and α-Glucosidase Inhibitory Activities of Phenolic Compounds in Different Extracts from the Golden Oyster Mushroom, Pleurotus citrinopileatus (Agaricomycetes). Int. J. Med. Mushrooms 2019, 21, 865–874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Lin, S.-Y.; Chien, S.-C.; Wang, S.-Y.; Mau, J.-L. Nonvolatile Taste Components and Antioxidant Properties of Fruiting Body and Mycelium with High Ergothioneine Content from the Culinary-Medicinal Golden Oyster Mushroom Pleurotus citrinopileatus (Agaricomycetes). Int. J. Med. Mushrooms 2016, 18, 689–698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Puliga, F.; Zuffi, V.; Zambonelli, A.; Francioso, O.; Sanchez-Cortes, S. Spectroscopic analysis of mushrooms by surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric. 2022, 9, 100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Valdez-Solana, M.A.; Ventura-García, E.K.; Corral-Guerrero, I.A.; Téllez-Valencia, A.; Sierra-Campos, E. in Silico Characterization of the Physicochemical and Biological Properties of the Pink (Pleurotus djamor var. salmoneostramineus) Oyster Mushroom Chromoprotein. Bioinform. Biol. Insights 2023, 17, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Zhang, Y.; Wu, X.; Huang, C.; Zhang, Z.; Gao, W. Isolation and identification of pigments from oyster mushrooms with black, yellow and pink caps. Food Chem. 2022, 372, 131171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Nor-Aleesya, M.N.; Wan-Mohtar, W.A.A.Q.I.; Inshirah, I.; Aida, F.M.N.A.; Raseetha, S. Stability of pigments from Termitomyces sp. (termite mushroom), Pleurotus citrinopileatus (yellow oyster mushroom) and Pleurotus djamor (pink oyster mushroom) as natural food colouring. Food Res. 2023, 7, 84–92. [Google Scholar]
  63. Tania, K.A.; Das, E.J.; Tahsin, M.; Bhuiyan, M.A.R. Investigating the optimum conditions for azo dye (methyl orange and methyl red) decolorization from aqueous solution using oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus): A mycoremediation approach. Bioremediation J. 2024, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Ilić Đurđić, K.; Ostafe, R.; Đurđević Đelmaš, A.; Fischer, R.; Prodanović, R. Saturation mutagenesis to improve the degradation of azo dyes by versatile peroxidase and application in form of VP-coated yeast cell walls. Enzym. Microb. Technol. 2020, 136, 109509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Törős, G.; Prokisch, J.; Peles, F.; Nagy, R.; Nagy, J.; Béni, Á. The Effect of Sous-Vide Cooking on the Antioxidant Properties of Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus L.). Acta Agrar. Debreceniensis 2024, 1, 177–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Sathyan, A.; Abdul Majeed, K. A Comparative Study of Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities of Pleurotus ostreatus, Pleurotus Eryngii and Pleurotus djamor. Int. J. Agric. Innov. Res. 2017, 5, 907–912. [Google Scholar]
  67. Adejonwo, O.A.; Omitoyin, B.O.; Ogunwole, O.A.; Ajani, E.K.; Omitoyin, S.A. Chemical characterisation and in vitro assessment of two mushroom stalks as prebiotics for Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822). Agric. Trop. Subtrop. 2021, 54, 104–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Patel, S. Plant-derived cardiac glycosides: Role in heart ailments and cancer management. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2016, 84, 1036–1041. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Jan, S.; Khan, M.R. Antipyretic, analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Kickxia ramosissima. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2016, 182, 90–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Lee, T.H.; Hong, S.M.; Yoon, D.H.; Kim, S.Y.; Kim, C.S.; Lee, K.R. Procyanidins and Phlobatannins from the Twigs of Rosa multiflora and Their Neuroprotective Activity. J. Nat. Prod. 2022, 85, 917–926. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Fomekong, G.C.; Nguimbou, R.M.; Tsague, M.V.; Djantou, E.B.; Yanou, N.N. Effect of steam cooking and particle size on the nutritional composition, phytochemicals and antioxidant activities of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) powder. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 2024, 33, 2343–2356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Otto-Ślusarczyk, D.; Graboń, W.; Mielczarek-Puta, M. Aspartate aminotransferase--key enzyme in the human systemic metabolism. Postep. Hig. Med. Dosw. 2016, 70, 219–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Iqbal, T.; Sohaib, M.; Iqbal, S.; Rehman, H. Exploring Therapeutic Potential of Pleurotus ostreatus and Agaricus bisporus Mushrooms against Hyperlipidemia and Oxidative Stress Using Animal Model. Foods 2024, 13, 709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Uffelman, C.N.; Harold, R.; Hodson, E.S.; Foti, D.; Campbell, W.W. Effects of Consuming White Button and Oyster Mushrooms within a Healthy Mediterranean-Style Dietary Pattern on Changes in Subjective Indexes of Brain Health or Cognitive Function in Healthy Middle-Aged and Older Adults. Foods 2024, 13, 2319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  75. Marucci, G.; Buccioni, M.; Ben, D.D.; Lambertucci, C.; Volpini, R.; Amenta, F. Efficacy of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropharmacology 2021, 190, 108352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. Pisano, L.; Turco, M.; Supuran, C.T. Biomedical applications of tyrosinases and tyrosinase inhibitors. Enzymes 2024, 56, 261–280. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  77. Xu, W.; Shao, R.; Xiao, J. Is There Consistency between the Binding Affinity and Inhibitory Potential of Natural Polyphenols as alpha-amylase Inhibitors? Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2016, 56, 1630–1639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Hossain, U.; Das, A.K.; Ghosh, S.; Sil, P.C. An overview on the role of bioactive alpha-glucosidase inhibitors in ameliorating diabetic complications. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2020, 145, 111738. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Atila, F.; Cetin, M. Bioconversion of lavender oil extraction wastes through cultivation of Pleurotus eryngii var. ferulae: Its effects on yield, nutritional content and antioxidant capacity of the mushroom. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 2024, 58, 103138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Gogoi, P.; Chutia, P.; Singh, P.; Mahanta, C.L. Effect of Optimized Ultrasound-assisted Aqueous and Ethanolic Extraction of Pleurotus citrinopileatus Mushroom on Total Phenol, Flavonoids and Antioxidant Properties. J. Food Process Eng. 2019, 42, e13172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Houette, T.; Maurer, C.; Niewiarowski, R.; Gruber, P. Growth and Mechanical Characterization of Mycelium-Based Composites towards Future Bioremediation and Food Production in the Material Manufacturing Cycle. Biomimetics 2022, 7, 103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Tiupova, A.; Olędzki, R.; Harasym, J. Physicochemical, Functional, and Antioxidative Characteristics of Oyster Mushrooms. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1655. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031655

AMA Style

Tiupova A, Olędzki R, Harasym J. Physicochemical, Functional, and Antioxidative Characteristics of Oyster Mushrooms. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(3):1655. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031655

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tiupova, Alona, Remigiusz Olędzki, and Joanna Harasym. 2025. "Physicochemical, Functional, and Antioxidative Characteristics of Oyster Mushrooms" Applied Sciences 15, no. 3: 1655. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031655

APA Style

Tiupova, A., Olędzki, R., & Harasym, J. (2025). Physicochemical, Functional, and Antioxidative Characteristics of Oyster Mushrooms. Applied Sciences, 15(3), 1655. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031655

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop