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Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and beyond II

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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2024 | Viewed by 10097

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Dr. Yongchang Sun

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School of Water and Environment, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710054, China
Interests: biochar; lignocellulosic biomass; wastewater treatment; nanomaterials; adsorption; heavy metals; groundwater pollution remediation
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Dr. Dimitrios Giannakoudakis

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Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: wastewater treatment; carbon nanotubes; nanotechnology; porous materials
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The continuous widespread technological progress and industrial expansion over the last several decades has been accompanied by the serious environmental problem of water pollution. The pollution of water is related to the uncontrollable contamination of water bodies such as lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater by a plethora of substances/pollutants that can be harmful for humans, as well as for flora and fauna, even at very low concentrations. For example, heavy metals/metalloids can accumulate in living organisms, causing permanent cell damage and disorders, leading to disease and even death. The unmanageable disposal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) to water bodies can cause serious ecotoxicological problems and pose extraordinary threats to ecosystems or organisms. Microplastics are a class of emerging pollutants that generate severe environmental issues because of their small size, unique morphology, and enhanced chemical heterogeneity, but above all due to their stability and ability to act as pollutant carriers.

Environmental protection is regarded as key in the design and development of a sustainable future, and, hence, the attention of researchers and the public is concentrated on novel remediation approaches. Intense emphasis is placed on the removal of heavy metals, PPCPs, MPs, and other pollutants from water and wastewater. The diverse composition of polluted water bodies, and of industrial wastewater, requires a variety of treatment methods. Heavy metal ions are most often removed by the precipitation of their hardly soluble compounds. Ion exchange and sorption methods are also widely used. Sorption is an effective method for the removal of emerging contaminants and heavy metals from water and wastewater. Sorbents derived from discarded biomass, wastes and other feedstocks are widely studied for the treatment of contaminated water, since this material development strategy is within the framework of sustainable (bio)economy. Additionally, biodegradation and catalytic degradation methods are receiving attention for the removal of PPCPs and MPs. Therefore, the research and development of novel and efficient materials for environmental remediation applications, and especially for the removal of pollutants from water bodies, remains an active field of research.

This Special Issue aims to contribute towards the search for new methods beyond sorption, biodegradation and catalytic degradation and to present new materials for effective (waste)water treatment and purification.

We especially welcome works that address emerging pollutants or compounds that are not broadly studied. We encourage the publication of scientific articles, critical reviews, and case studies relevant to the context outlined above, and which generally fall within the field of modern environmental remediation applications.

Dr. Yongchang Sun
Dr. Dimitrios Giannakoudakis
Guest Editors

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Keywords

wastewater
adsorption
biodegradation
catalytic degradation
photocatalysis
heavy metal
emerging contaminant
biosorbent
mechanism

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Related Special Issue

Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and Beyond in Molecules (16 articles)

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Research

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24 pages, 8702 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eco-Friendly Carbon Nanotubes Reinforced with Sodium Alginate/Polyacrylic Acid for Enhanced Adsorption of Copper Ions: Kinetics, Isotherm, and Mechanism Adsorption Studies

by Pengbo Chang, Shuyang Zhou, Tongchao Wang, Dangling Hua, Shiliang Liu, Oseweuba Valentine Okoro, Armin Shavandi and Lei Nie

Molecules 2024, 29(19), 4518; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29194518 - 24 Sep 2024

Abstract

This study investigates the removal efficiency of Cu²⁺ from wastewater using a composite hydrogel made of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), sodium alginate (SA), and polyacrylic acid (PAA) prepared by free radical polymerization. The CNTs@SA/PAA hydrogel’s structure and properties were characterized using SEM, TEM, FTIR, XRD, rheology, DSC, EDS, elemental mapping analysis, and swelling. The adsorption performance for Cu²⁺ was tested in batch adsorption experiments, considering the pH, dosage, initial concentration, and contact time. The optimal conditions for Cu²⁺ removal were pH 5.0, an adsorbent dosage of 500 mg/L, and a contact time of 360 min. The adsorption followed pseudo-second order kinetics. Isotherm analyses (Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, Dubinin–Radushkevich, Sips, Toth, and Khan) revealed that the Freundlich isotherm best described the adsorption, with a maximum capacity of 358.52 mg/g. A thermodynamic analysis indicated that physical adsorption was the main interaction, with the spontaneity of the process also demonstrated. This study highlights the high efficiency and environmental friendliness of CNT@SA/PAA composites for Cu²⁺ removal from wastewater, offering a promising approach for water treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and beyond II)

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15 pages, 9778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zn/Cr-MOFs/TiO₂ Composites as Adsorbents for Levofloxacin Hydrochloride Removal

by Fuhua Wei, Qin Zhang, Qinhui Ren, Hongliang Chen, Yutao Zhang and Zhao Liang

Molecules 2024, 29(18), 4477; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29184477 - 20 Sep 2024

Abstract

The Zn/Cr-MOFs/TiO₂ composites were synthesized using the solvothermal method. XRD, FTIR, and SEM techniques were utilized to characterize the Zn/Cr-MOFs/TiO₂ composites employed for simulating levofloxacin hydrochloride in wastewater. The impact of the mass of the Zn/Cr-MOFs/TiO₂ composite, concentration of levofloxacin hydrochloride, solution pH, and temperature on the adsorption performance was investigated. Experimental findings indicated that at pH 6, the maximum removal efficiency of levofloxacin hydrochloride by the Zn/Cr-MOFs/TiO₂ composite was achieved at 88.8%, with an adsorption capacity of 246.3 mg/g. To analyze the experimental data, both pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetics models were applied, revealing that the pseudo-second-order model provided a better fit to the data. Additionally, Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models were used to study equilibrium adsorption behavior and showed good agreement with both kinetic modeling and Langmuir isotherm analysis results. These observations suggest that monolayer adsorption predominates during the removal process of levofloxacin hydrochloride by Zn/Cr-MOFs/TiO₂ composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and beyond II)

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21 pages, 17027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coconut Shell Carbon Preparation for Rhodamine B Adsorption and Mechanism Study

by Jinrui Yu, Yifan Bian, Rongfeng Wang, Shiping Zhou, Zhongying Wang, Dawei Wang and Huijuan Li

Molecules 2024, 29(17), 4262; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29174262 - 9 Sep 2024

Abstract

Phosphoric acid is used as a chemical activator to prepare coconut shell carbon (PCSC), and for investigating rhodamine B (RhB) adsorption performance. The optimal conditions for the preparation of PCSC (calcined temperature, phosphoric acid concentration), and the influence of adsorption conditions (concentration, pH, etc.) on RhB and the recovery performance of optimal carbon are investigated. Experimental results show that when the amount of PCSC (600 °C, 2 h) is 0.2 g, the initial RhB concentration is 10 mg/L, pH = 6, and the adsorption time is 30 min, it can have 95.84% RhB adsorption efficiency. Liquid ultraviolet spectroscopy also supports this adsorption performance. Characterization data showed that hydroxyl and ester groups, aromatic structures, and PO₄³⁻ existed on the surface of PCSC, and the amount decreased with increasing calcined temperature. PCSC has a BET (N₂) surface area of 408.59 m²/g and has a micropore distribution, EDS-detected P content is 3.91%. SEM showed that the PCSC formed micropores which could better adsorb RhB. The kinetic and thermodynamic analysis of the adsorption of RhB by PCSC showed that the adsorption process was in accord with quasi-secondary kinetic equations and ΔG^θ was between −1.65 and −18.75 kJ/mol. The adsorption was a physical adsorption and a spontaneous endothermic reaction, and the obtained PCSC sorption isotherms were classified as Langmuir-type. The RhB adsorption mechanism on PCSC includes pore diffusion, hydrogen bonding, and π−π conjugation. The PCSC prepared by H₃PO₄ modification has superior adsorption and recycling performance for RhB, providing a reference for the preparation of other biomass carbon materials for the treatment of dye wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and beyond II)

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16 pages, 3065 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Utilizing Morphological and Physiological Parameters of Lemna minor for Assessing Tetracyclines’ Removal

by Łukasz Sikorski, Agnieszka Bęś, Kazimierz Warmiński, Wojciech Truszkowski and Przemysław Kowal

Molecules 2024, 29(16), 3971; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163971 - 22 Aug 2024

Viewed by 358

Abstract

Antibiotics with significant environmental toxicity, e.g., tetracyclines (TCs), are often used in large quantities worldwide, with 50–80% of the applied dose ending up in the environment. This study aimed to investigate the effects of exposure to tetracycline hydrochloride (TC) and minocycline hydrochloride (MIN) on L. minor. Our research evaluated the phytotoxicity of the TCs by analyzing plant growth and biomass and evaluating assimilation pigment levels and fluorescence. The research was extended with the ability potential of duckweed as a tool for removing TCs from water/wastewater. The results demonstrated that both TCs influenced Ir, Iy, biomass, and photosynthetic efficiency. The uptake of TC and MIN by duckweed was proportional to the concentration in the growth medium. The TC was absorbed more readily, reaching up to 8.09 mg × g⁻¹ of dry weight (DW) at the highest concentration (19.2 mg × L⁻¹), while MIN reached 6.01 mg × g⁻¹ of DW. As indicated, the consequences of the influence of TC on plants were slightly smaller, in comparison to MIN, while the plants could biosorb this drug, even at the lowest tested concentration. This study has shown that using plants for drug biosorption can be an effective standalone or complementary method for water and wastewater treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and beyond II)

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20 pages, 9932 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Photocatalytic Degradation of Quinolones by Magnetic MOFs Materials and Mechanism Study

by Hongchao Chang, Guangyao Xu, Xiantong Huang, Wei Xu, Fujuan Luo, Jiarong Zang, Xiaowei Lin, Rong Huang, Hua Yu and Binbin Yu

Molecules 2024, 29(10), 2294; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29102294 - 13 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 848

Abstract

With the rising incidence of various diseases in China and the constant development of the pharmaceutical industry, there is a growing demand for floxacin-type antibiotics. Due to the large-scale production and high cost of waste treatment, the parent drug and its metabolites constantly enter the water environment through domestic sewage, production wastewater, and other pathways. In recent years, the pollution of the aquatic environment by floxacin has become increasingly serious, making the technology to degrade floxacin in the aquatic environment a research hotspot in the field of environmental science. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), as a new type of porous material, have attracted much attention in recent years. In this paper, four photocatalytic materials, MIL-53(Fe), NH₂-MIL-53(Fe), MIL-100(Fe), and g-C₃N₄, were synthesised and applied to the study of the removal of ofloxacin and enrofloxacin. Among them, the MIL-100(Fe) material exhibited the best photocatalytic effect. The degradation efficiency of ofloxacin reached 95.1% after 3 h under visible light, while enrofloxacin was basically completely degraded. The effects of different materials on the visible photocatalytic degradation of the floxacin were investigated. Furthermore, the photocatalytic mechanism of enrofloxacin and ofloxacin was revealed by the use of three trappers (▪O₂⁻, h⁺, and ▪OH), demonstrating that the role of ▪O₂⁻ promoted the degradation effect of the materials under photocatalysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and beyond II)

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16 pages, 6149 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Removal of Azo Dyes from Water Using Natural Luffa cylindrica as a Non-Conventional Adsorbent

by Ma. Guadalupe Aranda-Figueroa, Adriana Rodríguez-Torres, Alexis Rodríguez, Gloria Ivette Bolio-López, David Osvaldo Salinas-Sánchez, Dulce Ma. Arias-Atayde, Rosenberg J. Romero and Maria Guadalupe Valladares-Cisneros

Molecules 2024, 29(9), 1954; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29091954 - 24 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 838

Abstract

Reducing high concentrations of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, drugs, and dyes from water is an emerging necessity. We evaluated the use of Luffa cylindrica (Lc) as a natural non-conventional adsorbent to remove azo dye mixture (ADM) from water. The capacity of Lc at three different doses (2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 g/L) was evaluated using three concentrations of azo dyes (0.125, 0.250, and 0.500 g/L). The removal percent (R%), maximum adsorption capacity (Q_m), isotherm and kinetics adsorption models, and pH influence were evaluated, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy were performed. The maximum R% was 70.8% for 10.0 g L⁻¹ Lc and 0.125 g L⁻¹ ADM. The Q_m of Lc was 161.29 mg g⁻¹. Adsorption by Lc obeys a Langmuir isotherm and occurs through the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Statistical analysis showed that the adsorbent dose, the azo dye concentration, and contact time significantly influenced R% and the adsorption capacity. These findings indicate that Lc could be used as a natural non-conventional adsorbent to reduce ADM in water, and it has a potential application in the pretreatment of wastewaters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and beyond II)

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18 pages, 3708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tetraethylenepentamine-Grafted Amino Terephthalic Acid-Modified Activated Carbon as a Novel Adsorbent for Efficient Removal of Toxic Pb(II) from Water

by Mutairah S. Alshammari

Molecules 2024, 29(7), 1586; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29071586 - 2 Apr 2024

Viewed by 919

Abstract

In this study, a new composite, tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA), was incorporated into amino terephthalic acid-modified activated carbon (ATA@AC) through a one-pot integration of TEPA with the COOH moiety of ATA@AC. This process resulted in the creation of a TEPA@ATA@AC composite for Pb(II) removal from an aquatic environment. Several techniques, including SEM, EDX, FT-IR, TGA, XRD, and Zeta potential, were employed to emphasize the chemical composition, morphology, and thermal durability of the as-synthesized TEPA@ATA@AC composite. The impact of experimental variables on the adsorption of Pb(II) ions was studied using batch adsorption. The uptake assessment suggested that the TEPA@ATA@AC composite exhibited superior Pb(II) removal performance with high removal efficiency (97.65%) at pH = 6.5, dosage = 0.02 g, equilibrium time = 300 min, and temperature = 298 K. The isotherm data exhibited good conformity with the Langmuir isotherm model, whereas the kinetics data displayed strong agreement with both pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetics models. This reflected that the Pb((II) uptake by the TEPA@ATA@AC composite was caused by physisorption coupled with limited chemisorption. The greatest monolayer uptake capacity of the TEPA@ATA@AC composite was 432.8 mg/g. The thermodynamic findings indicated that the Pb(II) uptake on the TEPA@ATA@AC composite was an exothermic and feasible process. After five adsorption—desorption runs, the TEPA@ATA@AC composite maintained a superior uptake capacity (83.80%). In summary, the TEPA@ATA@AC composite shows promise as a potent adsorbent for effectively removing Cr(VI) from contaminated water, with impressive removal efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and beyond II)

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18 pages, 7725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spherical Lignin-Derived Activated Carbons for the Adsorption of Phenol from Aqueous Media

by Piotr Łątka, Bazyli Olszański, Magdalena Żurowska, Marek Dębosz, Anna Rokicińska and Piotr Kuśtrowski

Molecules 2024, 29(5), 960; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29050960 - 22 Feb 2024

Viewed by 976

Abstract

In this work, a synthesis and activation path, which enabled the preparation of spherical activated carbon from a lignin precursor, characterized by high adsorption capacity in the removal of phenolic compounds from water, was successfully developed. Two industrial by-products, i.e., Kraft lignin and sodium lignosulfonate, were used to form spherical nanometric lignin grains using pH and solvent shift methods. The obtained materials became precursors to form porous activated carbons via chemical activation (using K₂CO₃ or ZnCl₂ as activating agents) and carbonization (in the temperature range of 600–900 °C). The thermal stabilization step at 250 °C was necessary to ensure the sphericity of the grains during high-temperature heat treatment. The study investigated the influence of the type of chemical activator used, its quantity, and the method of introduction into the lignin precursor, along with the carbonization temperature, on various characteristics including morphology (examined by scanning electron microscopy), the degree of graphitization (evaluated by powder X-ray diffraction), the porosity (assessed using low-temperature N₂ adsorption), and the surface composition (analyzed with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) of the produced carbons. Finally, the carbon materials were tested as adsorbents for removing phenol from an aqueous solution. A conspicuous impact of microporosity and a degree of graphitization on the performance of the investigated adsorbents was found. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and beyond II)

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19 pages, 4348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Adsorption of Textile Dyes by a Novel Sulfonated Activated Carbon Derived from Pomegranate Peel Waste: Isotherm, Kinetic and Thermodynamic Study

by Badr M. Thamer, Faiz A. Al-aizari and Hany S. Abdo

Molecules 2023, 28(23), 7712; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28237712 - 22 Nov 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1209

Abstract

The rapid growth of the dye and textile industry has raised significant public concerns regarding the pollution caused by dye wastewater, which poses potential risks to human health. In this study, we successfully improved the adsorption efficiency of activated carbon derived from pomegranate peel waste (PPAC) through a single-step and surface modification approach using 5-sulfonate-salicylaldehyde sodium salt. This innovative and effective sulfonation approach to produce sulfonated activated carbon (S-PPAC) proved to be highly effective in removing crystal violet dye (CV) from polluted water. The prepared PPAC and S-PPAC were characterized via FESEM, EDS, FTIR and BET surface area. Characterization studies confirmed the highly porous structure of the PPAC and its successful surface modification, with surface areas reaching 1180.63 m²/g and 740.75 m²/g for the PPAC and S-PPAC, respectively. The maximum adsorption capacity was achieved at 785.53 mg/g with the S-PPAC, an increase of 22.76% compared to the PPAC at 45 °C. The isothermic adsorption and kinetic studies demonstrated that the adsorption process aligned well with the Freundlich isotherm model and followed the Elovich kinetic model, respectively. The thermodynamic study confirmed that the adsorption of CV dye was endothermic, spontaneous and thermodynamically favorable onto PPAC and S-PPAC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and beyond II)

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Review

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22 pages, 2965 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microorganism-Driven 2,4-D Biodegradation: Current Status and Emerging Opportunities

by Shao-Fang Chen, Wen-Juan Chen, Haoran Song, Mingqiu Liu, Sandhya Mishra, Mohamed A. Ghorab, Shaohua Chen and Changqing Chang

Molecules 2024, 29(16), 3869; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163869 - 15 Aug 2024

Viewed by 846

Abstract

The herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) has been widely used around the world in both agricultural and non-agricultural fields due to its high activity. However, the heavy use of 2,4-D has resulted in serious environmental contamination, posing a significant risk to non-target organisms, including human beings. This has raised substantial concerns regarding its impact. In addition to agricultural use, accidental spills of 2,4-D can pose serious threats to human health and the ecosystem, emphasizing the importance of prompt pollution remediation. A variety of technologies have been developed to remove 2,4-D residues from the environment, such as incineration, adsorption, ozonation, photodegradation, the photo-Fenton process, and microbial degradation. Compared with traditional physical and chemical remediation methods, microorganisms are the most effective way to remediate 2,4-D pollution because of their rich species, wide distribution, and diverse metabolic pathways. Numerous studies demonstrate that the degradation of 2,4-D in the environment is primarily driven by enzymatic processes carried out by soil microorganisms. To date, a number of bacterial and fungal strains associated with 2,4-D biodegradation have been isolated, such as Sphingomonas, Pseudomonas, Cupriavidus, Achromobacter, Ochrobactrum, Mortierella, and Umbelopsis. Moreover, several key enzymes and genes responsible for 2,4-D biodegradation are also being identified. However, further in-depth research based on multi-omics is needed to elaborate their role in the evolution of novel catabolic pathways and the microbial degradation of 2,4-D. Here, this review provides a comprehensive analysis of recent progress on elucidating the degradation mechanisms of the herbicide 2,4-D, including the microbial strains responsible for its degradation, the enzymes participating in its degradation, and the associated genetic components. Furthermore, it explores the complex biochemical pathways and molecular mechanisms involved in the biodegradation of 2,4-D. In addition, molecular docking techniques are employed to identify crucial amino acids within an alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent 2,4-D dioxygenase that interacts with 2,4-D, thereby offering valuable insights that can inform the development of effective strategies for the biological remediation of this herbicide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and beyond II)

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21 pages, 2801 KiB

Open AccessReview

Research Progress on the Degradation of Organic Pollutants in Wastewater via Ultrasound/Periodate Systems: A Review

by Tiehong Song, Zhe Wang, Yi Jiang, Shenggang Yang and Qiyuan Deng

Molecules 2024, 29(11), 2562; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29112562 - 29 May 2024

Viewed by 790

Abstract

In recent years, the efficient removal of organic pollutants from wastewater has emerged as a critical area of global research interest. Against this backdrop, an array of innovative technologies for wastewater treatment has been developed. Among numerous advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), periodate (PI), an emerging oxidizing agent in AOPs, has garnered significant attention from researchers. Particularly, the integration of ultrasound (US)-activated PI systems has been recognized as an exceptionally promising approach for the synergistic degradation of organic pollutants in wastewater. In this paper, we conducted a thorough analysis of the mechanisms underlying the degradation of organic pollutants using the US/PI system. Furthermore, we comprehensively delineated the effects of ultrasonic power, periodate concentration, temperature, pH, coexisting inorganic ions, and dissolved organic matter on the removal efficiency of organic pollutants and summarized application cases of the US/PI system for the degradation of different pollutants. Finally, we also offered prospective discussions on the future trajectories of US/PI technology development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Treatments Based on Adsorption, Catalysis, Biodegradation, and beyond II)

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