G R E ROERICH EO G

TIBETAN

PAINTINGS

1925

R RICH, T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

FRONTISPIECE

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

GEORGE ROERICH

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

LIBRAIRIE

ORIENTALISTE

P A UL G E UTHNE R
13. R ue Jacob P A R IS (V I* )

1925

C o p y rig h t 1926 by Corona M u n d i, New-York.

CONTENTS

In tro d u c tio n ................................................................................................................. Buddhas .................................................................................................................. .. Dhyni-Buddhas ...................................................... ..................................................

1 27
35

T utelary D e itie s ............................................................................................................ Bodhisaltvas ......................... ........................................................................................ M aitreya ......................................................................................................................... Avalokitevara .............................................................................................................. M a n ju r ........................................................................................................................ Female Deities ............................................................................................................. Padm asam bhava........................................................................................................... Rgyal-ba Tson-kha-pa ............................................................................................... List of Paintings ........................................ ............................................................... B ibliograp hy .............................................................................................................. ..

7
45 49 53

61
65

7 81
85

87 91

Index ...............................................................................................................................

IN T R O D U C T IO N

It is only recently th at the systematic study of B uddhist A rt lias been in a u gurated. Thanks to scie n tific excavations and explorations carried out in India by the In d ia n Archaeological Survey, in Central Asia by a num ber of archaeo logical missions on behalf of d iffe re n t governm ents, and in C hina by the pio neer w o rk of the em in en t French sinologist, the late Edouard Chavannes, we possess a num ber of invaluable facts w ic h enable us to reconstruct the vast do m ain of B uddhist A rt. It is true th a t it is not yet possible to w rite a h isto ry of Buddhist A rt in a4 its phases and d iffe re n t epochs. This huge w o rk rem ains to be done, and we o n ly can hope th a t fu tu re investigations in this field w ill facilitate the scholars task. B ut if the com plete h isto ry of B uddhist A rt is s till to be w ritte n , we can already a ffirm the u n ity of its e vo lution . No m atter how d ifferen t were the local influences, the types created by the jo in t e ffo rt of the hellenistic genius and of the H in d u s p irit, kin d le d by the doctrine of Bud dha, m aintained th e ir o rig in a lity th ro u g h o u t the centuries, fro m the cara van stations in the deserts of Chinese T u rk is ta n to the island of Java. Indeed, it is a m atter of great surprise th at the sublim e doctrine of Gautama, the Bud dha, who established a legion of m onks s triv in g fo r a k in d of ideal com m u nism in this w o rld , could have caused the rise of an art w h ic h pow erfully

attested itself th ro u g h o u t the vastnesses of Asia. C ontem platin g the serene sim p lic ity of a Gandhra Buddha, the delicate design of the A janta frescoes, the pow erful and sometimes m a rtia l s p irit of the C entral-Asiatic p icto ria l com po sitions, and the religious fe rvo u r of the W ei art in the grottos of Y un-kang and Lung-m en, we feel ourselves to be in the presence of a lo fty altar of beauty erected by the united efforts of a host of Eastern and W estern artists. No im a g in a ry b a rrie r stood or stands between these two great spheres of culture and c iv iliz a tio n , and o n ly petty racial prejudices have fostered the creation of a separating w a ll w h ic h haunts the im a g in a tio n of a m odern person. It should be remembered th at the h is to ric evolution of m a n kin d never knew such bar riers and that the message of cu ltu re proclaim ed in one co u n try is often acclai med w ith equal enthusiasm in another co untry w h ich may be located in a

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

far distant part of our earthly globe. Such is the great a ttraction of ideas travel lin g along the routes tha t lin k nations together, not k n o w in g w hat a b a rrie r means. The fu tu re scholar w ill u n d ou btedly w rite a general h isto ry of the

East, and he w ill also produce a h isto ry of O riental art, w h ic h w ill demons trate how great was the interchange between the various centers of culture in times gone by. W hen one th in k s about the o rig in s of B uddhist A rt, one natu ra lly turn s towards In d ia , the land where the Exalted One had preached his doctrine of universal salvation fro m the miseries of this w o rld . But the scan tity of reliable dates in the chronology of ancient In d ia makes it very d iffic u lt to locate c h ro n olo g ica lly the outstanding creations of art produced on the soil of In d ia . The existence of an art in In d ia in prebuddhistic tim es can be left undoubted. Tim e and clim ate have destroyed whatever rem ained of the ancient architecture w h ic h used wood as its m aterial, and it is o n ly w ith great d iffic u l ties th at we are able to sketch the h is to ry of the firs t plastic representations of B uddhist legends. Tentatives have already been made to discuss d iffe re n t ten dencies in the art of the early periods, b u t all endeavours made by h istorical c ritic is m have proved so fa r to be o n ly theories, la c k in g in m aterial founda tions to become established facts. I t seems certain th a t there existed a period of art s tron gly im bued w ith greco-persian influences. This art flourished under the M aurya dynasty ( III . C .). A fa ir ly good example of this art is given by the capital of the Aoka colum n at Srnth, near Benares. The next period is characterized by the fu n e ra l m ounts or stpas of Bhrh u t and Sanchi, w h ic h are solitary witnesses of a once flo u ris h in g artistic

school. The differences in style and com position make it evident that various schools of art were active in the plains of In d ia , and th a t the B uddhist a rtistic schools in he rite d m uch of the old local tra d itio n s, the nature of w h ic h it is im possible to ascertain at present. F rom the fo lk -lo re tendencies of B h rh u t in

Central In d ia , erected about the m id d le of the second century . C., w ith its num erous reliefs r epresenting scenes fro m the Jtakas, or stories of previous

existences of the Founder of the O rder, we pass to the group of funeral mounds of Snch (about the firs t century . C .), perform ed Ganges. (*) by the Exalted One ric h in representations of miracles

d u rin g his preaching in the basin of the

(*) Sir J. Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, Calcutta, 19 18.

INTRODUCTION

The p ow erful influence exercised by the doctrine of Buddha on the m inds of the people accounts fo r the efflorescence of an art dedicated to the g lorifica lio n of the Masters ea rthly path, fo r, as the em inent French in d ia n is t Profes sor A lfred Foucher has said (*) : I do not th in k that the im a g in a tio n of any race has ever created a Finer or vaster subject fo r a poem than this destiny of a single being in w hom are shown a ll the aspects of life , in w hom is concen trated all the experience of past ages, in one w ord, in w hom the evolution of the entire race is reflected. The early B uddhist artists w ith sin g u la r fervour reproduced in plastic form s the various episodes of the early life of the Exalted One. The pious attention w ith w hich the B ha rh ut artists treated the w o rk of representing the previous lives of the Buddha, made them inscribe below the reliefs the names of the Ja takas represented on them , thus g iv in g to the m odern scholar an unique

o p p o rtu n ity of in te rp re tin g the early B uddhist images. The reliefs of Snch, although not inscribed w ith explanatory titles, are fo r the most part identified by Professor A. Grnwedel and Professor A. Foucher. (**) Most of the reliefs of this early B uddhist art can be satisfactorily explained w ith the help of the holy scriptures of Buddhism . Besides the num erous Jtaka scenes the early Buddhist reliefs represent the e ight great m iracles of the Buddha (***). W e easily recognize : ( 1) The sccne of the N a tiv ity (Skrt. Jati) in the park of L u m b in , near Ka pilavastu (the actual site has been com m em orated by a p illa r erected by Aoka, found near the present village of R u m m in d e i some if)o kls to the n o rth of Be nares) (****). (2 ) The perfect Illu m in a tio n (Skrt. Abhisam bodhana) on the site of the pre sent Bodh-gay. (3 ) The firs t preaching (Skrt. D harm acakrapravarlana) at Mrgadava, Benares. (4) Death (Skrt. P a rin irv n a ), near the small tow n of Kuinagara in the Nepal Terai. These fo u r sublim e mom ents of Buddhas life , w hich were recommended foi p ilg rim ag e by the Exalted One h im s e lf, are supplemented by fo u r others, near

(*) A. Four her , The Be g i n i ngs of Buddhist Ar l , Paris, 1918, p. 5 . n (**) A. Four bor , ibid. pp. G1-110. (***) a Fom-her, i bi d, pp. 1/17-18/1. (****) E. .J. Bapson, Cambr i dge Hist ory of Indi a, Cambr i dge, , p. i< )>

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

w hich are the fo u r p rin c ip a l occasions on w h ich the Exalted One exercized his m agical powers : (5 ) The Great M iracle (S krt. M ahprtihrya) at rvastl. (6) The Descent fro m Heaven (S krt. Devvatra) near Snkya.

(7) The O ffe rin g of the M onkey near Vail. (8) The T a m in g of the maddened Elephant at R jagrha. The Tibetan tra d itio n knows another place of sanctity, w h ich is le ft u n

know n in In d ia n tra d itio n . I t is the place where the fu tu re Buddha cut down his h a ir and pronounced his vow in the presence of Brahm a and In d ra . This place is characterized by a stpa, called in Tibetan the most holy stpa (m chod-rtcn rnam -dag), w h ic h is re g u la rly seen on p a in tin g s prince S idd h rtlia ta kin g his m onastic vow (*). It is alm ost im possible to say w hether the early B uddhist art had produced p ic tu rin g the

an im age of the Exalted One. A legend of the Divyvadna (**), w h ic h can be regarded as of a late period, tells us o f the m iraculous o rig in of the image of Buddha. The k in g Bim bisra, of Magadha, h a v in g received ric h presents

fro m Rudryana, k in g of Roruka, decided to send to the latter an image of the Exalted One. The artists, to w h om the com m ission was given, found them

selves unable to o u tlin e the d iv in e face and fig u re of the Buddha. Seeing th e ir d iffic u lty , the Exalted One ordered a lin e n -clo th to be b ro u g h t and on its sur face projected his shadow, w h ic h was then designed and coloured by the artists. We are in v o lu n ta rily rem inded of an alm ost analogical sto ry m iraculous o rig in of the image of C hrist. The a rtistic schools th a t decorated the fu n e ra l m ounds of B h a rh u t and Snch seem to avoid the hum an representation of the Exalted One. On the reliefs of B ha rh u t and Snch, the Buddha ils always represented by symbols, never in h u man fo rm . Thus the Great D eparture (S krt. M ahbhiniskram ana) is always re presented by a horse w ith o u t a rid e r co m in g out of a city gate ; the Great Prea concerning the

(*) Cf. p a in t in g in the Collectio n Jacques Bacot in the Muse G u im e t, described and edited by M. J. l i a c k in i n his recent Guide-Catalogue du Muse G u im e t, Paris, 192, pl. X I X ; a typica l T ib e tan m c h o d -rtc n o r stupa is seen b e h in d the fig ure of the Bodhisattva. I n the Lalita -Vislara (ch. XY ) we find the m e n tio n o f a stupa called C b andakanivarla na that has been erected on the place where Chandaka left the fu tu re Buddha. The text calls this place Anuvain eya, and adds that to reach this place one had to cross the territories o f the kvas, Krodyas, Mallas, and Maineyas. (**) B u r n o u f, I n t r . a r h i s l . du Bouddhisme in d ie n , p. 34 .

INTRODUCTION

c h in g is sym bolized by the W heel of Law , and the P a rin irv n a by a funeral m ound or stupa. As Professor A lfre d Foucher has shown (*), the two schools the one re presented at Snch, and the other called Gandhra school were almost con tem porary. One, as we have ju s t seen, used symbols lo represent the person of the Teacher, as if de n ying the p o ssib ility of a representation in hum an fo rm ; the other succeeded in creating a h u m a n type of the Founder of the Order. It w ill be in terestin g to kn ow w hether there existed a correspondence between artis tic schools and diffe re n t sects of B uddhism . I f such a correspondence could be discovered, the school represented at Snch should be regarded as the more

orthodox of the tw o, corresponding to some B uddhist sects of C entral In d ia w h ic h zealously c lu n g to the fo rm u la : The B uddha disappears, the Law rem ains (**), words w h ic h were spoken by the Exalted One h im se lf at the tim e of his entering in to N irvna. The creation af a h um an type of Buddha has been, as we have ju s t said, achieved by the greco-buddhist school th a t flourished in the ancient Gandhra province in N orth-W estern In d ia tow ards the b e g in n in g of our era. This

school had already established its character about the firs t century . C., and gained in eminence d u rin g the fo llo w in g centuries. A bout the th ird century A. D. its g lo ry faded away and the subsequent centuries saw it in complete deca dence. This school was a ty p ic a l p ro d u ct of its tim e, an outcome of the spread of a rtistic syncretism in the h e lle n istic O rient of the last centuries before our era. Since the m em orable campaigns of Alexander the Great this craze fo r ar tistic and religious syncretism became general in the Near East, and has proba b ly influenced N orth-W estern In d ia and Bactria, where hellenistic dynasts

established themselves after the dissolution of the great Macedonian Em pire. The classical country of hellenism was E gypt, where Greek em igrants persis te ntly trie d to establish a contact w ith the ancient lore of E gypt, and the E gyp tians g ra du ally adm itted Greek conceptions in to th e ir religious system. The and the sometimes

same general tendency was stro n g ly pronounced in art,

clum sy type of h e lle nistic artistic productions can be explained by the fact that

(*) A. Fouchcr, L A r t G reco-B ouddhiquc du Gandhra, Vol. 2nd, fasc. 11, p. 744. Paris, 192. (**) Mahfip arin ib hfin a-sulla , V I , 1.

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

the hellenistic artis t could not easily assim ilate the great variety of different styles placed at his disposal. The h e lle nistic tendencies of local dynasties in N orthW estern In d ia and adjacent countries (Greek plays at P arthian courts), and

the spread of B uddhist propaganda across the borders of In d ia , resulted in the establishm ent of a. local school of art. A ll the productions of this school bear evidence of its double o rig in : the fo rm is undoubtedly hellenistic, whereas the help of B uddhist sacred texts.

the m eaning can o n ly be established w ith

A t present we are in the possession of a m onum enta l w o rk by Professor Fou cher on the art of Gandhra, where its character, its a rtistic value, and its spread th ro u g h the B uddhist w o rld are m a s te rfu lly described. W e have dw elt on this school a little longer because of its im p o rta n t role in the h isto ry of O riental art. Its creations were carried by sea and by land to the countries of the Far East, and established there the foundations of a b rillia n t efflorescence of artis tic schools inspired by the doctrine and legend of Buddha. The archaeological explorations w h ich were carried out by a num ber of dis tinguished scholars along the tw o great caravan routes in Chinese T u rkista n ,

have unearthed a huge am ount of local artistic productions e nablin g thus to reconstruct the way by w h ic h the Gandhra art had travelled before it reached the confines of China and p o w e rfu lly influenced the religious art of the W ei period. The great draw back in the study of the Gandhra art, and of the art of the early B uddhist period in general, is the complete absence of frescoes or other paintings. Tim e and clim ate have destroyed whatever rem ained of the old p ic to ria l art. The walls of vihras or monasteries and of rock-carved temples were undoubtedly decorated w ith frescoes, whose character it is im possible to ascertain. The C entral-A siatic p ic to ria l art gives o n ly a very im perfect idea of the character of the p ic to ria l art of the ancient Gandhra. Of the p icto ria l art b elong ing to the period preceding our era only one specimen exists : it is a fra g m entary fresco in the Joglm r cave o f the Rm garh H ill in the distant Surg u j State. A ccording to Sir John M arshall the fresco was executed in the first century before o ur era. The o rig in a l design of the frcsco is spoiled by later res tauratio n. (*) Let us hope th a t the recent archaeological explorations of Profes sor Foucher in A fghanista n, besides fu rn is h in g new proofs, w ill help us to fill this gap in our know ledge o f Gandhra art, and w ill give fresh m aterial fo r a

(*)

Rapson ,Thc C am brid ge Histo ry o f In d ia , ch. X X V I , pp. 62-/1.

INTRODUCTION

new chapter in the history of In d ia n p ic to ria l art. The Gandhra tra d itio n s left a lasting trace on the a rtistic schools o f In d ia , and the b rillia n t Gupta art owes m uch of its b rillia n c y to the achievements of G reco-Buddhist artists. Tibetan art closely follow s the ancient In d ia n tra d itio n s. Many iconogra g h ical types of the B uddhist pantheon in Tibet can be traced back to Gandhra o riginals. Before discussing Tibetan p ic to ria l art, a b rie f h istorical sketch of T i bet w ill be found useful. L ittle is k n o w n about the h isto ry of the table-lands of Tibet (*) before the in tro d u c tio n of Buddhism in the firs t h a lf of the seventh century A. D. It seems that the country was ruled by a n u m b e r of petty chieftains, w ho were in a

state of continuous warfare against each other. A ccording to Chinese Annals the first Tibetan k in g d o m was established about 607 A. D. by the k in g rN am ri Sron-btsan. His son was the fam ous ru le r of Tibet, Sron-btsan sgam-po, who introduced B uddhism in to the land and w hom the tra d itio n honours w ith the title of Chos-rgyal, or D h a n n a r ja . T his k in g established his capital in Lha-Idan or Lha-sa in C entral T ibet (dbUs), and la id the foundations of a state organiza tion. His victorious conquests carried h im to the confines of C hina and his ar mies even sacked the western Ssu-chuan province. About 640 A. D. he conclu ded a peace treaty w ith the T ang E m peror T a i-ts u n g , by w h ich his supremacy in the region of K u k u -n o r was recognized by C hina. And such was the m ili Chinese

tary strength of the Tibetan k in g th at he even obtained in m arriage a Im p e ria l princess (ku n g -ch u ).

Sron-btsan sgam-po concluded another m a tri

m onial alliance w ith Nepal by m a rry in g the daughter of the Nepalese k in g A m cuvarm an. These tw o royal princesses were fervent Buddhists, and tra d itio n says that the Chinese princess b ro u g h t to T ibet a famous statue of Buddha, w hile the Nepalese princess b ro u g h t an image of the D hyni-B uddha Aksobhya. Both statues are now preserved in the Jo-khang in Lhasa. It is even said k in g m arried the tw o princesses 1 1 order to 1 obtain the two famous that the statues.

It is th ro u g h the influence of these two princesses that the k in g accepted B uddhism and fostered its spread in his k in g d o m . The grateful B uddhist C hurch of Tibet regards the tw o fo re ig n princesses as incarnations of the d ivin e Tr under her green and w h ite aspects (T iib . S G rol-ljan, and sG rol-dkar). Sron-

(*) About the o r i g i n of the name T ib et , see Professor P. P c ll io t, Quelques tran scrip tio ns c h i noises de noms tibtains. T oung-pao, 1916, pp. 18-20.

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

btsan sgam-po sent to In d ia a n u m b e r of gifted young m en, am ong w hom was the famous T h o n -m i Sambhota, the in ve n to r of the Tibetan alphabet and the author of the firs t Tibetan g ra m m a tical w o rk in lokas. A fte r the death of k in g Sron-btsan sgam-po little progress was made by the new re lig io n , and o n ly w ith the advent of k in g K h ri-sro n ldc (ldeu)This

btsan (755-797 A. D .), the spread of B uddhism gained a new

im pulse.

k in g , besides being a conqueror, was a great patron of the new re lig io n , and in v ite d to T ibet the great antaraksita of Nlanda and the B uddhist m onk Kam alala. This last one became fam ous because of his religious controversy w ith the -ang Maliyna, a Chinese m o n k regarded in C hina as an incarnation of M aitreya, the fu tu re Buddha. The B uddhism th a t reached Tibet was already stro n g ly im bued w ith i

vatic influences and other beliefs in m agical practices, w h ic h were regarded w ith such an abhorrence by early Buddhists. Professor de la Valle Poussin in the learned in tro d u c tio n to his valuable Etudes et M atriaux (*) has already indicated the existence of a scientific B uddhism , a B uddhism of a com parati vely sm all num be r of learned doctors, and of a popular B uddhism w h ic h in troduced in to the system a n u m b e r of popula r beliefs. The p a n d it ntarak sita advised the k in g to in v ite fro m In d ia the great ta n tric teacher Padmasam bhava of Oddiyna. Padmasambhava was an adopted son of k in g In d ra b h ti of Oddiyna. In the Padma T h a n -y ig (**), a b u lk y w o rk re la tin g the legendary life of Padmasam bhava, it is to ld how the fu tu re teacher was fo und by the k in g and his m in is ter s ittin g on a lotus flo w er in the m id d le of a lake called V im alaprabh, how he m arrie d and le ft the palace, how he led an austere life in a cemetery called the (( Cool grove (Tib. bSil-ba tshal-gyi d u r-k h ro d ), and how he became know n by his m any m iracles. The second part of the w o rk contains an account of his m ission to the Land of the Snows . The great G uru, or Mahcrya, on his com ing to Tibet, had a d iffic u lt task before h im . lie m et w ith a v io le n t opposition on the p art of the local re lig io n , probably a k in d of Bon, and of m any people of influence at the royal court, lie overcame all the barriers p u t before h im and accepted a num ber o f local
(*) Prof. de la Valle Poussin, Bouddhisme, Etudes et M atriaux, p. 33 and 7. (**) Padma T h a n - y i g ; po rtio n s o f the w o r k have been translated by M. Toussaint. See b ib lio g r a

phy.

INTRODUCTION

culls in to his syslcm. This he did in order to calm his opponents. His fo llo wers in T ibet arc kn o w n under the name of rN in-m a-pa, and arc distinguished by th e ir red caps. The rN n in -m a sect is essentially a T a n tric school and is s till in flu e n tia l in the H im alayan Border States. The sect regards the Bodhisattva Sam antabhadra as a p rim o rd ia l Buddha, and a special c u lt is dedicated to h im . Be sides this Bodhisattva, the cults of the Y i-dam rD o -rje phur-pa and other mGonpo, or protectors , are stro n g ly recommended by the founder. The system is characterized by a great n um b e r of hidden scriptures or gTer-m a discovered from tim e to tim e by lamas, and said to contain m ystic doctrines. The titles of the hidden books are sometimes g iven in some u n kn o w n language, whose

m eaning it is im possible to ascertain at present (*). The chief occupation of the follow ers of this sect is Magic and other ceremonies prescribed by various Tantras. Padmasambhava also assisted k in g K h ri-sro n Ide-btsan in the b u il

d in g of the monastery of bSam -yas-gling, the treasury of the present Lhasa Go vernm ent. lie also began the w o rk of translating the B uddhist books in to T i betan, assisted by the Lo-lsa-ba Pagur Vairocana. The stay of Padmasambhava in Tibet was not a very long one and lie soon returned to India. A fter the death of k in g K h ri-s ro n lde btsan Buddhism continued to spread in Tibet. A num ber of H ind u doctors were in vite d to Tibet to continue the prea ch in g and the tran sla tio n of B uddhist texts. A heavy blow to the new doctrine, was delivered by gLan-dar-m a, w ho was proclaim ed k in g about
838

A.

D., after the m u rd e r of his b ro th e r, the pious and weak K h ri Ral-pa-can. The short reign of gLan-dar-m a was f u ll of vio le n t outbreaks against the doctrine of Buddha. The In d ia n pandits were d rive n away fro m Tibet, books were des troyed, and temples devastated. Only, a few lamas succeeded in h id in g the scrip tures fro m destruction. Fortunately fo r Buddhism , the k in g was m urdered by a la m a -h e rm it, d P a l-rd o-rje , who approached the k in g in the disguise of a Bon m agician. The m em ory of this event is s till liv in g am ong the Tibetans of to day, and one of the lama religious dances, nam ely the Black-hat dance, p u r ports to represent this event. In the IX century A. D. we see the Tibetans at the h e ig h t of th e ir m ilita ry strength, extending th e ir occupation even in to Chinese Turkestan and ta k in g pos session of the im p o rta n t oasis of T un -h uan g in the western Kansu province,

(*) We believe these languages to be artific ial languages.

IO

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

where Sir A urel Stein and the e m in en t French sinologist Professor Paul Pel lio t made th e ir b r illia n t discoveries. B ut the m ilita ry power of Tibet d id not last more than tw o centuries. W ith the spreading of B uddhism the m a rtia l s p irit of the w a rlike nomads grad u ally faded away. From now on religious interests oc cupy the m inds of the people and of th e ir sovereigns. A m ong the Tibetan kings of this period m any accepted m onkhood. In the X I century A. D. the la m a -kin g B yan-chub -od in v ite d the famous In d ia n p a n d it Ata, otherwise D ipnkararjnana, of the great convent of V ikram ala. This outstand ing personality in the h istory of B uddhism in Tibet b ro u g h t w ith h im the Klacakra system (Tib. D us-kyi k h o r-lo ), and preached against the m agic rites and T a n tric cults of the rN in -m a sect. The school of purer Buddhism founded by Atia is kn o w n under the name of bKa-gdams-pa, and lays stress on m editation and a severe discip lin e in the monasteries. U nder his guidance a n u m ber of texts b e lo n g in g to the Vinaya (Tib. Dul-ba) and the Sutras (Tib. mdo) were translated in to Tibetan. A bout 1050 A. D. a religious council took place in Central T ibet under the presidency of Atia and proclaim ed the reestablishm ent of the doctrine of Buddha in Tibet. Atia was the author of m any w e ll-kn o w n w orks and can be regarded as the true predecessor o f rGyal-ba Tsoii-kha-pa, the fo u n der of the Yellov-cap sect. Atia died in 1058 A. D. One of his p u p ils, the great Tibetan h isto ria n Brom -ston (born about 1002 A. D .), systematized the rules of the bKa-gdams-pa sect and founded the m o nastery of Rva-sgreng (pron. Ra-deng) to the North-East of Lhasa on the cara van route to the region of K u ku -n o r. The period fro m the X I century to the X III century A. D. witnessed a gradual g ro w th of B uddhism on the Tibetan table-land. The num ber of monasteries stea d ily increased and a greater percentage of the popula tion accepted m onkhood, seeking salvation. A nu m b er of monasteries gained great power and th e ir abbots often took an active p a rt in the p o litic a l feuds of the co u n try. Great was the

influence of the Saskya M onastery, w h ic h was founded about 1071 A. D. by K hon-dko n-m chog rgyal-po, and whose abbots played such an im p o rta n t rle at the C ourt of the M ongol conquerors. The M ongol tribes, w h ich , since the V I I Ith century A. D ., were already in contact w ith the B uddhist U ig h u r tribes, accepted B uddhism in the X I I Ith cen tu ry A. D. This was a period of an exceptional prosperity of the doctrine, u n der the m ig h ty patronage of the M ongol khans. One of the greatest abbots of

INTRODUCTION
Saskya, generally kn ow n under the name of Saskya pan-chcn or pandita, was in vited by Godan Khan, son of Ogdi, to vis it his residence in Kan-su. The Saskya p o n tiff, besides spreading the doctrine of kyam uni, is said to have invented fo r the Mongols an alphabet based on the U ig h u r script (*). His w o rk was con tinued by his nephew and successor, the lama Thags-pa bLo-gros rgyal-

nitshan (Skrt. M a tidh vaja rl-bh a dra, 129 or 1240-1280 or 1281 A. D .), who invented a new script based on the Tibetan alphabet and o ffe rin g a more correct tra n s c rip tio n of M ongolian (**). K h u b i a i Khan, who transferred the capital fro m l Q araqorum firs t to Shang-tu in 1260 and fin a lly to P eking (-tu) in 126 A. D ., conferred upon the lam a Phags-pa the title of Im p e ria l Preceptor (T i-shih). W ith the fa ll of the Yuan dynasty in 168 A. D ., B uddhism experienced a severe blow and regained its influence o n ly about the end of the XVI century. It was in 1357 A. D. that was bo rn the great Tibetan R eform er rGyal-ba

Tson-kha-pa (***), w ho succeeded in establishing the religious supremacy of his sect in Tibet. His b irth -p lace is situated in the Am do region. To com m em orate this place, the great convent of sKu-b um was b u ilt. Space forbids us to relate in de ta il the legend of Tson-kha-pa, his solitary life in the m ountains, his studies in the famous monasteries of Tibet, and his a c tiv ity as preacher at Lhasa. From the days of his early yo u th he Avas stron gly bent 011 re lig io n , and very early he en tered the order under the m onastic name of rGyal-ba bLo-bzan grags-pa (Skrt. S u m a tik lrti). The advent of Tson-klia-pa m arks the re tu rn to a p urer fo rm of Buddhism already preached by Atia, his glorious predecessor in the field. The austere m o nk inside celibacy o b lig a to ry fo r all m onks and the old T a n tric schools. (****) lie laid great stress
(*) G. S c h u le m a n n , Die Geschichte der Dalailamas, p.

forbade the

akti

rites of

on the morals and discipline of

5i.

(**) Prof. P e lliol, Course delivered al Ihe Collge de France, 19:22-1923; . Lufer, Skizze der Mongolischen L i l l e r a lu r , p. i 85 . (***) A ll students of Tibela n his to ry w i l l do well to study the i l l u m i n a t i n g article of Prof. Pel l io l, Le cycle sexagnaire dans la ch ro nolo gie tibtaine (J. As. 191), before usin g the works p u blished in Kuropean languages on Tibetan history ; p. 667, n. 3 . We hope to b r i n g out in Ihe nearest f u tu re a volume on Ihe Life of Tson-kha-pa, being a trans lation of the b io gra phical portio ns of the rGyal-ba T son-kha-p ai b k a - b u m . (****) G. Schule m ann, ib id . , p. 82, says th at rgval-ba Tson-kra-pa allowed in Ihe monasteries the sludv o f dKar-rlsis (Weissc Wissenschaften), and forbade the practice of Nag-rlsis (Schwarze Magie). DKar-rtsis does not- mean here w h it e m ag ic , and should be read as sKar-rlsis, w h ic h usually denotes astronomy and astrology accord in g to I n d ia n t ra d it io n . Nag-rtsis is a contracted f o rm fo r rGya-nag-gi skar-rlsis, o r Chinese A s tro n om y . A n u m b e r o f Tibetan astronomical and a stro lo gi cal books have been translated from Chinese.

12

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

the m onks and callcd his school dGe-ldan-pa o r dGe-lugs-pa, the virtuous . The firs t great monastery of this school, called dGa-ldan, was erected about 1/109 A. D. (*) in the neighborhood of Lhasa. Tson-kha-pa le ft a num b er of rem arkable w orks on B uddhist metaphysios, of w h ich the best kn o w n is the L a m -rim ehen-po or Byan-chub la m -g yi rim -p a , the Sleps of Ihe B odhi-path . T his w o rk is th o ro u g h ly studied in the theo logical schools at the great monasteries of Lhasa, such as Sera or Bras-spun (pron. De-pung) ; and some of the convents of M ongolia, such as P orhantu and Tala (**), have special L a m -rim seminaries. The foundations of the present C hurch organization in T ibet were la id dow n by Tson-kha-pa. rG yal-ba Tson-kha-pa is said to have had as his s p iritu a l guide the Bodhisattva M a n ju r, w ho appeared to h im in the solitudes of the Am do m ountains. He is be lieved to have sometimes obtained his in sp ira tio n fro m Maitreya him se lf, and in this connection lies, perhaps, the explanation of the e xtraordina ry spell exer cised by the teachings of the great R eform er on the m in d and soul of the La m aistic m onkhood. The w o rk of Tson-kha-pa was carried on by his two

p rin c ip a l disciples : m K h as-g ru b -rje ( fu ll name m K has-grub dGc-legs dpal-bzan, 1849 A. D .), and rG yal-tshab-rje. m K has-grub-rje Avas appointed abbot of the dGa-ldan Monastery. A nother p u p il of Tson-kha-pa, Byams-chen chos-rje,

also callcd kya Ye-es, on the in v ita tio n of the M in g Em peror Y u n g -lo , was dispatched by Tson-klia-pa to C hina, where he preached the Klacakra doctrine. On his re tu rn to T ibet he founded the monastery of Sera, near Lhasa (14 19 A. D .). Tson-kha-pa died in 14 19 A. D. in the dGa-ldan Monastery. In the fo l lo w in g collection of p aintin g s there are seven m odern p a inting s representing the Great Reform er in various attitudes ; we shall describe them in the course of o ur study. The M in g Em perors were in general fa vourably in clin e d towards

the Lam aistic fo rm of B uddhism , as th e y were eager to m a in ta in th e ir p o litica l protectorate over Tibet. The firs t rGyal-ba or ecclesiastic ru le r of Lhasa w^as the nephew of Tson-

kha-pa, M ahpandita dGe-dun grub-pa. In the year i 445 he erected the great Monastery of bKra-is lhu n -p o (pron. T ashi-lhunpo) at Shigatse, whose first

bKra-is lam a, according to tra d itio n , was m K has-grub-rje.

(*)

U n t il, Gcschichfc des Bud d h is m us in der Mongolei, vol. I I , p. i 83 .

(**) Lufer, ibid., p. 22 ; Hutli, ibid., p. 75,

INTRODUCTION

i3

In 1576 A. D. (*) the famous A lla n Khan, the qavan of the Tm d, confer red upon the Grand Lama of Lhasa, m K has-grub bSod-nams rg ya -m lslio dpalbzan-po (the 3rd rG yal-ba or rG yal-dban), the title of Dala (Tib. rGya-m tshoocean) Lama V a jia dh a ra, and recognized the religious supremacy of the Yellow fa illi. China continued to exercise her p o litic a l do m in a tio n , and in 1793 the E m peror C h ien -lun g of the M anchu dynasty prom ulgated an im p e ria l edict cor re cting the system of re in carna tio n by which, new Dala-Lamas were nom inated and ordered the investiture of candidates by the Chinese Governm ent. It w ould require too m uch space to record one by one all the reigns of the thirteen Dala-Lamas of T ibet. The recent h isto ry of Tibet is fu ll of events, and it is d iffic u lt at present to foresee the outcom e o f m any of them . A fte r th is b rie f sketch of Tibetan h is to ry , it w ill be easier fo r us to discover the m any influences th a t penetrated in to the Land of the Snows and e n ri ched the vast pantheon of Tibetan B uddhism . The h ig h m outain ranges w h ich 011 all sides surround the table-lands of T ibet did not stop the penetration of foreign influences. In the early days of Tibetan h istory the trade mutes fro m T i bet in to the plains of In d ia passed across western Tibet. By these routes, often not more than narrow m o u n ta in trails, In d ia n artistic tra d itio n s reached Tibet. The Buddhist missionaries w ho entered the country in the V I I th century

b ro ug ht w ith them the firs t sacred images. These

images probably served to

illu stra te th e ir preaching and consisted of the most im p o rta n t representations of the B uddhist iconograp hy, nam ely : images of the Exalted One h im self, of the p rin c ip a l Bodhisattvas, and images representing scenes fro m the legendary

life of the Master. I t is a s ig n ific a n t fact that precisely in these images we see the strongest In d ia n influence. Many types of the B uddhist iconography of T i bet can be traced back to the Gandhra School in N orth-W estern In d ia , but

one should not forget th a t it was a Gandhra art of the period of decadence that served as m odel to Tibetan artists. From an early date T ibe t came in to close contact w ith its Southern n e igh bour Nepal. The Nepalese p ic to ria l art steadily influenced the Tibetan concep tions of beauty. It Avas th ro u g h th is art that the Tibetan artists acquainted themselves w ith the tra d itio n s of the A ja n t frescoes. In the X II I th and X IV th

(*) l l u th, ib id ., p. 2 i5 .

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
centuries this influence of Nepalese a rt reached its h e ig h t and even penetra were h ig h ly reputed fo r

ted to the Im p e ria l C ourt of C hina. Nepalese artists

th e ir s k ill and were fre q u e n tly sum m oned to the great lamasaries of Tibet. In the Yanshih, the h is to ry of the Yan dynasty (ch. 20), A -n i-ko (A nigo), there is a short born in 1243 (*).

b iog ra ph y of one of isuch artists called

This s k ilfu l m oulder w ent to T ibet in com pany w ith several fellow -artists fro m Nepal to execute some w o rk in T ibet, and was subsequently in v ite d to the C ourt at P eking, where he was entrusted w ith im p o rta n t restauration w o rk. A n u m ber of statues in the B uddhist and Taoist temples of C hina are said to be the w o rk of this celebrated master. It is a w ell kn o w n fact tha t sculpture is always m ore conservative, and it is am ong Tibetan bronzes that we s till fin d specimens stro n g ly im bued w ith an Indo-Nepalese influence. Besides this Indo-Nepalese influence fro m the south, other influences were at w o rk in Tibet. Tibet Avas always in active re lation w ith the region of Khotan (Tib. L i-y u l) in Chinese Turkestan, and there can be no doubt th a t the Khotanese local a rtistic productions fo u n d th e ir way in to Tibet and had an influence on its art. These a rtistic productions were of a very composite nature, s till bea r in g traces of an In d ia n past. They belong to this com plex w o rld th a t has been created in C entral Asia th ro u g h a contact of a num ber of nations. The types of the sixteen arhats, of d iffe re n t re lig iou s protectors w ith th e ir w a rlik e fo llo w in g of devas and yaksas, all clad in a rm our, can be considered as im portations fro m the N orth. A bout the ten th cenutry A. D ., w hen M oham m edanism spread itself over Cen tra l Asia b rin g in g destruction of the ancient B uddhist com m unities along the great caravan routes, m any of the m onks of Turkestan fo und refuge in the m o nasteries of Tibet and b ro u g h t w ith them tra d itio n s of th e ir respective loca li ties (**). Chinese art never stro n g ly influenced the art of T ibet ; on the contrary, some iconographical m anuals edited d u rin g the M in g period clearly e x h ib it a

(*) F or all this in f o r m a t io n co n c e rn in g this Nepalese artist, I am indebted to the course delive red by Prof. Pelliot at the College de France i n 1922-23 ; the E d itio n revised by the commissaries of C h e in -lu n g has the f o r m A-e rh -n i- ko. I n the h is to ry o f the 84 mahsiddhas published by Prof. Grnwedel m e n tio n is made of a person called A n ig o . Prof. Sylv a in Lvi, Le Nepal, vol. I l l , p.

185-189.
(**) A. Foucher, L art grco-bouddhiq ue du Gandhra, vol. I I , fase. 2, p. 672.

INTRODUCTION

i5

p re d om in a nt Nepalo-Tibetan influence. D u rin g the X V IIth -X V IIIth centuries the Chinese influence became evident in design and ornam entation. The p a in tin g , re presenting the m Gon-po p h ya g -d ru g in this collection, can be regarded as an example of this sem i-Tibetan art. Notice that the design of this period is more free in its character and in the abundance of ric h flo ra l m otives in the orna m entation. O ur present know ledge of Tibetan p ic to ria l art is not sufficient to enable us to discuss various schools of art. B ut, n o tw ith s ta n d in g m any discrepancies

in our knowledge of the subject, we are able to d istin g u ish at least tw o areas or spheres of a rtistic a ctiv ity the South-W estern and the North-Eastern ; the firs t has as its center the tow n of Shigatse, in whose neighborhood is situated sNar-than, Shigatse is the biggest p r in tin g establishm ent in the co untry ; the school of trib u ta ry to the indo-Nepalese art, and pa in tin g s produced by

artist m onks of the great convent of T a shi-lhunp o follow rited fro m In dia .

the tra d itio n s in h e

The N orth-Eastern school has as its center the province of school o rig in a te d in

Derge. This the

the n e igh b o rh oo d of the great caravan route fro m

plains of M ongolia and W estern China into T ibet, and is, therefore, strongly im bued w ith outside influences co m in g fro m the N orth. A lth o u g h the foundations are form ed by the same Indo-Nepalese art,

the later additions p o in t towards M ongolia and C hina. In p a inting s com ing fro m Derge (it is on ly very seldom th a t one can te ll the o rig in of a p a in tin g ) we see people dressed in heavy overcoats, fu r caps, and boots, and w earing ornam ents th a t could belong to a w itch -d o cto r of Eastern Siberia. Some of the figures frescoes of of donors Tun-huang.

the representations bear a s trik in g resemblance w ith of T u rko -m o n g o lia n n a tio n a lity , represented on some

The Bodhisattva type met on the Derge painting s rem inds us of the B odhi sattva images of the T ang epoch, attired in a royal fashion that resembles more the costume of a Central Asian Bodhisattva than the p rin ce ly attire of an Indo-Nepalese Bodhisattva. Such ar e the tw o b ig a rtistic schools of Tibet.

It is im possible to say how fa r back we can trace th e ir existence, fo r Tibe tan art is e n tire ly anonym ous and the complete absence of dates makes it almost im possible to reconstruct ch ro n o lo g ica lly the outstanding events of

Tibetan artistic h isto ry. Besides the tw o b ig schools, there are a num ber of local schools, such

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
as the Lhasa school, the Gyangtse school, and the school in the Khams pro vince in Eastern Tibet. In the ancient period the u n ity of style was greater. The differences between the various local schools became m ore accentuated

in m odern times ; the peculiarities of styles can be discerned o nly by an ex pert eye. U sually each one of the B uddhist sects of Tibet has som ething of its own in the style of p a intin g s produced by artists b e long ing to the sect. W e shall note the o rig in of p a in ting s and the peculiarities of styles of va rious schools, if discernable, in the process of o ur description. Let us now pay a v is it to the studio of a Tibetan a rtist-painter and watch the process of his wrork. B ut before s ta rtin g w ith our description, we shall have to make a nu m b er of p re lim in a ry rem arks o f a general character. It is s u rp ri sing tha t religious art in all countries, fro m the h ig h table-lands of Tibet to the mediaeval workshops of Ita lia n masters of the early Renaissance, have created

analogical methods, and, w hat is s till more su rp risin g , a s im ila r atmosphere, of w ork. For a better understanding and appreciation o f Tibetan religious pain

tings (fo r art in Tibet is e n tire ly re lig io u s), a knowledge of conditions in w h ich the p a in te rs w o rk is carried out is essential. There is in Tibet no b ig school where fu tu re artists receive th e ir tra in in g , bu t, lik e in the Ita ly of the Renais sance period, or in old Russia, each master has a num ber of pupils who live w ith h im and help h im in his w o rk . Such was the order of th in g s in ancient tim es, and a s im ila r custom continues to exist in the Tibet of the present day. There is alw ays a great num b er of painters in b ig centers of religious life , such as T ashi-lhunpo, or one of the great Yellow-cap monasteries near Lhasa, where b ig decorative w o rk is ahvays g o ing on. The D alai Lama of Lhasa and the Tashi-Lam a have always a staff of artists in th e ir service. It is only seldom that a Tibetan artist stays a lo n g tim e in one place. Usually he is tra v e llin g fro m one place to another, w^orking in houses of ric h laym en, or executing m ural decorations in some of the b ig monasteries. In his w anderings he visits m any o u tly in g places of Tibet, makes h im s e lf acquainted w ith local styles, and in his tu rn introduces in to the local art som ething of his own style. Thus the w an d e rin g character of the life of a Tibetan artist m ay be regarded as one of the causes of Tibet. W e have already discussed the possible fo re ig n currents th a t exercised the s im ila rity of art objects produced in d iffe re n t provinces of

th e ir influences on Tibetan art in the various epochs. W e have even made the

INTRODUCTION

I7

attem pt to arrange c h ro n o lo g ica lly such influences 011 Tibetan art in the va rious epochs, being fu lly aware of the d iffic u ltie s presented by the subject. A t such places as sNar-than near Shigatse, or in one of the b ig p r in tin g houses of Derge, iconographical collections of images have been p rin te d in black and red in k , g iv in g the outlines, b u t not the c o lo u rin g . Such p rin te d outlines are w idely used by artists in T ibet, and are kn o w n under the technical name of

Ishags-par, w h ic h means lite ra lly dotted im pression . W e call this k in d of p rin te d o u tlin e transfer . The outlines p rin te d at Derge are far better in execution, and th e ir lines are sharper because p rin tin g at Derge is done fro m metal plates. This k in d of transfer is applied to the surface on w h ich the p a in tin g w ill be made, then a needle is taken, w ith w h ic h the artist goes over the outline. The dotted lines thus produced on the surface of the painting s are then d e li neated w ith red or black in k . I t is curious that exactly the same method is in use am ong Russian ik o n painters, and Corona M u n d i is fortunate to possess a collection of such transfers . used am ong the ik o n painters in Russia. The wide application of the transfer m ethod made it almost im possible to fin d in T i bet a clever draftsm an, w ho could sketch an image by free-hand dra w in g . Only very seldom can such an experienced draftsm an be found, and in such cases

there is always the danger th a t the image produced by h im w ill not be cano nical in a ll its detail, fo r it is alm ost im possible fo r one man to rem em ber all the innum erable details of Tibetan iconography. The existence of such trans fer w o rk has created a rig id style of design, and we look in vain in T ibe tan p ic to ria l art fo r the m asterful stroke of the brush of a Chinese artist. We have already pointed out th a t the interest of Tibetan painting s lies in t heir rich coloration, and th e ir decorative possibilities can h a rd ly be overestimated. The m ost characteristic p ro du ctio n of Tibetan p ic to ria l art is the so-called than-ka, a w ord w h ic h is co m m o nly interpreted as banner . Such than-ka are in m ultitud e s fo u n d in temples and private houses. They are alw ays car ried in religious processions and often serve to illu stra te a religious sermon. W a n dering lamas are sometimes found in the possession of a good assortment of such painting s, which, serve them in th e ir preaching, fo r art in Tibet, and in other lam astic countries, was and is a po w e rfu l ally of the propagation of B uddhas doctrine. In the ancient, language, instead of the word than-kha and its two corres
4

i8

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
words, lik e ri-m o

p o n din g h o n o rific expressions sal-than and sku-than, other p ictu re , and sku-brnen, fig u re , image , were in use.

Besides painted banners, a Tibetan pa in te r executes m u ra l p a inting s, some tim es on a very large scale and of an extrem ely com plex com position. W e re m em ber h a v in g seen a n um b er of m u ra l decorations executed by m odern Tibe tan artists in the monasteries of S ik h im , and are glad to state th a t the old tra d itio n is s till alive. The design of such m u ra l decorations often shows an experienced hand, and th e ir colour scheme is often very s trik in g . Often the ar tist in Tibet is called to decorate pieces of fu rn itu re both in temples and private houses, tem ple altars, and the cerem onial trum pets of the Lam aist d ivin e ser vice. Masks used in religio us dances are also decorated by artists ; and the o u t side walls of houses are sometimes fo u nd painted in b rig h t colours. For the last k in d of w o rk the a rtist uses a special o rnam enta tion, derived fro m a purely re lig io us ornam enta tion ; h o ly sym bols, the svastika, the W heel of the Law, and ric h flo ra l designs predom inate in such decorative m otive. A fte r this very b rie f sketch, let us make a closer study of the process itself by w h ic h a p a in tin g is made in T ibet. We are sure that the reader w ill excuse us fo r d w e llin g a little longer on th is p a rtic u la r question, b u t we are certain that a v is it to the studio of a Tibetan a rtist w ill greatly help our purpose. The artist is usually a lam a, m ore or less versed in sacred scriptures. He Prescriptions fo r

accompanies his w o rk by a continuous re c itin g of prayers.

artists, found in the K n j r, te ll us that he m ust be a saintly m an of good behaviour, learned in scriptures, and reserved in his manners. The saintly image can only be painted in a clean place and, therefore, the studio of an a rtist is ahvays com paratively clean. The a rtis t him se lf is usually found s ittin g on the grou n d, h o ld in g the p a in tin g on his knees. Round h im are seated his disciples who prepare colours and attend to the various needs of th e ir master. Someti mes an advanced student helps his master in the w o rk by c o lo u rin g the outlines of figures draw n by the master . In Tibet, pa in tin g s are usually painted on s ilk or on other th in cloth, w hich is stretched on a fram e. A fte r the s ilk has been stretched, it is th ic k ly covered w ith a m ix tu re of glue and chalk, w h ic h is then w e ll polished w ith the smooth surface of a conch. W hen this is finished, the outlines of the figures are draw n w ith red or black in k . M ongolian artists often use skin instead o f silk. The w o rk is carried on very slow ly, fo r even m in u te details of the orna-

INTRODUCTION

m entation m ust be attended to before coloration is started. To make a m istake in the measurements of a body given in the iconographical m anuals is consi dered to be a great sin. Sometimes another lama is present, whose duty it is to read aloud prayers w h ile the a rtist is at w o rk. And so intense is the religious atmosphere w h ic h surrounds the creation of a p a in tin g , th a t the face of a Buddha or Bodhisattva is preferably d raw n on certain auspicious dates. T h ro u ghout Tibet the 15 th and 3oth days of each m o n th are considered to be sacred, and the a rtist usually draws the features of m o nth , and colors them on the 30 th day. A fter the design is finished, the artist begins the coloration, whose decorative tendencies we have already stated. Those w ho know the methods applied by Russian iko n painters w ill not fa il to recognize the great s im ila rity between the two methods. Indeed, it seems th a t the Russian iko n art and the Tibetan p ic to ria l art derive th e ir methods of w o rk fro m a com m on source. In T ibet an experienced draftsm an is seldom a good painter and, likew ise, a fine painter is seldom a clever draftsm an. U sually the draftsm an makes the de sign and the pa inter puts the colors on it. Such a d is trib u tio n of w o rk is also found am ong the Russian ik o n painters, and, therefore, they ahvays go about in em ail companies. As in the case of the Tibetan artist, the Russian iko n p a in ter before s ta rtin g the p a in tin g , covers the wooden board w ith a s im ila r m ixtu re of ch a lk and glue (the m ix tu re is te ch n ica lly called levkas ), w h ic h wards polished. S im ila r is also the process of p a in tin g itself : firs t the is after design, the faces on the 15th day of the

elaborate in every detail, and then the colors. In both cases no sketch-w ork is done, e ve rything being draw n according to fir m ly established canonical rules : firs t the p rin c ip a l figures, then the su rroundin gs, sky, h ills , trees, etc. A com parative study can be pushed m uch fu rth e r, fo r even in the com po s itio n itself we fin d com m on elements. Thus we often see on Tibetan painting s the p rin c ip a l fig u re enthroned on an island (this being usually the case when Buddha or Bodhisattva is represented). S im ila r images are fre q u e n tly found on Russian ikons, the island b e in g a conspicuous element in the landscape. The landscapes themselves, especially the way of representing m outains, - rocks,

and clouds, are s im ila r in both arts. I t is d iffic u lt at present to describe Tibe tan artistic methods in detail, fo r each painter zealously guards his ow n secret of w o rk. There exist in T ib et a n u m b e r of a rtistic m anuals in w h ic h m any a

detail could be of great interest fo r a com parative study. A m ong these m anuals,

20

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

one of the chief ones is the so-called V aidrya ser-po (*) ; the fifth rGyal-ba of Tibet is said to have composed a nu m b er of treatises on art. W e feel confident tha t if these texts could be translated and comm ented on, fu rth e r s trik in g analogies between Russian iko n art and Tibetan p icto ria l art

w ould be discovered, fo r Russian ik o n art preserves m any artistic tra d itio n s of the O rient. Russian iko n art is generally said to have o riginated fro m B yzantium . T h it it h is to ric a lly true, b u t one should not forget that Byzantine art, espe cia lly in its late periods, was essentially o rie n ta l and that, th ro u g h B yzantium , the Indio-Persian influences penetrated in to Mediaeval Russia. Then came the

M ongol invasion w h ic h lasted fo r several decades, and v io le n tly p u t Russia face to face w ith the w hole of the M iddle East. Besides destructions and w ar, the Mongols b ro u g h t w ith them the color-schemes of O riental art and introduced into Russian religious art new m otives, whose eastern o rig in cannot be denied. Those w ho have collected Tibetan pain ting s know how d iffic u lt it is to ob tain good specimens. A Tibetan w ill never part w ith a than-ka, especially if it is consecrated by some h ig h lam a and has the im p rin t of the lam as hand on its reverse side. The p a in tin g o f th is collection representing the Y i-dam V ajrak lla has such a h a n d -p rin t on its back. To induce a Tibetan to sell a p a in tin g to non-buddhists or, as they are called in Tibetan language, outsiders (Tib. p liy i-ro l-p a , pro n. c i-rol-pa ), is alm ost a hopeless task. Most of the paintings found in European p u b lic and private collections have been th ro w n on the m ar ket as the result of recent wars and upheavals in T ibet, w h ic h b ro u g h t the des tru c tio n of several lamaseries and the ru in of ric h fam ilies, w h ic h were in

possession of num erous re ligious p a in ting s. The tim e has not yet come to w rite a h isto ry of Tibetan art. Such a study necessitates a detailed description of a ll the collections of Tibetan art preserved in European Museums. Many good pa in tin g s are undoubtedly in the possession of private persons, b u t, u n fo rtu n a te ly , we do not possess a lis t of such private collectors. Museum collections themselves h a rd ly possess detailed catalogues and w ell executed photographs w h ic h could serve our purpose. The o n ly collections

(*) M r. J. van Manen, in his valuable C o n t r ib u t io n to the B ib lio g r a p h y o f T ibet (J. A. S. ., vol. X V I I I , Nr. 8, 1922) m en tio n s on p. 5 n a Va id rya Ser-po, w h ic h seems to be a his to ry of Ihe Ie llo w -h a t sect. I t w i l l be in te re stin g to k n o w w h e th e r the ieonographical m an u a l V aid rya Serpo fo rm s *a part o f Ihe historical w o r k quoted by M r. van Manen, o r is a separate w o r k . The Bai-ser (yellow vaid ry a) m entio ned by M r. van Manen is a his torical w o r k .

INTRODUCTION

21

of Tibetan p aintings and bronzes w h ic h were studied and described in detail arc the collections of P rince U khtom sky in Petrogtad, Russia, on w h ic h was based the M ythologie des Buddhism us in Tibet und der M ongolei by P ro fessor Grnwedel, and the ric h collection of p a inting s b ro u g h t back fro m Tibet by M r. Jacques Bacot and last collection has been

preserved in the Muse G uim et in Paris. This studied and scientifically described by deserves our

th o ro u g h ly

M r. J. H ackin, the learned cura tor of the Museum. M r. H ackin g ra te fu l thanks fo r

p u b lis h in g a Guide-catalogue du Muse G uim et , in

w h ic h the B uddhist collections of the Museum are described. Let us hope that other Museums w ill fo llo w this enlightened example and w ill fu rn is h us w ith detailed catalogues of th e ir B uddhist collections. The E th no gra p hica l Museum of B e rlin , the Field Natural H istory Museum in Chicago, the B ritis h Museum, the E th nogra phical Museum of the Russian Aca dem y of Sciences, Petrograd, and local Museums in Eastern Siberia have u n doubtedly accumulated a ric h m aterial on the subject. O nly w hen all the extant m aterial w ill be edited and a num ber of Tibe tan iconographical texts studied and commented on can we hope to produce a history o f Tibetan art. W h a t arc the sources of o u r know ledge of B uddhist iconography? Besides the alerady m entioned ilpastras of In d ia , native Tibetan treatises on icono g raphy, and iconograp hical m anuals edited d u rin g the M in g period, we possess a n u m be r of Sdhanas or co n ju ra tio n s, w h ic h sometimes contain a detailed des c rip tio n of the conju re d deity. A n u m b e r of such Sdhanas were b r illia n tly studied by Professor A lfre d Foucher in his Etude sur l Iconographie b o u d d h i que , w h ic h , altho ug h consecrated to the Nepalese m iniatures, can h a rd ly be overlooked by students of Tibetan iconography. The Sdhanas are supplem en

ted by prayers, w h ic h sometimes give descriptions of the im p lo re d deities. W ith the help of these sources we are able to fin d o ur way in the extreme com plexity of types w h ic h characterize the pantheon of N orthern B uddhism . A t firs t s ig h t i t seems hopeless to be able to d istin g u ish and classify this host of m any-arm ed and many-headed d iv in e beings, armed w ith a whole arsenal of w arlike attributes, these num erous figures of saintly lamas, abbots of monas teries, who often appear on pa in tin g s side by side w ith th e ir previous reincar nations, and the m any religious sym bols, all of w h ic h have a special m eaning. B ut step by step we gain an in s ig h t in to the subject, learn to d istin g u ish d if

22

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

ferent form s of deities, and com prehend the s till obscure m ystical connections w h ic h exist between d iffe re n t form s and are expressed in the m ystical rounds, or mandalas. To end this in tro d u c tio n , a n u m b e r of general notes on the iconography w ill be found useful. The d iv in e beings represented on p a inting s, are seen sur rounded by a nim bus and halo (Skrt. prabhm andala). The nim bus and hal are painted in diffe re n t colors, and it w ill be in teresting to know w hether there exists a correspondence between a deity and the scheme of colours used on its nim b u s and halo. As a general ru le , the in n e r circle of the aureole is dark, very often blue, covered w ith golden rays ; the outside circle is often painted in red or lila c. U sually the d iv in e beings are seen standing or s ittin g on a lotus flow er, sym b o lizin g th e ir divin e o rig in . The B uddhist iconograp hy know s several kinds of postures or asanas in w h ic h the d iv in e beings are pictured on images. In one of these postures we see the d iv in ity s ittin g cross-legged in the H in d u fashion. I t is the posture of a Buddha, and several names are used to designate it, according to the k in d of throne on w h ic h the d iv in ity is seated padmsana, the lotus throne, vajrsana, the diam ond throne, the lio n throne. A n oth er posture, w h ic h is said to be p a rtic u la rily com m on am ong Bodhisatt vas, is the m a h r ja -llla posture. W h e n represented in this posture, the d iv i n ity is seated on a throne, its r ig h t foot h a n g in g dow n. Sometimes the d iv in itie s are seated in a European fashion. T his last posture is said to be characteristic of the Bodhisattva M aitreya and symbolizes the fact th a t the Bodhisattva is ready to descend fro m his thro n e, and has already lowered his feet in order to appear in the w o rld . Such is the explanation of this posture given by lamas. O ther characteristics th a t help to d is tin g u ish d iffe re n t deities, are the socalled m udrs (Tib. phya g -rg ya ), signs or m anual gestures : it is the m an ner in w h ic h the hand and fingers are held d u rin g the perform ance o f certain religious rites and ceremonies. The n u m b e r of such m udras o r signs is very great ; we enumerate here o n ly the m ost com m on : ( 1) D harm acakra-m udr, the m ud r of preaching or in s tru c tio n . The hands are jo in e d in fro n t of the chest, the index and th u m b of the rig h t hand h o l d in g one of the fingers of the le ft hand. and simhsana,

INTRODUCTION

23

(2) V ita rka-m u dr, the m ud r of argum entation. The r ig h t hand is raised, the th u m b and the index jo in e d . ( 3 ) Abhaya-m udr, the m u d r of fearlessness. The rig h t hand is raised,

the palm of the hand is tu rn e d outw ards, the fingers are jo in e d together. (4 ) Vara-m udr, the m ud r of c h a rity . The r ig h t hand is lowered, the palm turned outw ards, as if g iv in g som ething. (5 ) D hyna-m udr, the m u dr of m editation. The two hands are jo in e d on the lap. (6) B hm i-spara-m udr, the m u dr of to u c h in g the earth. The r ig h t hand touches the groun d as if attesting a de te rm in a tio n . The Buddha is said to have made th is sign attesting his w ill to become a Buddha, and c a llin g earth in testim ony, d u rin g the n ig h t he spent under the Bodhi-tree. Besides these sanas and m udrs, there are a num ber of attributes w h ich serve to d is tin g u is h the various form s of d iv in itie s . W ith the advent of ivaistic cults the num be r of such attributes greatly increased. low o n ly the most com m on : Sanskrit. padma. utpala. aksaml. pustaka. va jra . The padma. utpala. phen-ba. glegs-bam. rd o -rje . v a jra or th u n d e rb o lt is an ancient Tibetan. Transi. the p in k lotus, the blue lotus the rosary, the book, the th u n d e rb o lt. in d o -ira n ia n sym bol, the club be preserved in the monastery of of W e m e ntion here be

Ind ra . A th u n d e rb o lt fro m Persia is said to Sc-ra, founded in A quadruple

1417A. D. by Byams-chen chos-rje fo rm of the th u n d e rb o lt is fre q u e n tly m et on images (Skrt.

vivavajra ; T ib . sNa-tshogs rd o -rje ). (*) khadga. danda. cpa. cakra. ankua. ra l-g ri. ber-ka. gsu. kh o r-lo . leags-kyu. the sword the stick. the bow. the whee1. the hook.

(*) S k r t. Vajra = p ers. gorz. Cf. P. H o r n , Grun driss der Neupersischen Etym o lo g ie , Strassburg, 189, p. 202. The vajra in the Indo-european a n t iq u i t y , see S. Feist, K u lt u r , A u s b re it un g u n d H e r k u n f t der Indogermanen. B e rlin , 191, p. 218.

24
parau. k u th rik ara. tom ra. akti. pa. Sanskrit. musala. tri la . kliatvnga.

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
dgra-sta. sta-re. mda. mda-bo ehe. m d u n -th u n . sags-pa. Tibetan. dbyug-gu . rtse-gsum . khatvnga. the club. the trid e n t. the m agic sceptre. the axe, the bat lie axe a hatchet. the arrow . a k in d of large arrow . an iro n spear. the lasso. Transi.

The khatvnga is a k in d of m agical sceptre, said to have been invented by Padmasambhava. The sceptre is som etimes crowned w ith a trid e n t, or a vajra. chatra. dhvaja. maakavrana. k a rtr. gdugs. rgyal-m tsha n. bran-yab. g ri-g u g . the the the parasol, banner, kn ife .

a fly slap,

This k n ife has the peculiar shape of a hook. Its handle is made of a v a jra ; it is a weapon of T a n tric deities. patra. kam andalu. cankha. m ani. dam aru. ghant. kapla. lhun-bzed. tshe-bum . du n or d u n-dkar. n or-b u rin-po-che. can-te. d ril-b u . thod-pa. attributes the alms bow l, the vessel, the conch, the jew el, the d ru m , the bell. the cup made of a hum an sku ll. Such is the arsenal of w ith w h ic h the pious devotion of w o r

shippers has armed the d iffe re n t deities. D iffe re n t T a n tric schools introduced a n u m be r o f other attributes, as yet d iffic u lt to d istin g u ish . The sym bolism of the Tantras is alm ost u n k n o w n and it is o n ly w ith great d iffic u lty th a t we are able to fin d o u r way th ro u g h the m u ltitu d e of symbols. Let us hope that the day w ill come w hen the mass of T a n tric lite ra tu re w ill be translated and com mented. W hen this w o rk is accom plished, we shall get a clearer in s ig h t in to

the obscure te rm in o lo g y of various systems of m editations and conjuration s, w h ich are often represented on p a intin g s in Tibet.

INTRODUCTION W c have arranged the p a intin g s of this collection according to the native Tibetan classification of d iv in itie s , w h ich w ill be easily understood fro m fo llo w in g table. The Three Gems (Skrt. T rira tn a ; T ib. dKon-m chog gsum ), the highest the

objects of B uddhist w orsh ip , are considered to be the sym bol of the whole pantheon of N orthern B uddhism . To each Gem correspond tw o vine beings : (*)
I.

classes of d i

The gem of the sublim e Buddhas : Buddhas m a nifested in the three aspects (Skrt. trik y a ), and all the benign and fe a rfu l yi-dam s.

T. Buddharat na. (Sans-rgyas dkon-m chog)

2. The gem of the manifested Buddhas : Pratyekabuddhas.

I.

The gem of the sublim e Law : Buddhas, B odhi sattvas, and arhats. The gem of the manifested Law : the teaching expounded in h oly scriptures. The gem of the sublim e Samgha great arhats, riputra, vakas, the k in is . : the sixteen r-

II. D harm aratna. (Chos dkon-m chog)

I.

Maudgalyyana;

I I I . Samgharatna. (dGe-dn dkon-m chog)

e ight sons of the Buddha, B o dhi

sattvas, religious protectors, goddesses and d2. The gem of the manifested Samgha gregation of bhiksus or m onks. : the con

W e shall begin o ur detailed description of p a inting s w ith

the represen

tations of Buddhas, D hyni-B uddhas and Yi-dam s. Then we shall pass over to the Bodhisattvas, the s p iritu a l sons of D hyni-Buddhas, to the d iffe re n t aspects of the d ivine Tr, and to a num be r of p a inting s representing the Great Re fo rm e r rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa, the teacher Padmasambhava, etc. Most of the pa in tin g s in this collection are old ; a few m odern ones were included in order to show the tenacity of Tibetan a rtistic tra d itio n . I take this o p p o rtu n ity to express m y thanks fo r m any valuable sugges tions to m y teacher and frie n d Lama Lobzang M in g y u r, Head Lama of the D ar je e lin g H igh School. I have also p rofitted by the advice of the A bbot of the

(*) A somewhat s im ila r clnssificatiin o f d iv in e beings is fo und in the Gnakrancta-vynha. Rj. M itra, Skrt. Buddh. Lite ra tu re in Nepal, p. 96. 5

26

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

Tashiding Monastery, S ik h im , and of Byams-pa bKra-is (cam-pa Tachi), the m onk-iconographer of the Tashilhunpo Monastery, near Shigatse. My grateful thanks are due to m y teacher Professor Paul P e lliot, who very k in d ly went over the proofs, and gave me his valuable advice and support. 1 also express m y

g ra titu re to m y friends M r. George G. O hklaver and M r. V. V. D ixon fo r help in various technical matters d u rin g m y absence in India.

D a rje e lin g , 1924 .

BUDDH AS

The Buddha ou Tibetan p a in tin g s always has a hum an aspect. The colour of Ihe body of a Buddha is usually golden. Jlis head shows a protuberance (S k rt. Usni sa) on the s k u ll, and a sign (Skrt. rn) between the eyebrows. lie has al ways a monastic appearance. His m onastic robe is of a red-brow n color, the

rig h t shoulder is sometimes uncovered. Frequently he is seen h a vin g his robe th ro w n on both shoulders, the chest uncovered : this is often the case on Tibetan paintings. A Buddha is also distinguished by the total absence of ornam ents. Such is the type of Buddha created by the Gandhra school, w h ich penetra ted in to ail the posterior schools of art. In this collection there are several painting s representing the Exalted One.

The fo llo w in g painting s : Pl. I, II, H I, IV and V, represent the Buddha s u r rounded by sixteen Arhats. Before describing each banner in detail, a short in tro d u ctio n is necessary, w h ic h w ill help us to appreciate the images more tho ro u g h ly in th e ir artistic and religious significance. A rha t means deserving, w o rth y . The title is applied to those members of the Order w ho attained Ihe fo u rth stage of the path towards Nirvana. Besides h a ving obtained transcendent faculties, Arhats are no more subject to re b irth . The m eaning of A rhatship is expressed in the fo llo w in g frequently met fo rm u la : (( Destroyed is re b irth , lived is a chaste life , done is w hat had to be done, a fte r his present life there is no beyond. (For fu rth e r references see under A rahant [p. 77] the P li-E ng lish D ictio n a ry, ed. by P rof, Rhys Davids and D r. W . Stede, Part I (A), 1921.) The group of sixteen Arhats is u n kn o w n in India proper, but its cu lt has spread w id ely over Tibet and C hina. In buddh ist texts, translated in to Chinese about the lV th century A . D . , we fin d a group of fo u r Arhats, nam ely : Pindola, Mahkyapa, Rhula, and K undopadhnlya, corresponding to the fo u r cardinal points of space. This group of F our Great Arhats probably created on the ana

28

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

logy to the fo u r kin g-gu ard ia ns of the fo u r cardinal points of space. Then, gra d u a lly, to each of these fo u r Arhats fo u r others were added, thus b rin g in g the total num b er to sixteen. (Cf. S. Lvi and E. Chavannes, Les seize A rh a t Protec teurs de la Loi, J. As., 1916, II, p. 27.) The firs t of these Arhats, P indola, was w i dely venerated in China. The fact is made evident by a great num ber of le gends concerning h im . His c u lt probably reached C hina by sea in the m iddle of the fifth century, A. D. The firs t m ention of the group of sixteen great Arhats is found in a short m ahynist text entitled Account of the d u ra tio n of the

Law, declared by the Great A rh a t N a n d im itra (Ta A -lo-han N an-ti-m i-to -lo so shuo fa chu ch i). The text is translated by S. Levi and E. Chavannes in the a rti cle cited above (pp. 6-24). I t is related in this text how the Great A rh a t N a n d im itra , before entering in to the fin a l N irvana, assembled a ll the m onks and nuns and told them of the existence of the sixteen Great Arhats and of th e ir fu tu re m anifestations. We give a short account of the content of the text, because of its great beauty. The d u ty of the Great Arhats is to preserve the Law after the death of the Master, the Buddha. H a vin g been entrusted by the the Law, they have prolonged th e ir lives Exalted One w ith the preservation of and rem ained on this earth. Each of

these Arhats dwells in an appointed place, hidden fro m o rd in a ry m ortals, si len tly keeping guard over the Law. W hen in the m in d of pious people o rig in ates a good th o u g h t or w hen they p e rfo rm m e rito rio u s actions, the Arhats m anifest themselves unto them . W hen the life of men* in the southern Jam budvlpa reaches the length of ten years, there w ill come the tim e of wars and destruction. The Good Law w ill disappear. when men live a hundred years. Men A fte r this period w ill come w ill again strive fo r good, the tim e and the

sixteen Arhats w ill m anifest themselves in the w o rld . They shall preach the Law, and w ill save m u ltitu d e s of people. The tim e w ill then come when men live 60.000 years, The Law w ill spread over the w hole w o rld . A fte r this

period comes the tim e w hen men live 70.000 years. In this period the Law w ill disappear. The sixteen great Arhats w ith th e ir retinue w ill again m anifest

themselves on this earth. By th e ir m agical power they w ill erect a stupa, ador ned w ith Seven Jewels. U nder this stpa they shall place a ll that rem ains of the e a rth ly body of kyam uni, the Tathgata, the A rh a t, the Supreme Buddha. In a lo fty procession they w ill make the round of the stpa, h o n o u rin g it w ith perfum e and flowers. W hen the rite of contem plative a d m ira tio n is fu lfille d ,

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

Pla te

Num ber 1.

Buddha and the sixteen great Arhats

BUDDHAS they w ill all rise into the air, and, facing the stpa, they w ill pronounce the follo w in g words : Hommage to the Exalted One, the kya, the Tathgata, the Arhat, the Supreme Buddha ! We had received the order to protect the Law, and to per form meritorious actions for the benelit of men and gods. The vessel of the Law comes to its end, the cycle of causality is linished. Now we take leave to enter into the Nirvana w ith o ut end. According to a form er vow, a flame w ill rise and consume their bodies. As the dying llamc of a lamp, their bodies w ill disappear w ith o ut leaving any trace, t he stpa w ill sink below the surface of the earth. The Law of the Exalted One w ill disappear forever. A great number of Pratyekabuddhas w ill make their appearance. Then when mens lives w ill have the length of 80.000 years Pratyekabuddhas in its turn w ill enter into Nirvana. After this the Buddha of the future tim e, Maitreya, the Tathgata, the w ill come the time, and the assembly of

Arhat, the Samyaksambuddha w ill appear in this world. The rest of the text contains a description of the future w orld, sim ilar to those found in Btras on the coming of Maitreya. Cf. Maitreya-Samiti (the oriental iranian Demieville, in the B ulletin de l Ecole Franaise dExtrme-Orient, version) XX, IV, edited by E. Leumann (Strassburg, 1919, part 1, verse 113 and lo ll. ; also P. pp. 158-170). We propose to make a special study of the cult of Maitreya. Let us tu rn now to the detailed study of the paintings. On the banner Nr. 1 (2o4 x 1 3 / 4 ), we see the Exalted One surrounded by sixteen great Arhats and 3 assisted by his two great disciples, riputra and Maudgalyyana, who are seen standing on both sides of the throne ; in fro n t of the throne we see Hva-ang and Dharmatala, the two religious supporters. The Lord Buddha is seated in the middle on a lotus throne (Padmsana) (*). In fro n t of the throne is placed the Wheel of the Law w ith different offerings on a kind of altar. In the lower cor ners of the banner wee see the four king-guardians of the four cardinal points of space. Note the unusual pose of Virdhaka, kin g of the southern region, in the left corner. The color scheme of the paintings is red-golden on a greenish background. The upper cloth of the Arhats is ycllowr w ith golden embroidery, the undercloth is red.

(*) In his loll hand he is h o ld in g Ihe bowl (Skrt. palra) The left hand makes the sign of altes* lotion .

TIBETAIN PAINTINGS
The fo llo w in g scheme w ill fa c ilita te the description. The num bers on it do

not correspond to those of the Tibetan lis t of Arhats. We shall m ention every tim e the place of the A rha t in the Tibetan lis t : 1. The A rh a t A ngaja (Tib. Y an-lag- b y u n ). The Elder dwells on M ount Ti-se (Kailsa). His a ttrib u te are a fan and inccnse-burner. He is the firs t of the T i betan list. 2. Bakula (T ib. B a-ku-la). The Elder dwells in U tta ra ku ru , the northern

region. lli>s a ttrib u te is a rat v o m ittin g a jew el. Ile is the n in th of the Tibetan list. (This a ttrib u te is a s u ffic ie n t proo f that Bakula is an alteration of Nakula, given by the Chinese lists. Nakula means in sanskrit ichneum on , and also purse , because purses were made w ith the sk in of the anim al. P. P e lliot).
3 . V a jrlp u tra . (Tib. rD o -rje m oi bu). He dwells in Ceylan (Sim haladvpa). He

is b o ld in g the fan in his le ft hand ; the r ig h t hand is raised. He is the fifth of the Tibetan list.
4 . Badhra (T ib. Bzan-po). The Elder dwells in Yam undvpa. llis a ttribute

is usually a book ; on o u r p a in tin g he is seen in m editation. He is the sixth of the Tibetan list.
5 . Kanakabharadvja (T ib. Bha-ra-dva-dsa gser-can). He dwells in Aparago

dni . He is seen in m ed itatio n, lie is the eighth of Tibetan list. 6. Raliula (Tib. sGra-gcan dsin). He dwells in P riyangud vpa. H is attribute is a crow n. He is the tenth of the Tibetan list. 7. K lika (Tib. D us-ldan). He dwells in Tam radvlpa. His attributes are

tw o golden trinkets. He is the fo u rth of the Tibetan list. 8. P indolabharadvja (Tib. Bha-ra-dva-dsa bsod-snoms len). He dwells in

Prvavideha. His attributes are the book and the bow l. W e have already m en tioned that this A rh a t was w id ely venerated. Space does not p e rm it us to relate the legends concerning h im (*). He is the tw e lfth of the Tibetan list. 9. A jita (Tib. M a-pham -pa). He dwells on m o u n t Ura. Ile is seen in

m editatio n, the head covered by his upper garm ent. He is the second of the T i betan list. 10. Panthaka (Tib. Lam -bstan). He dwells in the Trayaslrim as heaven. His a ttrib u te is a book. He is the th irte e n th of the Tibetan list.

204 ;

(*) On Ihe legend o f P in dola , see the article of S. Levi et Ed. Chavannes, J. As. J. Przy lu s ki, La lgende de l E m p e re u r Aoka, pp. G8-98.

1916, I I ,

p.

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

Plate

N um ber 2.

A rhats

BUDDHAS
11.

3i

Vanvasi (Tib. Nags-na gnas). He dwells in the Saptaparn cave. His a ttri

bute is a fan. lie is the th ird of the Tibetan list. 12. Ngascna (Tib. k L u i sde). He dwells on M ount Vipulaprva. H is

attributes are a vase and the stick called khakkhara. (Tib. Tvhar-gsil). He is the fourleenh of the Tibetan list.
13 . Kanakavatsa (Tib. gSer-beu). He dwells in Km lra. His a ttrib u te is a

lasso. Me is the seventh of the Tibetan list. 14. Gopaka (T ib. >sBed-byed). Ile dwells on M ount Vatsa. His a ttrib u te is a book. H e is the fifteenth of the Tibtean list. 15 . Cudapanlhaka (Tib. Lam -phran-bstan. lie dwrells on M ount G rdhra-

kuta ; he is seen m editating, lie is the eleventh of the Tibetan list. 16. Abheda (Tib. M i-phved). He dwells on the Himalayas. His a ttrib u te is a stupa. He is the sixteenth of the Tibetan list.

The group of sixteen great Arhats is assisted by Hva-cang and Dharm atala, called in Tibetan religious supporters (bstan-pai sbyin-bdag). The two last named belong to the popular re lig io n of C hina, this being evident by the fact tha t they are considered to be able to master the Dragon and the T iger two symbols cu rre n t in Taoism. There can be little doubt th a t they were introduced in to the group of sixteen Arhats in C hina and that the new ly constituted group reached T ibet fro m China (*). They are not considered to be Arhats in Tibet : this is made clear by th e ir dress. The upsaka D harm a (Tib. dGa-bsnen Dharm a) is re g u la rly represented w ith long h a ir, w earing the costume of a laic. On o u r p a in tin g he is seen standing, h o ld in g a fan and a vessel. Note a k in d of strin g ( it may be the smoke fro m the incense contained in the vessel) w h ich connects h im w ith a sm all lig u re of the D hyni-B uddha A m itbha, seen a little above the altar. His fa vou rite anim al, the tig e r, is seen at his side. D harm atala, or D harm atrta, was a celebrated doctor of the Hinyna, the com piler of the Udna

varga, a collection of verses in Sanskrit corresponding to the P ali D ham m a pada. H va-ang is a tra n s c rip tio n of the Chinese huo-shang, w h ic h in its tu rn tu rn comes back to the Skrt. upadhyya, preceptor , th ro u g h the in te rm e diary of a Khotanese fo rm (**). The title is an ord in a ry designation of a m onk

(*) S. Levi and Chavannes, ib id . , p. 1/16-1/17.

(**)

I b id ., p .

i 5 i.

32

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

in Chinese B uddhism . In T ibet the name Hva-ang is applied to the Chinese m onk w ho came to Tibet d u rin g the reign of k in g K ri-sro n Ide-btsan to

preach the Mahyna. His fu ll name in Tibetan B uddhism is Hva-ang Mah yna. He is represented on o ur banner h o ld in g a rosary and a conch. Round h im are seen ch ild re n at play. IIva -ang is usually personified in religious

dances perform ed by the lamas. The p ainting s Nrs. 2 (2 i / 4 x i 6 1/4) and 3 (2 1/ 4 x i 6 group of seven banners representing the Buddha 1/4) belong to a by the Great

surrounded

Arhats. The m id d le one, on w h ic h the Exalted One was undoubtedly represen ted, is m issing. Both p a in tin g s are w e ll executed. On banner Nr. 2 we see

represented the Arhats Kanakavatsa and Cudapanthaka. They are assisted by Hvaang. For a ll details see the description of the p a in tin g N r. . In the upper corners are seen the green Tr and the goddess Sittapatr. In the low er cor ners we see V ird ha ka and D hrtarstra. V irdhaka is attended by a kum bhnda. D hrtarstra has at his side a p la y in g gandharva. (Shigatse School.) The paintin Nr. 3 represents the Arhats Panthaka and Abheda. They are assisted by Dharm atala, w ho is seated, h o ld in g an u m brella. In the upper corners are

seen the w h ite Tr and the goddess U snlsavijay. In the low er corners we see Virpksa and Vairavana. A Ng is presenting Virpksa w ith a conch. A yaksa is o ffe rin g a basket of fru its to Vairavana (*). The banner Nr. 4

(24

1 /2 x 1 6 3/4) is p a rtic u la rity in teresting fo r its te ch n i

que. The presence of a camel and the M ongolian costume of the tw o men o ffe rin g flowers and f r u it seem to indicate the east-tibetan o rig in of our banner. The style is very d iffe re n t fro m the others already described. W e are of the o p i nion th a t the p a in tin g is the w o rk of a Derge artist. The Arhats represented are : A jita , w ho is seen seated on a th ro n e ; a strange lo o k in g creature is pre senting h im fr u it ; K lika, seen seated on a throne, h a vin g in fro n t of h im a p a ir o f shoes and a table w ith his bo w l standing on it ; tw o m en, possibly M on gols, are o ffe rin g h im flowers and fr u it. Vanavsi, seated on a m at ; a forestdw eller is o ffe rin g h im a basket w ith fr u it. In the upper corners of the banner are seen a Tr and an A valokitevara.

(*) A ll the f o u r k in g -g u a rd ia n s are seen clad in a i n our. On Tibetan a rm o u r, sec the i m p o r tant p u b lic a tio n by D r B. Lufer, Chinese Clay figures, Part I , Prolegomena o n the H is to ry o f De fensive a rm o r , pp. 262-257.

RCERICH, T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

Plate

N um ber 3.

A rhats

BUDDHAS
Because of its style, we consider the p a in tin g Nr.
5 (22 3 / A x 15

1/2 )

to

belong to the same group as p a in tin g N r. . We see the Exalted One seated on the lotus throne. In his le ft hand he is h o ld in g his alms bow l, w ith his rig h t hand he is m a king the sign of attestation. In fro n t of the throne is seen an altar w ith the Wheel of the Law 011 it. The back of the throne is ric h ly ornam ented. On (he top of it we see the b ird Garuda (Tib. K h y u n ). In fro n t of the altar are two deities, one presenting the W7 heel of the Law, the other a k in d of conch. On the top of the p a in tin g we see the fu tu re Buddha, M aitreya, w ith two lotus flowers support

in g a am rta vessel, and a W heel of the Law , and the Buddha Dlpankara (Tib. xMarme-mdsadj. rlh e Exalted One is attended by his tw o great disciples riputra and Maudgalyyana. P a in tin g Nr. 6 (2 8 x 2 1 ) represents kyam uni seated on a lotus throne.

W ith his le ft hand the Buddha is h o ld in g the alms bow l, w ith his rig h t hand he is m a k in g the sign of attestation. The color of the body is golden ; the monastic robe is th ro w n on both shoulders, leaving the chest uncovered. The

robe is of a yellow color, the low er garm ent (Pli : antaravsaka) is red w ith golden em broidery. The inside circle of the nim bus round the head is green, the outside one is violet, the halo round the body is blue and yellow , ra d ia tin g w ith golden rays. In fro n t of the throne arc seen the W heel of the Law and a pond w ith loi uses. The Buddha is surrounded by his eight sp iritu a l sons (ne bai sras-chen brgyad-pa). On the top of the p a in tin g are seen the D h y ani-

Buddha A m itfibha ; Vailrya-rja, the Buddha of Medicine ; the goddess dMag zor-ma, a fe arful fo rm of rldev (Tib. dPalldan lha-1110). She is seen h o ld

in g the cup Kapla and b ra n d ish in g the club. To the rig h t is seen the goddess M a-cig dpal lha-m o, a benign fo rm of rldev. The goddess is h o ld in g the ban ner, and a basket fille d w ith fr u it. On the lower part of the p a in tin g are seen Kuvera, the god of riches,

rid in g a w h ite lio n and h o ld in g the banner, and the mungoosc, v o m itin g the jew el ; the color of the body is golden ; this form of Kuvera is called in T i betan zNam-sras-gser-chcn ; Mahkla, under the fo rm the Tent , (Tib. G ur-gyi m gon-po) ; and of the Protector of

the goddess Vasudhr (Tib. Nor-

dsin ser-mo), the a kti of Kuvera ; the color of the goddess is golden ; she is seen h o ld in g in her six hands the sw ord, the wheel of life , the book, the II0wer, and a basket of f r u it ; one of the hands makes the sign of ch a rity.

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

Plate

Num ber 4.

A rhats

D H Y A N I-B U D D H A S
(Tib. rGyal-ba rigs-lna)

Mahvna Buddhism knows live m editative or celestial Buddhas. They are eternally dw elling in contem plation and never were Bodhisattvas. They corres pond to the five elements (Skrt. ekandha) and lo the live senses. Each of these trans cendental Buddhas reigns over a cosmic period and manifests him se lf to the saints plunged in deep m editation. To each of the live m editative Buddhas cor respond a human Buddha (Skrt. nm nusibuddha) and a bodhisattva. The

last one is called a dhvni-bodhisattva and is considered to be the sp iritu a l son of the m editalive Buddha (*). Each of the Dhyni-Buddhas has his ow n color, mudr, situation, and vehicle. The fo llo w in g table w ill be found useful : Human Buddhas (Mnusibuddhas) Sanskrit names 1. Krakucchanda. 2. Kanaka m uni.
3 . Ivcyapa.

Meditative Buddhas (Dhyni-Buddhas) : Vairocana. Aksobhya. Kalnasambhava. Am itbha. A m nghasiddhi.

M editative Bodhisattvas (Dhyni-Bodhisattvas)

Sa mantabhadra. V ajrapani. Ratnapni. A va lokitevara-Padm apan i . Vivapni.

k . kyamuni.
5 . Maitreya.

Tibetan names : i . Khor-ba dsig. a. gSer-thub.

3 . Od-srun.

rNam -par snan-mdsad. M i-bskvod-pa. Rin-chen byuri-gnas. Od-pag-med. Don-yod grub-pa.

K n n -tu bzan-po. Phyag-na rd o -rje Phyag-na rin-chen. Spyan-ras-gzigs. Phyag-na tshogs

!\. kva thub-pa.

5 . Byams-pa.

(*) P. Ollnmiarc, l . Histo ir e des ides thosophiques dans Find;, La Thosophie b ouddhiq ue, p, 295 ; Gr n w r edel, B ud dhist a rt in In dia , p. 196.

36
Meditative Buddhas 1. Vairocana. 2. Aksobhya.
3 . Ratnasambhava.

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
Color w hite. blue. yellow . red. green. Mudr teaching. attestation. ch a rity. m editation. fearlessness. Situation center. orient. south. west. n o rth. Vehicle lion. elephant. horse. swan. garuda.

4 . A m itbha.
5 . A m oghasiddhi.

A ccording to the Klacakra system, the five m editative Buddhas emanated from A di-B uddha, a p rim o rd ia l Buddha of the system. The m editative Buddhas are usually seen on p a inting s w earing a monastic robe, deprived of all ornam ents. Sometimes they are represented w ith th e ir a ktis or female energies. W hen represented under this last fo rm they wear a

diadem and the usual (*) Bodhisattva attire. The fact that Sir Aurel Stein and D r. B rainerd Spooner have discovered at Sarhi-Bahlol several figures of Bodhisattvas, w earing in th e ir diadems sm all

figures of Buddhas seated in m e d ita tio n , seems to indicate that the Gandhra artists were already acquainted w ith the theory of transcendental Buddhas.

A nyhow , the custom of p la cing a D hyni-B uddha in the diadem of a B odhi sattva goes back to the Gandhra period (**). The group of the five Nr. 16 and Nr. 18. P a in tin g Nr. 7 (20 1 / 2 x 1 6 ) . This p a in tin g represents the Sukhvat paradise (Tib. bDe-ba-can). The D hyni-B ud dha A m itbha is seen seated in m editation, his hands cros sed on his lap, h o ld in g the alms bow l. The color of the body is red. The m e d i tative Buddha is seated on a lotus throne. In fro n t of the throne is seen a pond w ith a lotus flow er w h ic h supports the W heel of the Law. Round the m editative Buddha are seen the e ight p rin c ip a l Bodhisattvas, h o ld in g lotus I heir hands. flowers in m editative Buddhas is represented on paintings

(*) A. G riin w e de l, M yt ho lo g ie , p. 100.

(**)

A. Foucher, L art gr ro b o uddhiq ue du G m d h r a , vol. 11. fase. I, . .-336.

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

Plate

N um ber 5.

Buddha and his tw o great disciples

T U T E L A R Y DEITIES
(Tib. Yi-dam )

It is d iffic u lt to in te rp re t this te rm w ith o u t ru n n in g in to mistakes. The w ord itself (yi-dam yid-dam -pa) is explained as one possessing a firm or

fixed m in d . It is a divin e being m a n ife stin g itself in m editation (Yi-dam n i : yid -b rta n -p o dam -par byed-cin lha sgom -pai p h v ir-ro ) (*) This class of deities is represented in this collection by several w ell executed p ainting s, on w h ich we see V ajrakla, Yam ntaka, Samvara, and others. Each lama, often each

buddhist devotee, lias a tu te la ry deity (Skrt. ista-devat) of his ow n. lie choo ses his protector either fo r the w hole of his life or fo r some special purpose. The T a n tric lite ra tu re contains m any passages describing the character of the d ifferen t Yi-dam s and p re scrib in g various rites in order to p ro p itia te the deity. .Usually these protectin g deities appear under a te rrib le fo rm (Skrt. bhairava T ib. drag-po). They are represented on images w ith several heads and w ith num erous ;

hands, h o ld in g fla m in g attributes. Usually they are seen associated w ith th e ir aktis. This last fo rm is considered to be very efficient in conjuration s. They

appear on a fla m in g background. The yi-dam s of the rN in-m a sect are w inged; those of the dGe-lugs-pa have no w ings. The head of such tu te la ry deities is adorned w ith a crow n made of h um an skulls (Tib. thod-pan). Round th e ir

bodies are often seen garlands of hum an heads. They are standing on pros trate hum an bodies. T h e ir arms and legs are adorned w ith bracelets. Round

the waist they have a k in d of belt w ith ribbons and precious stones. On th e ir chest they often wear a k in d of s trin g w ith the image of the W heel of the Law in the m iddle. On some T a n tric images a serpent is seen ready to bite the W heel. The c u lt of these tu te la ry deities spread very w id e ly over the countries where

(*) I am indebted for this in fo rm al ion to Lama Lobzang M ingyur.

TIB E T A N

PAINTIN GS

Lamasm gained a stronghold . Each -Buddhist sect has a protecting deity of its own : thus Yamntaka is the yi-dam of the dGe-lugs-pa sect, and the cult of V a jrakla is especially recommended am ong the r\in -m a -p a lamas. The p a in tin g Nr. V III (Pl. V I), (2 1/2 x 1 7 ) , represents V a jra kla w ith his ,5 akti (Tib. rD o -rje phur-pa yab-yum ) The banner is of an especially fine exe cution. The figures aie num erous and draw n w ith great care. The iconogra

phical value of the p a in tin g is great, fo r each of the deities represented has its name inscribed below. V a jra k la is seen in the m iddle, lie has three heads adorned w ith the crow n of hum an skulls. llis body is dark green ; that of his

akti is green. The head to the rig h t is red, that to the le ft is w hite. He has six arms ; the first pair of hands is h o ld in g the m agic dagger ; the *eond the th u n d e rb o lt, and the m agical sceptre w ith the trid e n t ; the th ird pair the vajra, and the lasso. The deity is w e a rin g a tig e r skin and an elephant skin. The garland of hum an heads is seen round the body. The akti is h o ld in g the cup made of a hum an s k u ll. . A ta n tric fo rm of the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra (Tib. Chos-skn Kun bzan yab y u m ). Samantabhadra (Tib. K u n -tu bzan-po) is the D hyni-B od hi

sattva o f the D hyni-B uddha Vairocana. He is venerated by the old sects as a p rim o rd ia l Buddha 2. Vajrasattva (Tiv. rD o -rje sems-pa). The attributes are not clearly seen.
3 . Padmasambhava

(Tib.

sLob-dpon Padma bvun-gnas).

The teacher is

h o ld in g the th u n d e rb o lt, the cup, and the m agic sceptre. . rJe-btsfin Mar-pa. Mar-pa was the teacher of the famous Tibetan poetm ystic M i-la ras-pa (108-1112 A. D .). Mar-pa is said to be the p u p il of B rom ston and Ata. He was the found e r of the bK a-brgyud-pa (pron. K a-jii-p a ) sect (about 1080 A. D .), whose object it was to reconcile the ideas of the old sects w ith those of the new ly established bKa-gdams-pa sect, whose Ata.
5 . The fig ure probably represents the great lo-tsa-ba or

founder

was

translator

V airo

cana, w ho began under the guidance of Padmasambhava the translation of Bud dhist scriptures in to Tibetan. A ccordin g to a legend, Vairocana knew 00 la n guages (*). lama dress He is seen h o ld in g the quadruple va jra and a book. He wears the of the rN in -m a sect.

(*) B. Lufer, Der Roman einer Tibetischen K nigin. Leipzig, 1911 ; see index under Vairocana,

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

Plate

Num ber 8.

V a jra kla

TUTELARY DEITIES 6. Jo-mo bK ris-tshe-rin-m a. The goddess is seen h o ld in g a m irro r and the cup made of a hum an skull. 7. llQ m kara. The deity is represented w ith six hands. The attributes are : the m agic dagger, the hook, the k n ife , the bow and arrow . The body is green, the akti is lig h t green. color of the

8. Uayagrva (Tib. rT a -m g rin , Ilorse-neck ). Venerated as the protector of horses, llis c u lt was specially Kri-isron Ide-blsan. He is said to recommended by Padmasambhava d rive away demons by n e ig h in g . to the k in g Heusually

holds the sceptre, the lasso, the wheel and the sword. The color of the body id red-brow n. The akti 011 o ur p a in tin g ils lig h t red, b u t usually she is lig h t blue. On this p a in tin g the yi-dam has six hands and is h o ld in g the m agic

dagger, Ihe quadruple th u n d e rb o lt, the sceptre, the th u n d e rb o lt, and the cup. 9. dbYug-snon sder-mo. the magic The deity is represented w ith six hands, the cup. The h o ld in g co

dagger, the lasso, the club, the th u n d e rb o lt, and

lor of the yi-dam is dark green, the akti is lig h t green. 10. D od-dral-m na. The deity is represented w ith six hands, h o ld in g the

magic dagger, the hook, the spear, the th u n d e rb o lt, and the cup. The color of the body is lig h t red, the akti is w hite. 11. rN am -rgyal snam-ma. The deity is represented w ith six hands, h o ld in g the m agic lor of the 1 2 dagger, the wheel, the bell, the th u n d e rb o lt, and yi-dam and of the akti is w hite. the cup. The co

m (ion-po ma-Jin. The deity is represented w ith six hands, h o ld in g the and the cup. The co

maggie dagger, Liu* sword, Ihe lasso, the thunderbolt lor of the deity is. green, the akti is lig h t green.

13 . g in-rje-ged. The deity has six hands, h o ld in g the magic dagger, the

mungoose, the sceptre, the th u n de rb olt and is dark green, the akti is green.

the cup. The color

of the deity

14. kham s-gsum -gsod-byed. The yi-dam is represented w ith six hands h o ld in g . I.he magic* dagger, the axe, the lasso, the th u n d e rb o lt, and the cup. The co lo r of the deity and of the akti is w hite. 15 . M i-gyo g tim -k h u n . The deity is represented w ith -six hands, h o ld in g co

the magic dagger, the lasso, the k n ife , the th u n d e rb o lt, and lo r of the deity and of (he akti is lig h t green. 16. sTobs-ehen bskul-byed.

the cup. The

The deity has six hands, h o ld in g the m agic

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

dagger, the bow and arrow , the th u n d e rb o lt, and the cup. The color is dark green, the akti is green. 17. Ratnaklia. th is deity is represented w ith six hands, h o ld in g the m agic dagger, the mungoose, the lasso, the m irro r and the cup. The color is yel low. The low er part of the body is in the shape of a dagger. 18. Padm akla. Ih e deity has six hands, h o ld in g the m agic dagger, the chain, the sword, the lotus and the cup. The color is red. 19. V ajrakLa. This fo rm of the yi-d a m has six hands, h o ld in g the m agic dagger, the wheel, the lasso, the hook and the th u n d e rb o lt. The color is green20. K arm akla. I h e deity has six hands, h o ld in g the m agic dagger, the sceptre, the bell, the quadruple th u n d e rb o lt, and the lasso. 21. sNags-kyi srun-m a. This deity is considered to be the protector of the Tantra doctrine. The deity is h o ld in g the trid e n t and the cup made of a hum an sku ll. Round the body is seen the s trin g of hum an heads. 22. Ye-es m gon-po, a fo rm of M ahkla. The deity is regarded as the

protector of know ledge. He is represented w ith six hands, h o ld in g the m agic dagger, the cup, the th u n d e rb o lt, the club, the stick and the rosary. The color of the deity is blue. 23. Rhu (T ib. sGra-gcan). The demon is represented shooting the bow. He has nine heads and fo u r arms. Besides the bow, he is h o ld in g the lasso

and the th u n d e rb o lt (usually he holds a banner). His body is in the fo rm of a dragon. On the p a in tin g there is the fo llo w in g Tibetan in s c rip tio n : The great rsi Rhu accepted the words of V ajradhara : d r in k the w arm blood of the

heart of an enemy and cut dow n the fa m ily of an enemy at its foot (Dransron chcn-po R-hu-las rD o -rje chan-gi bka bsin-du y id la snan (gnag) : Dgraboi 'snin-khrag drom -m o sal-du gsol, dgra-boi m i-b rg y u d rlsa-nas chod). 24. Phyag-bsi m gon-po. The deity is represented w ith fo u r heads and fo u r arms, h o ld in g the club, the banner, the k n ife and the lasso. It is seen rid in g on a phantastic a nim al w ith the horns of a b u ll. The color of the deity is blue. 25 . S rid-pai rgya l-m o. The deity has six hands, h o ld in g the th u n d e rb o lt, the cup, the sword, the mungoose, the club and the trid e n t. It is rid in g a m ule. 26. Lha chen-po h o ld in g a w h ip . 27. dP al-ldan lha-m o (S krt. rdev, rim a t Dev). The goddess is h o ld in g a sword and the cup. She is seen r id in g a m ule. rd o -rje bar-ba rlsal. The deity is rid in g a horse and

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

Plate

N um ber 9.

Samvara

TU TELAR Y DEITIES

41

28. bTsan rgyal. He wears an a rm o ur and is seen on horseback. W ith h is rig h t hand he is spearing a hum an body, ly in g on the g round ; w ith his le ft hand he catches the isame body w ith a rope. bTsan-rgyal is a demon k in g con quered by Padmasambhava. 29. b D l-rg y a l, the k in g of demons. He is seen on horseback, h o ld in g a banner and a rope.
3 0. k L u -rg y a l, Ngarja. He is seen on horseback, h o ld in g a vase and a

s trin g .

The p a in tin g N r. 9 (pl. V II) (25 1/ 4 x i 6 3 / 4 ) represents the yi-d a m bDem ehog (Samvara). The p a rtic u la r fo rm represented on our p a in tin g is called in Tibetan dPal k h o r-lo sdom-pa. The yi-d a m is represented w ith his akti. lie has fo u r heads. The central one is blue, the tw o heads to the le ft are green and red, the head to the r ig h t is yellow . He wears the crow n of hum an skulls, the tig e r skin and the s trin g of severed h u m a n heads. In his twelve hands be is h o ld in g the fo llo w in g attributes : (rig h t) the elephant skin (Tib. Glan -1 pags), the axe, the k n ife (g ri-g u g ), the trid e n t the d ru m and the th u n d e rb o lt ; (left) the elephant skin, the cup, the lasso, the severed head of Brahm a (Tib. Tshan-pai sgo) w ith fo u r faces, the m agical sceptre and the th u n d e rb o lt. His akti is h o ld in g the g ri-g u g kn ife . The y i-d a m s body is of a blue co lo r, his a kti is red. Both are standing on prostrate hum an a m an h o ld in g the k n ife and bodies. Under

the r ig h t foot,

the body of

the cup ; under

the rig h t foot-the body of a m an h o ld in g the d ru m . Above is seen Aksobhya w ith his akti (Tib. M i-bskyod-pa ya b -yum ). The D hyni-B uddha is h o ld in g a th u n derbolt. 2. The yi-dam dP al-dus-kyi k h o r-lo . dP al-dus-kyi kh o r-lo is the yi-dam of am bhala, a m ystic c ou n try in the n o rth where the Klacakra system originated. The body of the yi-dam is blue. One of the legs is w h ite , the other red. He has three heads. He is represented w ith tw enty fo u r arms, w ith num erous a ttri butes. His akti is yellow .
3 . lle v a jra (T ib. dP al-kyai rd o -rje ). The yi-dam is green, the akti is blue.

The deity is represented w ith e ig ht heads and fo u r legs. (*)

(*) For a description of Ibis yi-dam , see Prof. A. Grunwedel, M ythologie des Buddhismus in T i bet und der Mongolei, p. 107 el fig. 8G. 7

42

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
In the fo u r corners are represented fo u r D kins (Tib. m K a-gro-m a). A ll

fo u r wear the usual D k in l attire : the crow n of skulls and the s trin g of hum an skulls. They have fo u r hands h o ld in g the m agic sceptre, the cup, and the d ru m . Nr. is yellow , Nr. 5 is red, Nr. 6 is grey, Nr. 7 is lig h t green. A ll fo u r are standing on prostrate hum an bodies. The yi-dam bD e-m chog incarnates him se lf in the Grand Lama of Peking, the ICan-skya K h u tu k h tu . The c u lt of this yi-dam Tsa-ri province. P a in tin g Nr. 10 ( / 2 2 1/2) represents the yi-d a m p a in tin g is very damaged. P a in tin g Nr. 11 (2 i / 16 1/) represents Yam ntaka (Tib. rD o -rje jig s byed) surrounded by tu telary deities. Yam ntaka is the T a n tric fo rm of the Bodhiis bDe-m chog. The is p a rtic u la rly popular in the

saltva M a n jn r, who subdued under this fo rm the k in g of death, Yama. He considered to be the yi-dam of the dGe-lugs-pa sect. Yamntaka

has the head

of a b u ll. Above h im is seen the red head of a fe a rfu l deity and the scornful face of the Bodhisattva M a n ju r. The body of the yi-dam is blue, its akti is lig h t blue. Yam ntaka has sixteen legs and th irty -fo u r arms. He is h o ld in g the fo llo w in g attributes : in his r ig h t hands he has the g ri-g u g k n ife , the tig e r

skin, the hook, the m agic dagger, the club, the m o rta r, the m agic sceptre, the k n ife , the conch, the spear, the th u n d e rb o lt, the axe, a k in d of ham m er, le ft hands he has a a

spear, a sw ord, an arrow and the d ru m .. In his

cup made of

a hum an sku ll, the skin of a tig e r, a severed hum an head, a shield, a hum an body on a spear, a h um an leg, a pot, the lasso, the s k u ll, a h um an head, hum an bowels, a bell, and a spear. He is standing on hum an and anim al bodies.

1, 2, 3 represent Tson-kha-pa and his two disciples rG val-tshab-rje, h o ld in g the lotus and the wheel, and m K h a s-g ru b -rje h o ld in g the bow l. rGyal-ba Tsonkha-pa is sometimes seen assisted by Ata and N grjuna. 4. represents dPal-gsan ba ? dus-pa. The deity is blue, the akti lig h t blue.
5 . dP al-k h o r-lo sdom-pa.

6. Avalokitevara w ith fo u r arms (Tib. Spvan-ras-gzigs phyag-bsi-pa). 7. Vairavana (rNam-thos-sras), h o ld in g the banner and the mungoose.

8. G u r-gyi m gon-po, the Protector of the Tent , a fo rm o f Mahkla. The deity is blue and is h o ld in g the g ri-g u g kn ife and the cup. 9. m Gon-po bram-ze gzugs-can, or the Protector w ith the body of a B rah man . His body is blue, the h a ir on the head is w hite. He is h o ld in g the

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

Plate

Num ber 12.

mGon-po Phyag-drug

TU TELAR Y D EITIES sword, the cup and the banner. On his rig h t arm hangs a garland of hum an skulls, He is s illin g on a prostrate hum an b ody . The protector is also a form of Malmkla. 10. Chos-rgyal p h yi-sg ru b , a fo rm of the god of death, Yaina. He is stand ing on a b u ll, h o ld in g the club and the lasso. He has the head of a b u ll ; hi>s color is blue, llis akti, seen behind h im , is lig h t blue.

11. mGon-po phyag-drug-pa, or the Protector w ith six hands . This form of Mahkla was recommended to the Mongols by the th ird Dalai-Lam a. The god is h o ld in g the g ri-g u g k n ife , the cup, the d ru m , the lasso, the trid e n t and the s irin g of skulls. The color is blue, h e is standing 011 a prostrate

hum an body, lie is one of the e igh t te rrib le ones ( lib . drag-gsed). 12. ri dev (Tib. L h a-m o). The deity is seen rid in g a w hite m ule. She is h o ld in g the trid e n t and the cup. Her body is blue. She is regarded as the pro tector of Lhasa and the spouse of Yama. On this p a in tin g she is seen crossing a pond of dem ons blood. P a in tin g Nr. 12 (Pl. V III) (2 1/ 4 x 15 1/2). The id e n tificatio n of this yi-dam is not certain. The lamas, whom we had the occasion to ask, called the deity mGon-po phyag-dru g . The color of the deity is blue, ils <;akli is green. The deity is represented w ith three heads and six arms. The head to its le ft is red. The yi-dam is h o ld in g the th u n d e rb o lt and the cup kapla. Round the central figure are seen d ifferent yi-dam s, pro bably various form s of the mGon-po p hyag-drug. Above the central figure are seen : the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, Yajradhara, M a n ju r, kvam uni, the

teacher Padmasambhava, and the founder of the Karm a-pa sect (Tib. rGyal-ba Kar-m a-pa). The p a in tin g comes fro m a Kar-m a-pa monastery. It is designed w ith gold on a black background. The figures are colored. tation are executed with, great care. The p a in tin g art of the X V I I I -X V I I I th centuries. A ll the details of ornam en belongs to the sino-tibetan

B O D H IS A TTV A S
(T ib. Byan-chub sems-pa)

Let us tu rn now to the study of the different form s of Bodhisattvas those saintly beings whose c u lt is so w id e ly spread wherever the teachings of the Great Vehicle fou nd th e ir way. Various explanations have been given to the term Bodhisattva . The reason fo r such a m u ltitu d e of interpretations lies in the fact th at the te rm itse lf is not easily understood. Bodhi signifies highest consciousness , and sattva generally means re a lity, essence, a liv in g being. The te rm tends to convey the n otion of a being w ho contains in h im se lf the germ of B odhi. The H inyna proclaim ed the ideal of A rhatship, whose object was the pas sionless s triv in g fo r N irvana. The Mahyna in its tu rn prociaim ed the lo fty ideal of Bodhisattvas, num erous as the sand of the Ganges , whose chief charac teristic is compassion. Out of in fin ite compassion fo r h u m a n ity they delayed the attainm ent of

N irvana and rem ained in th is w o rld to help the s triv in g hum an beings and to preach the Law. The ideal of a B odhisattvas sacrifice found its expression in the fo llo w in g words fo un d in a passage quoted by ntideva in his Compen d iu m of B uddhist D octrine (*) : A Bodhisattva in this w o rld has no jew el that he does not give up out of love o f the Law. There is no b o d ily a c tiv ity on w h ich he does not venture. U nder in num erab le form s they and render help to those w ho im p lo re them . To this effect it is said in the V im a la krti-n ird e a , quoted by ntideva (**) : They (the Bodhisattvas) practice e n jo ym e n t am ong the sensual, they show assist h u m a n ity

m editation am ongst those w ho m editate ; they destroy Mra and give no open ing to h im . As a lotus in the fire exists not, even so they show th a t desii'es and m editation exist not. Of set purpose they become a courtezan to draw men

(*) ikssamucraya, p. 9, Translated by C. Bcndall and W . Rouse. London, 1922. (**) Ib id ., p. 291.

46

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

and, a llu rin g them by the hook of lust, establish them in the Buddhas wisdom . They become villagers at any tim e , or m erchants, or chaplains, courtiers great or sm all, fo r the good of the w o rld . For the poor they tible and, g iv in g them g ifts, produce become treasures inexhaus Am idst

the th o u g h t of e nlighte nm ent.

those w ho are s tiff in pride they become m ig h ty athletes ; they seek the supreme w isdom that destroys all pride. W hen any are torm ented w ith fear, they stand ever before them , they give them security and ripen them fo r w isdom . Becom in g the five kinds of transcendent know le lge, virtuous sages, they teach all beings in v irtu e , in the effort of m ercy and tenderness. They look on the reverend who need service in this w o rld , they become clever obedience. They do every th in g clever come a lover of the Law. In v is ib le , they are always present am ong men. Thus in B uddhist monas servants, or slaves, of and render service to make one be

in every k in d

teries in C hina they are th o u g h t to attend the religious sermons delivered by the A bbot, w ho offers to them , in v is ib ly present, incense, w h ile the whole con gregation of m onks sings : Hom m age to the Bodhisattvas, Mahsattvas, who are assembled here in m ultitu de s, num erous as the sand of the Ocean. (*) The s p iritu a l evolu tion of a Bodhisattva, generally cary), consists of fo u r d is tin c t stages : 1) P ra krtica ry , the o rig in a l course. 2) Pranidhnacary, the vow or firm resolution. A ccording to ancient tra d itio n , the fu tu re Bodhisattva has to pronounce his vow of fir m resolution be fore a Buddha. H a ving been annointed by the Tathgata, he becomes a called his path (Skrt.

Bodhisattva, s triv in g fo r h ig h e r consciousness, w earing the costume of a royal prince, as sym bol of his being a s p iritu a l son af a Tathgata, the E m peror of the Universe. In the last tw o stages, he is already a Bodhisattva.
3 ) In th is stage, called A nulom a-cary, he acts in accordance w ith the vow

taken.
4 ) In this stage he is already fir m ly established on his path, and therefore

this stage is named the path on w h ic h there is no return (Skrt. A nivartanacary). The religious feelings of the Mahyna devotees found expression in the adoration of these inn um erab le in fin ite ly -m e rc ifu l beings. A m ong them there is

(*) Do Grool. Code du Mahyna, p. i 35.

BODHISATTVAS

47

a group of e ight Bodhisattvas w ho are fre q u e n tly seen on lam astic images. We give th e ir names in th e ir canonical order : 1. M a n ju r or M anjughosa (Tib. Jam -dpal or Jam -dbyans). The B odhi

sattva is placed at the head of the lis t o f the e ig h t p rin c ip a l Bodhisattvas be cause of an erroneous in te rp re ta tio n of the second element of the name of the Bodhisattva, w h ic h was interpreted by Chinese translators as Skrt cira, head. (*) 2. V a jrap n i (Tib. Phyag-na rd o -rje ).
3 . Avalokitevara (T ib. Spyan-ras-gzigs).

4 . K sitigarbha (Tib. Sa-yi snin-po).

5 . S arvanivaran aviskam bhl (Tib.

sGrib-pa rnam -par-sel).

6. kagarbha (T ib. N am -m ka snin-po). 7. Maitreya (Tib. Byams-pa, pro n. Cam-pa). 8. Samantabhadra (T ib. K u n -tu bzan-po). Of this group of e ig h t p rin c ip a l Bodhisattvas three are especially venerated th ro u g h o u t the M ahynist w o rld , nam ely : M aitreya, the fu tu re Buddha, Ava lokitevara, the A ll-m e rc ifu l Lord, and M a n ju r, the P rince of knowledge. On lam aistic images the Bodhisattvas have the appearance of rjakum rs, or royal princes, adorned w ith jewels and other ornam ents. They have the sign between the eyebrows, b u t do not have the protuberance on the sku ll. On th e ir heads they wear the diadem (Skrt. m u ku ta ; T ib . cod-pan). They wear bracelets on th e ir arms (Skrt. keyram ; T ib . d p u n -rg ya n ). Heavy gold necklaces are

h a n g in g on th e ir shoulders. The low e r part of th e ir body is wrapped in a piece of em broidered cloth called paridhna, w h ic h is the prototype of the modern H indu d h oti. On th e ir shoulders is th ro w n a k in d of shaw l (Skrt. u tta rlya ) made of a transparent cloth w ith em broidery. They wear the brahm anic s trin g w hich is th ro w n on the le ft shoulder and w h ic h serves to d istin g u ish them fro m fe m in in e deities, w ea rin g a costume s im ila r to that of the Bodhisattvas. Some

times a Bodhisattva is seen w earing the skin of a deer or tig e r.

(*) Cf. Prof. S. Lvi, Le Nepal, I, p. 343.

M A IT R E Y A
The Buddha of the fu tu re .

I t is a d iffic u lt task to give o n ly a b rie f sketch of this Bodhisattva, who incarnates in him se lf all the hopes of the B uddhist w orld fro m the island of Ceylon to the lamaseries of Transbaikalia in Siberia. M aitreya, the L o v in g One , A jita the In v in c ib le , -such are the

names given to h im by his devotees. M aitreya is the o n ly Bodhisaltva know n to the Ilin y n a . Already in the D gha-N ikya (II I , p. 76) he is said to be the fu tu re Buddha, the successor of kyam uni. In a chapter of the Lalita-Yistara / ch. V, p. 9), it is said that the Exalted One, before descending 011 earth fro m the Tusita heaven lo become a Buddha appointed the Bodhisattva Maitreya as his successor and placed on his head his ow n Bodhisattva diadem. Centuries have elapsed, but the Buddhists of all sects expect the Future One to come. Fa-shien, the Chinese p ilg r im of the Vth century A. D., relates to us the legend of the m onastic bow l of kyam uni, w h ich lies hidden u n til 'the lim e of the m anifestation of M aitreya has come (*). But not only the bow l awaits the tim e of the com ing of the fu tu re Buddha : in M ount K ukkulapda, near

Gay, lies the body of Kcyapa, w ho preserves the monastic robes of Gautama, the Buddha. W hen M aitreya makes and his appearance in this receive fro m the sage w orld, he w ill the robes of

m ira culo usly sp lit the

m ou nta in

the last Buddha. These legends clearly reflect the belief that the fu tu re Buddha w ill come to continue the teaching of kyam uni. The spread of Mahyna is associated w ith the name of M aitreya. Fa-hsien, who, d u rin g his travels in In d ia , heard and transcribed m any local legends, tells the fo llo w in g one on the m iraculous o rig in of the image of M ailrvea (**) :

(( In this country (Drl) Ihere was fo rm e rly an A rhat w ho, using his divine

(*) H . A . Giles, The (ravels of Fa-hsien, 74-75.

(**) Ibid , p. 9 (bill I have changed fhe folded legs of Gileslranslalion into a pedestal , in agreement w ith a remark of Prof. P. Pelliol in T ' ou n g x .99, p. 7).
8

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
power, carried a clever artisan up to the Tusita heavens to observe the height, com plexion, and features of the Bodhisattva M aitreya, so that, when he came dow n, he m ig h t carve an im age of h im in wood. fo r observation and afterwards executed

A ltogether he made three jou rn eys an image eighty feet in h e ig h t,

the pedestal of w h ich was e ig h t feet h ig h . a b rillia n t lig h t. The kings of near u n til

On fast days it alw ays shines countries vie w illi one another

w ith

in th e ir offerings to it. From olden times

now il has been 011 view in this place. A sim ilar legend is told by H san-lsang in his Records of the Western Countries (*) Fa-hsien tells us another interestin g legend w h ich explains, perhaps, the extra o rd ina ry spread of the c u lt of the Bodhisattva M aitreya in n o rth e rn coun tries, where B uddhism penetrated (**) : W hen I in q u ire d of the people of Ih ose parts, they all said that, according to an old tra d itio n , ramanas fro m India began to b rin g the Sutras and D isciplines across this riv e r (the preceding passage describes the crossing of a riv e r) fro m the date of the setting-up of

Maitreya, Bodhisattva. This image was put up about three hundred years after the Nirvana of Buddha, w h ic h occured d u rin g the re ig n of k in g Pin g of the Chou dynasty (770-719 . C.) ; hence it was said that the Great D octrine began to spread abroad fro m the setting up of the im age, and th a t w ho but our ghos tly Master,. M aitreya, w ho is to succeed kyam uni, could have caused the

Precious T rin ity to be preached afar and foreigners to become acquainted w ith the Faith. It is not clear fro m the context w hether this last image is identical w ith the image located in Drl. Images of Bodhisattva M aitreya carved in

rocks are fre q ue ntly met w ith in W estern Tibet and along the pases of the N orth-W est leading towards the kistan. great

m ountainous T u r

caravan routes of

A nother tra d itio n connects M aitreya d ire c tly w ith the o rig in of the Mahvna school. A cco rd ing to it, the reputed founder of the Yogcra school of Buddhism , Asanga, on several occasions visited the Tusita heaven and there, in the presence of the fu tu re Buddha, penetrated in to the essence of Mahyna. In North-W estern In d ia , where a good m any of the famous doctors of B uddhism

(*) I Is a n -Is a n g , Rec., I , p. i3 /|.

(**) II. A. (iilos, T ra\cls of Fa-hsien, p. 10.

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

P late

Num ber 13.

M aitreya

MAITREYA
lived and preached and fro m where wen I the stream of countries beyond the great snowy ranges of the missionaries to the

H indukush and Qaraqorum ,

the cu lt of the fu tu re Buddha was a very popular one. This is clearly attested by the num erous figures of the Bodhisattva made of grey schist, excavated in the isoil of ancient Gandhra. P rof. Foucher (*) has studied a num ber of

these images. The Bodhisattva of the Gandhra school is seen w earing the dia dem, attired in a royal fashion, and h o ld in g the vessel (K aniandalu). Often he is seen seated cross-legged and m a k in g the sign of in s tru c tio n . The nga-puspa, com m on on later images of M aitreya, fails in Gandhra. The c u lt of the Bodhisattva was extrem ely popular along the two great-

caravan routes in Chinese T u rkistan . Sir A urel Stein b ro u g h t fro m the oasis of Tunhuang a num ber of p a intin g s representing the parivra of the Bodhisattva M ait reya. In later iconography several form s of the Bodhisattva are fre q u e n tly met w ith , H is body is always golden in color and he is often represented (this

is the case in Tibet) under the fo rm of a perfect Buddha. In Tibet the B o d h i sattva is usually addressed w ith the title of rGyal-ba or Jina, an epithet always given to a Buddha. The old Gandhra type, w ith the hands m a k in g the sign of in stru ctio n , is very popular in Tibet. The only difference is that behind the Bodhisattva are ahvays seen the tw o Nga flow ers. W hen represented in this

fo rm , the Bodhisattva often wears the m onastic robes of a Buddha. In another fo rm we see the Bodhisattva standing, attired in the garm ents of a Bodhisattva, w earing on his head the diadem w ith a small stpa in it (when the Bodhisattva has no diadem , the stfipa is painted on his forehead). The rig h t hand is m aking the sign of argum entation or, sometimes, the sign of ch a rity. The left hand is h o ld in g the am rta vessel. In a th ird fo rm M aitreya is seated, dressed as a B o d h i sattva, his hands folded on his lap in the sign of m editation, and h o ld in g bet ween his fingers the g u lle t of the am rta vessel. F in a lly there exists a T a n tric fo rm of the Bodhisattva w ith K u ru k u ll on his rig h t and B h rk u tI on his left. Professor Foucher has published in his Iconogra phie Bouddhique (**) a Maitreya-sdhana, where another fo rm of the Bodhisattva w ith tli ice faces and fo u r arms is described. In Tibet the Bodhisattva is often represented seated on the throne in a European fashion. This way of s ittin g is

(*) A. Fouchor, L arl grco-bouddhique du G m dhra, vol. II, pp. 2-26.

( * * ) Fa s e . 11, p. 48.

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TIBETAN PAINTINGS

considered to be characteristic of the Bodhisattva and to sym bolize the fact th a t he is ready to come, and has already lowered his legs fro m the throne (*). The Bodhisattva M aitreya of o ur collection (p a in tin g Nr. i 3) (Pl. IX )

(2 x 19 1//1) is represented under the fo rm of a Buddha, seated cross-legged on a lotus throne, his hands m a k in g the sign of in s tru c tio n . The body is golden, the m onastic robes are of a red color w ith golden em broidery on them . The

back of the throne is ric h ly ornam ented. W e see the tw nga-flowers, two n gas, and the b ird Garuda on its top. Round it are seen Gandharvas, or heavenly m usicians, and nym phs. The p a in tin g is the w o rk of a m odern artist and is very v iv id in colors. To end this very b rie f sketch of the fu tu re Buddha, as represented in Tibe tan iconography, it is suitable to p o in t out the new revival of his c u lt among the Buddhists of T ibet and M ongolia. Some ten years ago the Lama (dGe-legs rn a m -rg y a l), rJe-btsun bLo-bzan thub-bstan present chos-kyi Tashini-m a

dge-legs rn a m -rg ya l dpal-bzan-po, who recently le ft Tibet, erected a huge statue of the co m in g Buddha in the great m onastery of Tashi-lhunpo, thus g iv in g a fresh im pulse to the cu lt. Upon the erection of the statue num erous branchmonasteries of Tashi-lhunpo erected in th e ir temples analogical statues of the

C om ing One and dedicated a special c u lt to them . It seems that the B uddhist w o rld is p re pa ring to receive the Buddha of the fu tu re . P a in tin g Nr. 14 (Pl. X) represents the fu tu re Buddha M aitreya, assisted by Atia and rG yal-ba Tson-kha-pa. The Bodhisattva is h o ld in g the am rta vessel and makes the sign of argum entation. The Bodhisattva has the appearance of a perfect Buddha. On his forehead he has the stpa. The p a in tin g is executed by a m odern a rtist fro m Shigatse and is said to represent the Buddha M aitreya of Tashi-lhunp o ; hence its interest fo r the h isto ry of m odern religious cur rents in the (( Land of Snow .

(*) Cf. In lro d u clio n , p. 22.

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

Plate

10

N um ber 14.

M aitreya of Tashi-lhunpo

A V A L O K IT E V A R A OR P A D A M P A N I
(Tib. Spyan-ras-gzigs or Pyag-na rd o -rje )

H e is the greatest Bodhisattva of

N orthern B uddhism .

H a vin g emanated

fro m his s p iritu a l father, the D hyni-B uddha A m itbha, the Bodhisattva appeared on earth fro m a lotus flow er fo r the deliverance of m a n k in d . He refused to attain Buddhahood u n til all su ffe rin g creatures are fir m ly established on the path

towards Bodhi, or h ig h e r consciousness. H e provides salvation fo r those suffe rin g in he ll and, therefore, he is often represented on images surrounded by prtas or damned ones, w ho im p lo re h im fo r m ercy and blessing. In the Saddharm a-P undari ka we lin d the fo llo w in g d e fin itio n of the Bodhisattvas m ission in this w o rld , uttered by the Exalted One h im se lf (*) : He (A valokitevara)

w ith his p o w e rfu l know ledge beholds all creatures w ho are beset w ith m any h u n dreds of troubles and afflicted by m any sorrows, and thereby is a saviour of the w o rld , in c lu d in g the gods. The Bodhisattva was already w o rk in g fo r the salvation of m a n k in d in the tim e of Vipay, ik h , Jina, and kyam uni.

Indeed, it is said th a t kyam uni h im se lf once benefitted by

A valokitevaras

power of salvation. It is said in the G unakrada-vyha, a text w h o lly dedicated to the praise of the a ll-e m b ra cing m ercy of the Bodhisattva, that Gautama, the Buddha, being in one of his previous incarnations Sim hala, was saved fro m

the island of evil Rksass on a m iraculous horse, w h ich was a m anifestation of Avalokitevara dedicated to h im se lf (**). the praise of Several chapters of the S addhaim a-Pundarka are various Bodhisattvas. In ch. X X IV , w h ic h was

already quoted above, we fin d listed a num ber of pious m erits re su ltin g frorn cherishing the name of the Bodhisattva. Thus it is said (***) : I f one be th ro w n into a p it of fire by a w icked enemy w ith the object of k illin g h im , he has b u t to th in k of Avalokitevara, and the fire shall he quenched, as i f sprinkled w ith

(*) Saddharma-Pundarka, transi, by II. Kern, p. 4 15, stanza 17. (**) Raj. M itra, The Sanskrit Buddh. Literature o f Nepal, p. 96-98. (***) Saddharma-Pundarka, p. 413 , stanza 5.

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
water. A nd again in stanza 9, it is said : I f a m an be surrounded by a host of enemies armed w ith swords, w ho have the in te n tio n of k illin g h im , be has b u t to th in k of A valokitevara, and they shall instantaneously become kind-hearted. A m ong the m any names given to the Bodhisattva by the religious fervour of his devotees, the fo llo w in g ones are the most com m on : Lokantha or Loke vara, the Lord of the W o rld ; Sangharatna, the Jewel of the Sangha ; and M a hkarun nika the Great M e rcifu l One . In plastic art we can already trace the images of Avalokitevara am ong

Gandhra sculptures. Thanks to the w orks of P rof. G riiw edel, P rof. d Oldenb u rg , and P rof. Foucher, we are able to recognize the M e rcifu l Lord in these figures of royal princes (S krt. r ja k u m ra ), h o ld in g the lotus flow er, the rosary, and sometimes the am rta vessel. This two-arm ed fo rm of the Bodhisattva is only seldom met on later images. In the tim e of the Chinese p ilg rim , Fa-hsien, the c u lt of A valokitevara was already w id e ly established and the pious p ilg rim

h im se lf was saved fro m a shipw reck by the m e rc ifu l power of the Bodhisattva (*)* The c u lt of A valokitevara spread w id e ly n o rth and num erous indeed are

the images of the Bodhisattva b ro u g h t back by European archaeological expe ditions fro m Chinese T u rkista n . In C hina the Bodhisattva is greatly venerated

under a fe m in in e fo rm , called K u a n -yin . In T ibet the Bodhisattva is considered to be the s p iritu a l patron of the Lam ast C hurch, and the o rig in of the Tibetan people itself is associated w ith the name of Avalokitevara (**). The D alai Lam a is considered to be an in ca rn a tio n of the Bodhisattva and bears the title of rGyal-ba rgya-m tsho, an appellation often given to A valokitevara. The p o n tific a l residence in Lha-sa is called Potala, after M ount

Potala, the favo urite residence of the Bodhisattva in In d ia . In the parivra of the Bodhisattva we usually fin d the Trs (w hite and

green), M a n ju r, the prince of w isdom , and V a jra p n i, the w ielder of the th u n derbolt (***) Sometimes we see B haisajyaguru, the Buddha of m edicine, and his seven follow ers. The color of the Bodhisattva is usually w hite, although occa sionally one finds images on w h ic h the body is painted gold or red. In this collection there are several pa in tin g s representing Avalokitevara.

(*) II. A. Giles, The travels o f F a-hsien, p. 76-77. (**) R o c k h ill, L ife o f B uddha, p. 204.

(***) Avaloritevara, M anjur, and vajrapni arc called in Tibetan rigs-gsum mgon-po, the Ihree tutelar Saints .

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

Plate

11

N um ber 15.

A valokitevara

AVALO KITEVAR A

55

A m ong them then are three representing the four-arm ed fo rm of the B odhi sattva, one representing his eleven-faced fo rm , one the Lokevara-Sim hand, and tw o representing the Bodhisattva under the fo rm of Amoghapa. It is interesting to notice that on all the painting s the uttarya, or the shawl of the Bodhisattvas attire, is green, and his paridhna is red w ith golden em broidery on it. P a in tin g Mr. u> (Pl. X I) (2 0 x 1 4 1/2). This p a in tin g represents the eleven-faced Avalokitevara. Under this p a rti

cu la r fo rm the Bodhisattva is called the M e rcifu l Lord ( lib . T h u g s-rje chenpo bcu-gcig sal). The Bodhisattva is standing on a lotus Hower on an island, or m o u n ta in surrounded by water. The fig ure of the M e rcifu l One is seen on the blue background of tlie nim bus w ith golden rays. His eleven faces have the fo llo w in g c o lo rin g : the lirs t row : green (rig h t), w h ite (m id d le ), red (left) ; second ro w
:

red (rig h t), green (m iddle), w h ite (left) ; th ird row : w hite (rig h t), red (m iddle), green (le ft). Above the th ird row is seen the blue head of a Religious Protector. Above it, the head of the D hyni-B uddha A m itbha. On other representations of the same fo rm of the M e rcifu l One, w h ic h we had occasion to study, the co lo rin g of the faces was s lig h tly different. A pparently there is no canonical rule pre scrib in g the use of certain colors. The color of the Bodhisattvas body is w hite. He wears the usual B odhi sattva attire. On his shoulders is th ro w n a shawl (Skrt. u ttarya). The low er

part of the body is wrapped in a sort of open s k irt w h ic h represents the m o dern H in d u d h o ti (Skrt. paridhna). Both the shawl and the paridhna are ric h ly covered w ith golden em broidery. The Bodhisattva wears heavy golden earrings, bracelets, and necklaces. The Bodhisattva has eight hands. The lirts p a ir is jo in e d at the chest, h o ld in g the jew el of an oval shape. The second p a ir is h o ld in g the lotus flow er and the rosary. The th ird p air is h o ld in g the bow and arrow and the wheel. The le ft hand of the fo u rth p air is h o ld in g the am rta vessel, the r ig h t one makes the sign of ch a rity. Above the figure is seen the image of the m editative posture, h o ld in g the alms bow l. P a in tin g Nr. 16 (PI. X II), (2 5 x1 7 M )This p a in tin g represents the parivra of the Bodhisattva Avalokitevara D hyni-B uddha A m itbha in a

w ith fo u r arms (Tib. Spyan-ras-gzigs phyag-bsi-pa).

56

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
The Bodhisattva is seen in the m id d le of the p a in tin g , seated cross-legged

on a lotus throne (padmsana). He wears the usual Bodhisattva attire. On his head we see the diadem w ith the head of the D hyni-B uddha A m it bha. Heavy golden earrings adorn his ears. Round his neck and arms we see golden necklaces and bracelets in la id w ith precious stones. His utta rya is green w ith golden em broidery. The paridhn a is red w ith golden design. The B odhi sattva has fo u r arms. In his hands, folded at the chest, he is h o ld in g the jew el, on w h ic h his eyes are concentrated. The tw o other hands arc h o ld in g the ro sary and the lotus flowers. The halo is green w ith a broad lilac-colored lin e on the outside. Above it is seen a red flow er w ith a fla m in g jew el em erging out of it. In fro n t of the throne is seen a basket standing on a lotus flow er w h ich contains the W heel of the Law, a m usical in stru m e n t, a conch, and some fr u it. Be sides it, on a lotus flow er, is seen a fig u re of a kn e e lin g clasped in adoration. 1. Y aidryap ra bhrja (Tib. sM an-gyi bla be-du-ryai o d -kyi rg yal-po), the chief of the E ig h t h e a ling ones (Tib. sMan-bla bde-gsegs-brgyad). The H ealing Buddha , also called B haisajyaguru, is represented seated in m ed itatio n, h o ld in g in his le ft hand, w h ic h is resting on his lap, the alms bow l, and w ith his r ig h t hand, w h ic h makes the sign of c h a rity, a flow er, The co deva w ith hands

lo r of the body is d a rk blue. His garm ent is red, covered w ith golden e m b ro id ery. B haisajyaguru is w id e ly venerated in C hina, M ongolia, and Japan. Scenes of his paradise have been discovered by Sir A urel Stein on the borders of Chinese T urkistan (in the oasis of T u n -h u a n g ). In T ibet his c u lt is extrem ely popular. He is often m et w ith on lam aistic images together w ith Gautama, the Buddha, and A m i tbha. Those w ho prayed to B haisajyaguru or o n ly heard his name w ill be reborn in Sukhvat, the W estern Paradise rule d by the D hyni-B uddha A m itbha. Thus in the Saddharm a-Pundarka there is a chapter, where the Exalted One tells to the Bodhisattva N aksatrarjasankusum itbhijna the story of the fo rm e r exertions of the Bodhisattva B haisajyarja, w ho was fo rm e rly know n under the name of Bodhisattva Sarvasattvapriyadarana. In this chapter is found the fo llo w in g passage (*) : The Exalted One said : A ny female, Naksatrarjasankusu-

(*) Saddli. Pundarka, p. 89 ; fo r a sim ilar passage sec iksasamuccaya, p. 171.

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

P late

12

Num ber 16.

Avalokitevara

AVALO KITEVARA m it b h ijn a , who in the last five hundreds years of the m ille n n iu m

57 shall hear after

and penetrate this chapter of the fo rm e r exertions of B haisajyarja w ill,

disappearing from earth, be (re)born in the w orld of Sukhvat, where the Lord \m ila y u s (another form of A m it bh a), the rounded by a host of Bodhisattvas.
5 . C akvam uni. The Buddha is seen on

Tathgata, dwells, exists, lives sur

the ve n

threshold of his s p iritu a l

conquest, sealed in deep m editation, and attesting w ith his rig h t hand his w ill lo attain the Supreme E n lig h tm e n t. In his left hand he holds the alms bow l. kyam uni is considered to be the head of the seven Buddha-assistants of B hai sajyaguru. 9. M i-k h ru g s -p a . lie is seen in m editation. The left hand, placed 011 the

lap, is h o ld in g a vajra ; Ihe rig h t one makes the sign of attestation. The color of the body is blue. The monastic 12. mTshan-legs on rgyal-po. The robe is red w ith golden design. body is yellow -ochre. The left hand is placed garm ent is red.

the lap, the rig h t one makes the sign of fearlessness. The sGra-dbvans rgyal-po. The body is vellow-ochre. The

left hand is placed

on the lap, the rig h t one makes the sign of c h a rily . 14. Chos-sgrags rgya-m lsho. The body is w hite. sign of in stru ctio n . The garm ent is red. 15 . Mya-nan-med inchog-dpal. The body is red. The hands make the sign of in stru ctio n . The garm ent is red. 16. M non-m khyen rgyal-po. The le fl hand makes the sign of m editation ; the rig h t one* make Ihe sign of ch a rity . The body is red. Te garm ent is yellow 17. gSer-bzan dri-m ed. The body is yellow . The hands make the sign of The hands make the

in stru ctio n . The garm ent is yellow. D hyni-Buddha Vairocana.

3 . D hyni-B uddha

Aksobhya.

4 . D hyni-B uddha Batnasambhava. 6. D hyni-B uddha A m itbha. 7. D hyni-Buddha A m oghasiddhi. Notice that all the five contem plative Buddhas wear the Bodhisattva attire w ith the diadem, the u tta ri ya, and the paridhna. The D hyni-Buddhas are not accompanied by th e ir aktis or female energies. 8. The d kin Na-ro m kha-spyod-m a. This d k in l is probably a fo rm of Vaj-

58

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

ravrhl. She is seen dancing on a prostrate hum an body, h o ld in g the knife g ri-g u g , the m agic sceptre and the cup. The color of her body is b rig h t red. 10. M anjughosa (Tib. Jam -dbyans). The Bodhisattva is seen seated crosslegged, h o ld in g , the sword and the lotus color of his body is yellow -ochre. 11. A fe a rfu l fo rm of V a jra p n i (T ib. Phyag-na rd o -rje ), seen b ra n d ish in g the th u n d e rb o lt. The color f the body is blue. M anjughosa and V a jrapn i are alm ost ahvays represented in the parivra of the Bodhisattva Avalokitevara. 18. Jam bhala. The god of riches. Ile is h o ld in g the conch, and. the m u n goose v o m itin g the jew el. 19. Vajrasattva (Tib. rD o -rje sems-pa). He is seen seated cross-legged, h o ld in g the th u n d e rb o lt and the bell. Hie body is w hite. This p a in tin g is the w o rk of an artist belong ing to the local school at Gyangtse w h ic h has m uch in com m on w ith the school of Shigatse. flow er w ith the book on it. The

P a in tin g Nr. 17 (18 1 / 2 x 1 2 3 / 4 ). This p a in tin g represents the same fo rm of the Bodhisattva as the previous one. The Bodhisattva is h o ld in g the rosary and the lotus flow er. In his hands, jo in e d at the chest, he is h o ld in g the jew el. Above the Bodhisattva are seen (fro m le ft alms b o w l, rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa, h o ld in g the flowers on w h ic h 'are placed the sword to rig h t) : A m itbha w ith the

bow l and the stalks of the lotus Tr,

and the book, and the green

h o ld in g in both hands the stalks of lotuses and m a kin g w ith the r ig h t hand the sign of ch a rity. Below the Bodhisattva are seen the Bodhisattva P a in tin g Nr. 18 (27 3 /4 x 21 1/ 4 ). M a n ju r, and V ajrapni.

This p a in tin g represents again the four-arm ed fo rm of the Bodhisattva. In his parivra we see the five D hyni-B uddhas under the fo rm of perfect Buddhas, and the five goddesses g u a rd in g the five organs of sense (S krt. Pacaraks). The p a in tin g is very damaged. P a in tin g Nr. 19 (Pl. X III) (27 3 / 4 x 1 7 1/2).

The p a in tin g represents the Simharida Lokevara (Tib. Spyan-ras-gzigs sen ge-sgra). The artist has fa ith fu lly reproduced the In d ia n prototype, whose i-

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

P la te

13

Num ber 19

Sim handa-Lokevara

AVALO KITEVARA vastic character was already m entioned by M r. James Burgess and P rof. G r n wedel (*). The Bodhisattva is seen seated on a lotus throne placed on the back of a lio n . The Bodhisattva is seated in the pose of a k in g (r ja ll ). The color of

the body is w hite. He wears the costume of an In d ia n ascetic. The rig h t hand makes the sign of attestation ; the le ft one is h o ld in g a lotus flo w er, on w h ich are placed the sword and the cup made of a hum an sku ll fu ll of flowers. On his r ig h t is seen a trid e n t w ith a serpent round it. A ccording to the sdhana published by P rof. Grnwedel (**), the cup fu ll of flowers emanates the five

Tathgatas, w h ich are usually seen on images above the figure of the B odhi sattva. On our p a in tin g , instead of the five Tathgatas, we see represented

Bhaisajyaguru and his seven assistants. In fro n t of the lio n on w h ich the B o dhi sattva is rid in g is seen a lotus flow er w ith a hum an being em erging out of it. A m ong the T a n tric form s of the Bodhisattva A valokitevara there also called Simhanda-Lokevara. exists one

The Bodhisattva in this fo rm is accompanied

by his akti. llis body is of a red color. His appearance is fierce, and lie is seen < ro a rin g like a lio n . He has fo u r hands h o ld in g the m agic sceptre, the ( cup and the g ri-g u g k n ife. P a in tin g Nr. 20 (Pl. X IV ) (26 i / 18 1/2). This p a in tin g represents the m andala or m ystic circle of Amoghapa, a

form of the Bodhisattva Avalokitevara. Amoghapa (Tib. Don-sags) is seen in the central circle of the mandala. He is represented standing, w ith eight hands h o ld in g the book, the trid e n t, the lotus, the am rta vessel, the rosary, and the lasso. One hand is m a kin g the sign of fearlessness, another the sign of ch a rity. Hound his waist he wears the tig e r skin. llis D hyni-Buddha A m ilbha, mandala is composed of the

kyam uni, B haisajyaguru, rGyal-ba Sen-gci na-ro,

seen h o ld in g the bow l and m a k in g the sign of c h a rily , and fo u r form s of Tr (yellow, red, green, and blue). Above and below the mandala figures of the green brgyad skyobs-ma). Tr d e live rin g fro m the eight dangers arc seen eight (Tib. Jigs-pa

(*) Cf. the sculpture in the Calcutta Museum, reproduced, in Il e Elude sur l Iconographic boud dhique of Prof. Foucher, fasc. 11, fig. 2.
(**) M y t h o l o g ie, p. 12-1/1.


P ainting Nr. 21.

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

This p a in tin g represents another fo rm of Am oghapa-Avalokitevara. The Bodhisattva is seen seated cross-legged on a lotus throne. His body is w hite. He has fo u r heads, each head w earing in the diadem a sm all figure of D hyni-

Buddha A m itbha. The Bodhisattva is represented w ith fo u r hands h o ld in g the trident* the lotus flow er and the lasso On his shoulders he wears a deer skin . Round h im are seen eight figures of the green Tr.

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

P late

14

Num ber 20.

Mandala of Amoghapa

M A N J U R OR M A N JU G H O S A
(Tib. Mam-dpal or Jam-dbyans)

To end our b rie f sketch of Bodhisattvas honoured by the B uddhist of the Mahyna, lei us b rie fly describe the Bodhisattva M a n ju r or M anjughosa. I n t his collection I,here is no p a in tin g representing the Bodhisattva, b u t he on paintings is

re g u la rly seen in Ihe parivra of A valokitevara and tin g rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa, whose s p iritu a l

represen M a n ju r,

preceptor he had been.

also called Ygvara, the prince of speech , is the patron of transcendental knowledge, learned in innum erable dhranls and m agic form ulae. His chief sanctuary is located in C hina, in the Shan-si province, on the m o u n tain w ith the live peaks (C hin. W u -tai-shan ; T ib. Ri-bo rtse-lna ; Skrt. Pan carsaparvala). From there he is said to have visited on several occasions the region of Nepal, and is regarded as its v irtu a l creator. The c u lt of M a n ju r of W u -tai-shan is know n in T ibet, and the Chinese p ilg rim I-tsin g , w ho v is i ted India in the Y llth century A. D ., records the fact that sanctuary was cially popular know n in the the W u -tai-shan

In d ia of his tim e (*). The c u lt of M a n ju r is espe great Tibetan Reform er

in the eastern parts of T ibet and the

rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa, him se lf a native the Bodhisattva, whose dom ain

of Am do, was sp iritu a lly guided by

is transcendental knowledge.

Numerous are the legends re la tin g the story of famous doctors being in s tructed by the Bodhisattva. In one of such legends it is said th a t a pa n d it fro m Benares, called D harm ar M itra , who dwelled in the monastery of V ikram ala, possessed of deep knowledge, was unable to explain the m ysterious m eaning of a certain sacred fo rm u la . The learned pandit decided to vis it the Bodhisattva M a n ju r who possessed the required explanation. The jo u rn e y had to be a

very long one a year of tra v e llin g

to the N orth of the Him alayas. The pan

d it chose the way leading th ro u g h Nepal. On his way he saw a peasant who

62

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

was p lo u g h in g his held w ith a p lo u g h to w h ic h were yoked a lio n and a tiger. The learned man questioned the strange peasant about the route to China, and the plo ug h m a n replied : I t is too late to-day to continue yo u r jo u rn e y ; spend the n ig h t at m y home. D h a rm a r follow ed his advice and went w ith h im . Suddenly the p lo u g h disappeared and, as by m iracle, a spacious monas tery emerged fro m the g round. D u rin g the n ig h t spent in the m onastery D h a r m ar understood th a t the Bodhisattva h im se lf was his host, and in the

m o rn in g asked fo r the explanation of the m ysterious given to h im (*).

fo rm u la ,

w h ic h was

This legend s trik in g ly resembles in its character the numerous stories belon g in g to the cycle of Saint Nicolas so p o p u la r in Russia. The fo llo w in g form s are fre q u e n tly m et on Tibetan p a inting s : M anjughosa. The Bodhisattva sits cross-legged on a lotus throne. He wears the usual Bodhisattva attire. His body is yellow -ochre. W ith his r ig h t hand he is b ra n d is h in g the fla m in g sword, and w ith his le ft hand he is h o ld in g the blue lotus on w h ic h is placed the book, sym bol of his deep knowledge. Notice that the rG yal-ba Tson-kha-pa, his s p iritu a l p u p il, is ahvays repiesented 011

images w ith the saine tw o attributes usually placed on two lotus flowers behind h im . The Bodhisattva kn o w n under the name of Jam -dbyans dkar-po is seen

seated cross-legged on a lotus throne. The r ig h t hand makes the sign of ch a rity, the le ft one the sign of argum enta tion. B ehind h im are seen the tw o blue lo tuses su p p o rtin g the sword and the book. A nother fo rm of the Bodhisattva (Tib. Jam -dbyans dmar-ser) has the redye llo w color of the body. The lotus flowers are absent. The Bodhisattva is

b ra n d ish in g the sword w ith his r ig h t arm , and is h o ld in g the book in his left hand, w h ic h is placed in fro n t of the chest. As S im handa-M anjur (Tib. Jam -dpal sgra (smra)-sen), he is seen seated on a lotus throne placed on the back of a lio n . He wears the Bodhisattva attire. The le ft foot is lowered. The Bodhisattva is b ra n d ish in g the sword and h o ld in g the lotus flow er w ith the book. On some images he is seen m a k in g the sign of in s tru c tio n . In this fo rm his akti, Sarasvat, is often associated w ith h im .

(*) Prof. S. Lvi, Le Nepal, I, p. 334-

AV ALO KITE VAR A

63

W hen represented as M aijur-Jnnasattva (Tib. Jam -dpal ye-es sems-pa), the Bodhisattva is seen seated cross-legged, attired in the usual Bodhisaitva

fashion. He has fo u r hands h o ld in g the sword, the arrow , the lotus w ith the book, and the bow. Beside these form s a T a n tric fo rm know n under the name of D harm adhtu w ith three heads and e ight arms is Vgvara (Tib. Chos-dbyins gsuns-

dban). His attributes are the sword, the arrow , the th u n d e rb o lt, the book, the the bow and the bell. W e have already seen th a t the Y i-dam Yamntaka is a T a n tric fo rm of

the Bodhisattva. One of his epithets is K u m ra, royal prince, and it is very probable th a t the p rim itiv e fo rm of the Bodhisattva was a royal prince h o ld in the lotus ilo w e r (*). U nder this fo rm his colour is green. Many outstanding pei sons in the h isto ry of T ibet were considered to be incarnations of the B odhi sattva, am ong them T h o n -m i Sambhota, the in ve n to r of the Tibetan alphabet,

and k in g K h ri-s ro n lde-btsan, the roya l patron o f Padmasambhava.

(*) Prof. G runwedel, M ythologie, p. 142.

F E M A L E D E ITIES

TARA

Tr, the M e rc ifu l One, is b orn fro m a tear of the Bodhisattva A valokite vara, the M e rcifu l Lord. She symbolizes compassion and guides the travellers across the in fin ite ocean of tra n sm ig ra tio n s. She is Tr, the b r illia n t one, the star that guides the navigator on his voyage. Together w ith Avalokitevara she is the protector of m a n kin d , and when invoked saves people fro m m ultitudes

of dangers. She is the Princess B h a tt rik, and as such wears the p rin ce ly attire of a Bodhisattva. Her fa vo u rite residence is M ount Potala, fro m whose heights she looks over the su fferin g of th is w o rld . Tr is the p rin c ip a l fe m in in e deity of Buddhism of later days. W ith the spreading of ivastic influences am ong Buddhists, num erous other goddesses of the H indu pantheon were adm itted in to the religious system of the Mahyna ; and, w ith the advent of a stro ng c u rre n t of religious syncretism , they were p ro cla i med to be d iffe re n t aspects of Tr, the Saviouress. Under the influence of pious adoration, her character gra d u a lly transform ed itself and she assumed the aspect of a Goddess-Mother, the M other af all the jin a s (Tib. rG yal-yum ), as she is addressed in prayers and songs composed in her honour. The B uddhist iconography of Tibet knows t w e n t y - o n e form s of Tr. Tr adopts the five sacred colors and her ardent devotee, the K a inirian poet S arvajnam itra, tells us that the m e rcifu l goddess can be seen red as the sun, blue as the sapphire, w h ite as the foam of the ocean, or b rillia n t as the

s p a rklin g of gold. And the same poet sings in the ecstasy of his devotion : T h y universal fo rm is s im ila r to the crystal w h ich becomes transform ed in its aspects when thing s round it are changed (*). To each D hyni-B uddha corresponds an aspect of Tr \ iHi her ritu a l co lor :

(*) De Blonay, Matriaux pour servir l histoire de la desse bouddhique Tr, p. 3 and /16, ) slanza 33.

66

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
D hyani-B uddhas. Trs. Locana. Mam ak. Vaj ra d ha tvivari. Pandara. Tr. Color.

1. Aksobhya. 2. Ratnasambhava.
3 . Vairocana.

blue.
yellow , gold. w hite. rose. green. popular ones. O ur collection

k . A m itbha.
5 . A m oghasiddhi.

The green aspect of Tr is one of the most

(p a in tin g Nr. 22) (21 1 / 2 x 1 6 3 /) possesses a s lig h tly damaged image of the green Tr, surrounded by the D hyni-B uddha A m itbha and the god of riches, Jam bhala. She is ahvays seen seated on a lotus throne em erging fro m the waves of the ocean. Her r ig h t hand is m a k in g the sign of ch a rity, the le ft one is h o ld in g the flow er of the blue lotus, fo r she is called in stotras nllotpalakar devl . She sits in the royal fashion, the r ig h t leg h a n g in g dow n fro m the

throne. This fo rm of Tr is re g u la rly met on p a inting s representing the p a ri vra of the Bodhisattva Avalokitevara. On the p a in tin g representing the m andala o f Amoghapa-Lokevara, w h ich was described above, we rem em ber h a v in g seen this aspect of Tr, as saviouress fro m the e ig h t perils of th is w o rld . P a in tin g Nr. 2 ( i 5 1 / 2 x 1 0 ) represents the w h ite aspect of Tr. The

goddess is s ittin g on a lotus throne, m a kin g the sign of c h a rity w ith her rig h t hand. She is h o ld in g a flow er. Tr is greatly venerated in Tibet. The tw o queens of the famous Sron-

btsan sgam-po were considered, as we have already said in our in tro d u c tio n , as incarnations of Tr. The Nepal princess is Tr under green aspect, and Ihe Chinese im p e ria l princess is Tr under her w h ite fo rm .

SIT TA P A TR P A R A JIT : The goddess Sittapatrparajit (T ib. bC om -ldan gD ugs-dkar) must be con sidered as an aspect of Tr corresponding to the m anifestation of the B o d h i sattva Avalokitevara, called the W h ite u m b re lla Lord . This collection possesses a rem arkable p a in tin g (Nr. 24) (29 x 19 1/2) of the goddess surrounded by d iffe re nt m anifestations of Tr. The goddess is repre sented w ith thousand heads and thousand hands. This p a rtic u la r fo rm of the

goddess is k n o w n under the name of UsnTsa-Sittapatrparajit (Tib. gTsug-tor gD ugs-dkar), and the prayer translated below is addressed to this fo rm of the

FEM ALE DEITIES goddess. Her color is w h ite, and lie r m any heads are successively red, yellow , w h ile , green, and red. Images of in n u m erab le eyes cover her body, as symbols of her omnipresence. In her tw o hands jo in e d at the chest she is h o ld in g the W heel of the Law, the w h ite u m b re lla and an arrow . She wears heavy golden ornam ents, lie r s k irt is of a red color w ith ' golden em broidery, the shawl

th ro w n on her shoulders is green w ith golden design. In the crow n of her dia dem she wears the image of the thousand Tathgatas, fo r she is styled in

songs and prayers the M other of all the jin a s (Tib. rG ya l-yu m ), a title often given to Tr. She is standing on a k in d of m at, stam ping two crowds of damned ones, drive n away by fantastic anim als. The prayer translated here is said to have been composed by rGyal-ba Tsonkha-pa, who is reputed as h a v in g composed num erous prayers and honou r of the differen t deities. To the seven m illio n s of Jinas, to the assembly of arhats, to all the rsis learned in m antras, to Brahm a and In d ia , to Mahdeva and Nryana, to LegsIdan nag-po g d u n-bd un , to the ten Sugalas, and to all the w o rs h ip fu l ones, I bow in salutation. F rom the crow n of the head of the Sugata emerged the w ord of incan tatio n by w h ic h we sing praise to the h o ly gD ugs-dkar, com m anding a large retinue. Her, w ho is w e ll-b o rn fro m the most excellent usnlsa of the Lord of kyas, d w e llin g in the h o ly w o rld o f gods, w ho is in v in c ib le by the knowledge of de mons, w ho expels all the enemies, we call the Usnlsa-Sittapalr, the uncon querable by others. I salute you, the Exalted One, the o n ly m other of all the Jinas of the past, present, and fu tu re , you w ho e n tire ly penetrate the three worlds w ith g lo ry . I salute you, the Saviouress fro m the e vil influence of demons and planets, fro m u n tim e ly death and evil dreams, fro m the dangers of poison, arms, fire and water. The m andala of y o u r being is extrem ely large. You have a thousand heads fu ll of inn um erab le though ts, thousand hands h o ld in g fla m in g attributes. The queen of all the mandatas of the three w orlds, assisted by tw enty-tw o your psalms in

te rrib le m udrs, the ever-present in the w o rk of ta m in g the evil ones, I salute you, goddess of charm s, tu r n in g the demons in to dust. I take m y refuge in you fro m fear of u n tim e ly death, of disease, fro m fear of men and demons. I im p lo re you to protect me eternally fro m all fears.

68

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
I im p lo re you, on ly by rem em bering your feet, to free me fro m devas,

ngas, asuras, demons, and evil ones w ho steal brightness, snatch a c h ild fro m I ho w om b, and partake of flesh and blood. T h ro u g h whatever door the thieves may come in and deprive us of our w ell-being, destroy them , and strike them w ith the fla m in g dagger.

In short, h a vin g taken m y refuge in you, the Exalted One, assisted by d iffe rent m udrs, h a vin g pronounced m y prayer, and d w e llin g reconciled, m ay all my wishes be fu lfille d . You, the goddess gD ugs-dkar, b o m fro m the crow n of the head of the Sugata, who crushes in to dust the assemblage of demons and e vil spirits, may

you, the Exalted One possessed of w o n d e rfu l brightness, expand the D octrine. May we receive the blessing of Ihe bDe-m chog gDugs-dkar, w ho is born fro m the usnlsa of the M e rc ifu l Sugata, who destroys those who h in d e r the blissful Law, the g iver of the fru its of happiness. Let us now consider the deities fo rm in g the parivra of the goddess : 1. kyam uni. The Exalted One is h o ld in g the alms bowl on his lap and makes the sign of attestation. 2 & 3 . The Bodhisattva Avalokitevara in his four-arm ed aspect. The B odhi is colored in yellow ; he is h o ld in g the rosary and the book.

sattva's (2) body

Two hands are jo in e d at the chest m a k in g the sign of in s tru c tio n . The B odhi sattva (3 ) is w h ite and is h o ld in g the rosary, the lotus flow er, and the jew el.
4 , 5 , 6, 7 & 8 represent the five goddesses p ro te ctin g the five senses, called

in Sanskrit Mahraks or Pancaraks (T ib. gC an-rim -pa lna). These five goddes ses are rarely met on lam aistic images. T h e ir c u lt is very popular in where th e ir dhranls are w idely read. (*) It is d iffic u lt to d is tin g u is h the goddesses, fo r they often change th e ir color and m u ltip ly th e ir hands and attributes, a fact already noticed by P rof. Fou cher in his Etude sur l Iconographie Bouddhique, part II, p. roo. T h e ir usual order is as follow s : Mahpratisar, protects against sin, illness, and other dangers. M ahsahasrapram rdinl, protects against evil spirits. M ahm yrl, protects against the poison of venomous snakes. Nepal,

(*) Prof. S. Lvi, Le Nepal, vol. I I. p.

2 q5 .

FEM ALE DEITIES

69

M ahtavat, protects against, the evil influences of planets, w ild anim als and poisonous insects. M ah(raks)m antrnusrinl, protects against illness (*).

It is d iffic u lt to say w h at is the order on our p a in tin g , b u t it seems that the M ahsahasrapram rdinl is regarded as the firs t goddess of the series. 4. M ahsahasrapram rdinl (T ib. sTon-chen-po rab-tu jom s-m a; sTon-chen-

mo). O ur image accurately corresponds to the short description of the goddess given by R jendrlal M itra in his S anskrit B uddhist Literature of Nepal (**) : A fierce goddess w ith exposed teeth, blue of colour, seated on tw o crouching men of yellow color. The heads are sucessively w h ite , blue, red, and yellow . The goddess wears the crow n of h u m a n skulls and has a tig e r skin round her waist. The h a ir is dishevelled. She has eight arms. One pair is joined at the other hands are

chest, h o ld in g the quadruple th u n d e rb o lt and the lasso. The

h o ld in g the fla m in g sword, the bow and arrow , the trid e n t, the lotus flow er and the axe. In the sdhana published by Professor Foucher (***), the color of the goddess is said to be w h ite , w ith o n ly one head and six arms. On the same page P rof. Foucher m entions a blue fo rm of the goddess.
5 . M ah(raks)m antrnusrinl

(Tib. gSan-snags chen-po rjes-su dsin-m o ;

gSan-snags chne-m o). The color of the goddess is green. The heads are successi vely w h ite , green, and red. She wears the diadem and is seated cross-legged on a lotus lasso, throne. In the banner, her the six hands sheis h o ld in g the bow and arrow , the firs t pair

th u n d e rb o lt

and the bell. Notice that the

of hands, h o ld in g the v a jra and the b e ll, is in the attitude of Vajrasattva. Pro fessor Foucher m entions a red fo rm of the goddess (****). 6. M ahpratisar (T ib. So-sor bran-m a) (*****). The goddess has fo u r heads and e ig h t arms. She is seated on a lotus throne. Her color is pure w hite, and her heads are successively ye llo w , w h ite , red, and green (******). The goddess wears the diadem . In her hands she is h o ld in g the fla m in g sword, the bow and

(*) W in te rn itz, Geschichte der Indischen L ittc ra tu r vol. I I, p. 271.

(**) P.

167.

(***) Etude, fase. II, p. 100. (****) Ib id ., p. 100. (*****) In his M ythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei, p. i 48, Prof. Grnwedcl gives the Tibetan name as corresponding to the Skrt. ryajngulltra, w hich designates an assistant of the green Tara. (******) Rj. M itra, ib id ., p. 169.

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

arrow, the thunde rb olt, the axe, the trident ; the two hands joined at the chest are h o ld in g the wheel and the lasso. 7. Mahtavat (Tib. bSil-bai tshal chen-mo). The goddess has three heads and eight arms. The color of the body is yellow. The heads are successively white, yellow and red. She is h o ld in g the fo llo w in g attributes sword, the lotus flower, the banner, the quadruple thunde rb olt : the fla m in g and the pea

cocks feather. One hand is m a k in g the sign of charity, another is h o ld in g an alms bowl, inside of w hich is the head of a Buddha. Another hand is h o ld in g an earring. Professor Foucher (*****) has edited a Mahtavatl-sdhana in w hich the goddess is described as being red in color, w ith fo u r head. 8. Mahmyr (Tib. rMa-bya chen-mo). The goddess is seated cross-legged on a lotus throne. Her color is red. Her fo u r heads are successively white, red, green and blue. She has twelve hands w h ic h are h o ld in g the thunderbolt, the arms, and only one

arrow, the crescent, the peacocks feather, the book, the lotus and the lasso. Two hands arc folded on the lap, h o ld in g a bow l containin g the head of a Buddha. Another pair is joined, m a k in g the sign of instruction. Prof Foucher (*) m en tions a yellow and green fo rm of the goddess '(**). 9. Parnaavar (Tib. Lo-ma gyon-ma). The goddess is seen kneeling on a lotus throne. Her color is yellow. Her three heads are successively white, yel low and red. In sdhanas she is described as h a v in g a s m ilin g face. I n her six hands she is h o ld in g the axe, the bow and arrow, the thunderbolt, the

flower, the lasso. Notice the unusual garm ent of leaves round her waist. ro. Mrc (Tib. Od-zer can-ma). The goddess is represented under the fo rm of YajravrhT. Her name seems to be derived fr o m the Skrt. m arci, ray of l ig h t , and the goddess herself m ust be a personification of dawn (***). In T i betan monasteries she is invoked at sunrise. The goddess is the akti of Hayagrlva, and is often represented in the pari vra and mandala of Amoghapa-Lokevara. On our pain tin g she is represented standing 011 a lotus throne draw n by a n um ber of w ild boars. Her color is

(*****) A. Foucher, ib id . , p. 99. (*) F ouchcr, ib id . , p. 100. (**) On the c u lt o f the goddess i n Chin a and Japan, see the arl ic le o f YV. De Visser, Die Pfauen k n ig in , Festschrift f r F rie d r ic h H i r t h , B e r lin , 1920, pp. 70-87. (***) A. Foucher, ib id . , fasc. I, p. 16.

FEMALE DEITIES

71

yellow. She has three faces ; one is red, the other is yellow, the th ir d is that of a boar. She has eight arms and is seen shooting the bow. Besides the bow and arrow, she is h o ld in g the lasso, the ankua, the thunde rb olt and what

seems to be a dagger. A sim ilar representation of the goddess is found 011 a stone stele fro m Magadha, now in the Calcutta Museum (*). There exists also a benign fo r m of the goddess. In this fo rm her r ig h t hand makes the sign of charity, and the left one is h o ld in g the lotus 11. K u ru k u lle or K u ru k u ll (Tib. K u-ru-ku-le goddess of riches and an or

er. She is a

Uig-byed-ma).

assistant of Kuvera (**). She is th o u g h t to be the

akti of Kmadeva, the god of love, and possibly represents a Buddhist coun terpart of the H in d u goddess Rati. On our image she is seen dancing on the body of the demon Rhu. Her body is red. She wears the crow n of h u m a n skulls, her hair being dishevelled. Round her waist she has a tiger skin, and a garland of severed hum an heads is hang in g on her shoulders. She has fo u r arms. She is seen shooting the bow and h o ld in g the hook and the flower. 12, 14, and 16. Represent three form s of Yama called in Tib. Legs-ldan

mched-gsum, or the Three noble brothers . The god is dancing on pros trate h u m an bodies. His body is blue. He wears the tiger sk in round his waist and the garland of hum an heads on his shoulders. He is brandishin g the g ri-g u g knife and h o ld in g the club and the cup. On his head he wears the crown of

hum an skulls.
13 . Represents a Tantric fo r m of Kuvera, the god of

riches. The

god is

seen standing on hu m a n bodies, The color of his body is red and

his three

heads are successively white, red and yellow. He has six hands, h o ld in g the hook, the axe and the lasso. One hand is m a k in g the sign of charity, two others are h o ld in g two mungoose v o m itin g the jewel. iS. Vasudhr (Thib. Lha-mo N or-rgyun-m a). She is the goddess of abun dance and the akti of Jambhala-Kuvera. On our p a in tin g she is represented as having six hands w hich hold the fr u it, the jewel, the book, the vase and an car of corn. Her color is yellow. She is seated in the royal fashion, one hand ma k in g the sign fo fearlessness (***).
(*) A. Foucher, ib id ., fasc. I, fig. 97. (**) Prof. Griim vedcl, M y lh olog io , p. (***) A. Foucher, Flude, p. 8/|.

i: V j.

72

TIBE TA N PAINTINGS To end this chapter on fem inine deities of the Buddhist Pantheon repre

sented in the collection, we shall m ention the goddess Usnsavijay (Tib. gTsugtor rnam -par rgyal-m a). An image of the goddess can be seen on p a in tin g

Nr. 3 of this collection. The cult of this goddess is extremely popular. Usually she is seen seated cross-legged on a lotus throne. Her color is white, her three heads are successively yellow, w hite and blue. In her eight hands she is h o ld in g an image of the D hyni-Buddha Am itbha (a fact clearly indic a tin g her connec tion w ith the cycle of deities emanated fro m this D hyni-Buddha ; the B odhi sattva Avalokitevara is oflen represented w ith the goddess), the bow and arrow, the quadruple thunderbolt, the lasso and a vase. One hand is m a k in g the sign of charity, another that of fearlessness. The class of Dkinls is represented in this collection by the d k in l Na-ro

mkha-spyod-ma, the patroness of the famous monastery of Sa-ekya. On p a in tin g Nr. 25 (26 i / 18), she is represented standing on tiate hum an bodies. Her color is b rig h t res. She wears the crow n two prosof hum an

skulls and the garland. She is h o ld in g the g ri-g u g knife, the

magic sceptre

and the cup made of a hum an skull. She is seen surrounded by Avalokitevara, Vajrapni w ith his akti, the green Tr, Mahkla in the fo rm of a Brahman (Tib. mGon-po bram-zei gzugs-can), the Lord of the Tent (Tib. G ur-gyi mgonpo), and manapati (Tib. D u r-k h ro d bdag-po) ; these two spirits always

appear in the fo r m of two skeletons and belong to the fo llo w in g of Yama. They are usually represented in the religious dances performed by lamas.

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

P late

15

Num ber 26.

Padmasambhava

PADMASAMBHAVA

In our in troduction we briefly stated the legendary bhava, his Snow mission to Tibet and his missionary

o rig in of Padmasam in the Land of

w ork

In I his chapter

we shall occupy ourselves w ith an iconographical des

cription of the four paintings of this collection represen lin g the teacher h i m self and his paradise. The type of the teacher fr o m Oddiyna is fir m ly establi shed in Tibetan iconography. He always appears on lamaistic images wearing his peculiar garment, w h ich he him self called Za-hor-ma. In the gSol-debs l i u

bdun-ma (p. 5 of the Tibetan text), a rN in -m a prayer book in seven chapters, we find the fo llo w in g short description of the appearance of the founder of the Red-cap sect in Tibet, w h ich has a certain iconographical value and fa ith fu lly corresponds to the images of the teacher found on our paintings : He (Padmasambhava) appears in heaven on a background of five colors

lie is s itting on a lion throne whose surface is

sim ila r to two moon-like lotuses.

He has accumulated in him self the three bodies of a Jina, and because of his origin he is called the Lotus-born teacher (Padmasambhava). plexion is fair, and he manifests him self in a benign and His com He

fierce fo rm .

wears the mitre-shaped hat (Tib. pad-sva) and a religious robe, made of silk and red-brown woolen cloth W i t h his r ig h t hand he holds the five-pointed

thunderbolt. In his left he has the amrta vessel. W ith his left elbow he is sup porting the magical sceptre. He is s ittin g cross-legged, perfectly still. From

the mandala of his body, speech, and th ough t, emanates the fiery way of the brillia n t assembly of all the wise protectors of the triple Law. His manifesta tion should be represented as such. Such is the orthodox image of the teacher prescribed for use in meditations and conjurations performed by the Tantric schools of Tibet. Painting Nr. 26 (Pl. XV), (22 1/2 x 16). On this painting, we see the Teacher in the m iddle, seated cross-legged on a lotus throne. His under-garment is green w ith golden design ; the outer one is red and golden. He also wears a heavy red-brown mantle.
1. 1

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
The image corresponds to the description given in the prayer translated

above. Notice, however, that the amrta vessel is placed on the cup made of a h u man skull. Round the central figure, are seen : i. A T antric form of the Dhyni-Buddha Aksobhya w ith bis akti (Tib.

Mi-bskyod-pa yab-yum ). We have already mentioned (p. ) that in this form the Dhyni-Buddhas wear the diadem and the Bodhisattva attire. . The Mahsiddha Lui-pa. The Mahsiddha is seen seated cross-legged on a kind of mat, h o ld in g a fish. The costume of a mahsiddha (Tib. Grub-chen) con sists of a kind of paridhna w orn round the waist, and of the usual medita tion rope )) (Tib. sGom-thag), a k in d of bandage w orn across the body, w h ic h keeps the legs tied to the body. A shawl is th ro w n on the shoulders. The hair is tied 011 the crown of the head (Skrt. jat ; Tib. lcan-lo).
3 . The Mahsiddha To-lo-pa. The saint is h o ld in g the cup made of a hum an

skull. 4. rJe-btsn Mar-pa, the teacher of Mi-la-ras-pa. The saint is h o ld in g cup made of a h u m a n skull.
5 . rJe-btsn Mi-la-ras-pa. The famous ascetic-poet of Tibet, who converted

the

people by singing songs of his own composition, and w hich are incorporated in a collection called Mi-la-ras-pai m g u r - bum . The songs of this saint often are of great beauty and fu ll of deep religious feeling. The life of this extraordi nary man is related in a rN am -thar or story-book, composed by the pious ar dour of his pupils. Mi-la-ras-pa can be recognized on images by his peculiar pose. He is always seen listening lo something, his r ig h t hand r'aised to his ear. In his left hand he is h o ld in g the cup made of a h u m a n skull. . The Mahsiddha Saraha, also called Rhulabhadra. He is reputed to have been the teacher of the great N grjuna at Nlanda. (Skrt. ara). He appeared to rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa His when attribute is an arrow

the great Reformer

was m editating in the mountains of Arndo. Tson-kha-pa is sometimes said to be an incarnation of Sa'raha. 7. A personage attired in the dress of a lama and holding the stalks of two flowers, which support a sword and a book. Name u n know n . 8 . B igs-dsin ja-intshoii snin-po. The saint ish o ld in g the magic dagger,

and is brandishing the thunde rb olt w ith his rig h t hand.

PADMASAMBHAVA
9. Probably kLon-chen rab-byams pa. The saint is h o ld in g the stalks two lotus llowers w ith the sword and the book. 10. gTei-ston jigs-med glin-pa. The saint is seated in meditation h o ld in g the amrta vessel. 11. A form of E k a ja ll (Tib. Ral-gcig-ma) w ith one eye. The goddess is seen standing on the prostrate body of a woman. She wears the garland and crown of skulls. In her r ig h t hand she is brandishin g a hum an left hand that of an anim al. 12. Dam-can mgar-ba nag-po. This deity is a fo rm of Dam-can rdo-rje-legs, and belongs to the old religion of Tibet. According to the Padma-than-vig, the teacher Padmasambhava subdued the god and made h im serve the cause of the new religion. The god is seen r id in g a goat. The body of the god is blue. His under-garment is red. He is brandishin g a club crowned w ith a quadruple t h u n derbolt.
13 . The demon Rhu (Tib. K hyab-j u g or gZa-mchog Ilahula). Cf. p. 46.

of

the

body, in her

T his p a in tin g is the w o rk of a Lha-sa artist. Notice the slight coloring of the background and the peculiai way of p a in tin g the clouds w hich is a charac teristic of the local school at Lhasa.

Painting Nr.

(28 /4 2 1 2). /

This p a in tin g is extremely curious in its style and composition. I t repre sents the miracles of Padmasambhava. Padmasambhava him self is represented in the m iddle of the painting, seated cross-legged on a lotus throne and b randishin g the thunde rb olt w ith his rig h t hand. W it h his left hand he is h o ld in g the magic sceptre and the cup represen tin g the great magical performances of the Tantric teacher. On the top of the p a in tin g we see Padmasambhava in his mystical fo rm , tion, his hands folded 011 his lap. In the corner, he is seen Hying th rough the air above mountains and seated in dee]) m e d ita

clouds. A little lower the Teacher is seen c o n ju r in g a serpent. Notice the cos tume of the magician, bearing the signs and symbols of great magical cere monies. Still lower, the Teacher is seen ta lk in g to a m ountain spirit. On the lower corners of the painting, we see Padmasambhava emerging from a subterra

nean cave, and stopping the w ind w ith his outstretched hand.

76

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
He is also seen subduing a tiger, c o n ju r in g demons, m editating, assisted by

dkins, and m a k in g libations fro m his cup. The p a in tin g is dark in colors, and unfortunately damaged. P ainting Nr. 28 (Pl. XVI) (22 1 / 2 x 1 6 ) . This p a in tin g represents the paradise of Padmasambhava (Tib. Zans-mdog dpal-ri). I11 the m iddle of the p a in tin g we see a four-storied b u ild in g of a dis tin c tly Chinese style. A h ig h wall encircles it. The whole structure is situated on a rocky island. In the gSol-debs l i u-bdun-m a (pp. 15 V .-16 v.) we find the fo llo w in g des cription of the paradise, w h ic h w ell corresponds to our p a in tin g : The holy m ountain of Zans-mdog (copper-color) has the shape of the

heart. Its base is set in the realm of the k in g of ngas, its m iddle part shines in the domain of the dkins, and its s u m m it reaches the world of Brahrn; (Brahmaloka). The eastern side of the g la rin g s u m m it of the holy m ountain has the color of crystal (white), the southern side is blue (vaidrya), the western side is red, and the northern is green. The palace is clearly seen fro m the outside and the inside. It has fo u r sides and eight corners. Its top and lower part are adorned w ith precious stones. There is a courtyard and fo u r kinds of enclosures of diffe rent colors corresponding to the fo u r kinds of deeds (*) The walls are made of brick. The balconies are ornamented w ith five kinds of jewels. The arch

ways of the fo u r gates are b eautifu lly ornamented w ith different kinds of pre cious stones and all the religious symbols. There are wishing-trees, and fo u n tains of amrta. and inside. The atmosphere is filled w ith the lig h t of lotus flowers. One obtains great bliss by the mere remembrance of this place. Inside the palace there is a throne w ith eight corners, adorned w ith pre cious jewels. On the stalk of the blossoming and undefiled lotus sits Padma to his Rainbows of live colors gather like clouds fro m the outside

sambhava, who has accumulated in him s e lf all the Sugatas. According

decision, he shows him self benign or charitable, powerful or fierce. Although his body and color, his attributes and ornaments are only visional, his b rig h t-

(*) In Tibetan Buddhism t o each deed corresponds a color.

Ex. t he exercise o f p o wer = red.

R R IC H , T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

Plate

16

Num ber 28.

Zans-mdog dpal-ri

PADMASAMBHAVA

77

ness is greater than the lig h t emanated fro m a thousand suns. His brightness is h igher than the m ountain itself. The world is fu lly penetrated by this in carnation of the heart (Padmasambhava). The veins of his eyes look round like the sun and moon. The actions of the M erciful One are swifter than the lig h t n in g of the sky. His thoughts are deep as the depth of heavens. Because of his compassion for the liv in g beings, he labours fo r the sake of the world. He has a s m ilin g face of beautiful appearance. The sound of his voice is sim ila r to the roar of a

thousand thunders. The place is filled w ith the sound : r i, ri, ri, due to the reciting of the deep mantras. On the four sides and on the eight corners of the Great Incarnation (Padmasambhava) the live kinds of Sugatas, subduing the fierce demons and pe rfo rm in g the four kinds of deeds, are seated on thrones, w h ic h are erected on crouching demons. On thrones of lotus flowers, w it h fo u r petals and four sides, are seated demons and dkins adorned w ith all the necromantic a ttri butes, who pass th e ir time in enjoym ent, The four-sided court-yard of the palace adorned w ith beautiful ornaments. encirclin g walls are f u l l of

and the

dkins. Gods and goddesses are gathered in multitudes, like clouds. They per form different kinds of Tantric offerings from the outside and the inside. On the balconies of the precious palace the sacrificing deities are gathered like

clouds. The w orld is filled w ith the offering of the six kinds of earthly good and pleasures. They honour the Sugata w ith offerings to the Bodhisattva Sa mantabhadra. At the fo u r gates of the palace are seen the fo u r king-guardians, who are assisted by the eight classes of deities, slaves, and are crushing the demons and the heretics into dust. H m ! The teacher Padmasambhava is seated on a lotus throne inside the court yard. He his hold in g the thunderbolt, the cup made of a h um an skull, and described. four messengers, and

the magic sceptre. His attire is sim ila r to his other images, already Above h im is seen the figure of

the Bodhisattva Avalokitevara w ith

arms, and that of the Dhyn-Buddha Am itbha, whose spiritual son is Padma sambhava. On both sides of the throne of Padmasambhava are seen his two

great women disciples, the Princess Mandrava (r) and m K ha-gro yc-es mtshorgyal, presenting the teacher w ith cups made of hum an skulls. Round the

throne of Padmasambhva are seen the eight gurus, previous incarnations of the teacher from Oddiyna.

78

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
3 . Guru mTsho-skyes rdo-rje. The guru is represented w ith his akti. His

body is blue, the akti is white. He wears the attire of a Bodhisattva. In his r ig h t hand he has the thunderbolt, in his left hand he is h o ld in g the bell. The akti is h o ld in g the cup made of a h u m a n skull. 4. Padma rgyal-po. The guru is s ittin g cross-legged on a k in d of h o ld in g in his left hand a basket w ith fr u it.
5 . kyasimha. Padmasambhava is said Lo be an incarnation of the Buddha.

mat,

The Exalted One is seen sitting in meditation.

llis r ig h t hand is m aking the

sign of attestation, his left one is h o ld in g the alms-bowl. 6. Sen-ge sgra-sgrogs. This g u ru has the appearance of a yi-dam . He is

brandishing the thunderbolt. His body is blue and he is Seen wearing the tiger skin and the garland of severed hum an heads. He is standing on a prostrate hu m a n body. 7. rD o-rje gro-lod. The g uru is r id in g a tiger, brandishing the bolt and a fla m in g magic dagger. 8. Ni-ma od-zer. The guru is h o ld in g crown of skulls. 9. bLo-ldan phyogs-sred. The gu ru wheel and the d ru m . 10. Padmasambhava. The teacher is h o ld in g the thunderbolt, the cup and the m agic sceptre. In front of the fo u r gates of the outside wall are seen the fo u r king-guardians. Outside the w all we see ; 11. Yi-dam Guru drag-dmar. The deity is seen dancing on two crouching hum an bodies, b randishin g the thu n d e rb o lt and a crab. The color of the body is red. The deity wears the tiger skin, and the garland of hu m a n skulls. 12. m Ka-gro sen-ge gdon-can. The d a k in l is dancing on a hum an body. She has the head of a lion and is h o ld in g the magic sceptre. Her body is blue. 13 . mGon-po m a-lin nag-po. The deity is seen brandishing a spear and thunderbolt, the cup and the is s ittin g cross-legged, h o ld in g the the magic sceptre, and wears Hie th unde r

h o ld in g the cup. The color of the body is blue. The deity wears the garland of heads, and the tiger skin round her waist. 14 . Sam-yas rtshe dmar-po. The deity is r id in g a horse and spearing a hum an body. In the left hand the deity has a cup. The color of the body is red.

Round the palace are seen fly in g nym phs. Radiant rainbows emerge from

PADMASAMBHAVA

79

the palace, fo r m in g on their end clouds on w h ic h are enthroned rJe-btsn M i la, rJe-btsn Mar-pa w ith his akti. On the lower part of the p a in tin g , is represented the Rksas world. The k in g of the rksass (Tib. S rin-poi rgyal-po) is seen seated on a throne in fro n t of a b u ild in g whose roofs are crowned w ith hum an skulls. The k in g is preaching to a num ber of rksass seated in fro n t of h im ; some of w hom are offering h im baskets and cups. Notice the rksas devouring a h u m a n body ; another is seen d r in k in g and a T antric fo r m of ihe Bodhisattva Samantabhadra

human blood out of a cup, amidst m o u n ta in scenery. Curious are the -strings, resembling the Tibetan kha-btags or ceremonial

scarfs, on w h ic h hum an souls are crossing the stream towards the paradise of Padmasambhava. Some of these souls have already crossed and are seen praying the teacher. Others are s till in the Rksas w orld, w a itin g for th e ir tu rn . The strings are held by woman-figures dressed in the costume of nymphs. On the rocky side of the island, on w h ic h the paradise is situated, are seen caves w ith m editating hermits. The pain tin g is of a very fine execution, both in design and colors. It is

the w ork of a Lhasa artist. Notice the peculiar way of p a in tin g the clouds, and the slight coloration of the background, characteristics w h ic h are always

found on paintings produced by Lhasa artists. Painting Nr. 29 (24 1 / 2 x 16 1//1). This pain tin g represents the same subject as the previous one. The compo sition is s lig h tly different. Above the palace of Padmasambhava is seen kya m u n i assisted by Dpaikara, the previous Buddha, and Maitreya, the future Buddha. The pain tin g is s lig h tly damaged.

RGYAL-BA TSON-KHA-PA

The fo llo w in g series of paintings (Nrs. 0-6) represents the rGyal-ba Tsonkha-pa in various attitudes. This series of paintings is the w ork of a modern arlisi belonging to the Shigatse school. A ll the seven paintings come fro m the Kongphug Monastery, recently visited by the M ount Everest Expedition. Like Padmasambhava, rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa has a fir m ly established type in Tibetan iconography. The great Reformer can ahvays be recognized by his pro nounced nose, and we are told that this was a characteristic feature of Tson-khapas face, llis opponents called h im the Am do-m an w ith the big nose ( l i b . A-mdo sna-bo clie). It. is the only instance of portra it art that can be recalled in the histoiy of Tibetan art. I h e images of rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa are exceedingly numerous. He is one of the < four suns of 'Northern Buddhism (kyam uni, ( and Tson-kha-pa j and is often represented in a triad w ith Ngrjuna, Atia, Ngrjuna and

Ata. Frequently Ihe Reformer is seen together w ith his two principal pupils, rJe-tshab-rje and m Khas-grub-rje. On images he wears the yellow cap (sva-ser) of his sect and a red brow n monastic robe, often covered w ith golden designs (so metimes the color of the robe is yellow). Two lotus flowers, usually seen behind him , support the sword and the book. Painting Nr. 3 o (:>6 3 / /j x 19). rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa is seen seated on a lotus throne, llis r ig h t hand i? m a kin g the sign of attestation and is h o ld in g the stalks of the two lotus flowers supporting the sword and the book. The left hand is h o ld in g the alms bowl. Round the central figure we see scenes fro m the youth of Tson-kha-pa. In on of these scenes the parent of Tson-kha-pa are seen b r in g in g their son before a lama, probably lama Rol-pai rdo-rje, who accepted and gave h im the name of Kun-dga snin-po. Notice an image Tson-kha-pa as pupil

of Y amantaka, the Yi-dam of the dGe-lugs-pa sect, and

the image of Buddha surrounded by sixteen great Arhats.

12

TIBETAN PAINTINGS P ainting Nr. 3 1 (26 3/ 4x19) . rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa is seen seated on a lotus throne in fro n t of a pond out of which emerges an alms bowl on a lotus flower. W ith his rig h t hand he makes the sign of argumentation, w ith his left one he is wrapped in a piece of cloth according to the Tibetan custom. Behind him are seen the two lotus flowers supporting the sword and the book. The central ligure is surrounded by numerous preaching scenes which serve to illustrate the legend of Tson-kha-pa. Painting Nr. 2 (26 3/ 4x19) . rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa is seen in the middle. W ith his rig h t hand he is ma kin g the sign of fearlessness and is holding the stalks of the two lotus flowers w ith the sword and the book. His left hand is holding a book. Round figure are represented numerous monastic scenes. Painting Nr. 33 (26 3/ 4x19) . Tson-kha-pa is seen in the middle, seated on a lotus throne. His rig h t hand makes the sign of charity and is h olding the stalk of the lotus flower suppor tin g the sword. His left hand is holdin g an amrta vessel and the lotus flower supporting the book. Round the central figure are numerous preaching scenes. Notice in the left corner the image of the eleven-faced Avalokitevara, w hich is adored by fourmonks. rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa is seen in the attitude of Vajrasattva. He is holding in front of his chest the thunderbolt and the bell. Behind him are the usual lotus flowers w ith the sword and the book. Round the central figure, numerous scenes probably taken from the Life of Tson-kha-pa. Notice the image of Yamntaka, assisted by the Bodhisattva Manju rl and Aksobhva. Below the Yi-dam are seen different forms of Yama, god of death (from left to rig h t : Chos-rgyal phyi-sgrub, Chos-rgyal Chos-rgyal gsan-sgrub). P ainting Nr. 35 (Pl. X VII) (26 3 /4 x 19). Represents rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa in the attitude of a Tantric lama. In his hands crossed at the chest, he is h olding the bell and the drum nan-sgrub, and stalk of the the central holding a book,

R R1CH, T IB E T A N P A IN T IN G S

Plate

17

N um ber 35.

rG yal-ba Tson- kha-pa

RGYAL-BA TSOtt-KHA-PA

83

Behind h im are seen the two lotus flowers supporting the sword and the book in fro n t of the lotus throne is seen the Wheel of the Law. Round the central figure, numerous images representing the thousand Ta thgatas, the Bodhisattva M anju r, Bhaisajyaguru, Amityus and Maitreya.

Above the central figure is seen Yamntaka. In the rig h t corner is seen Tson kha-pa preaching to a n um ber of pupils. Notice the golden s tring that connects M Reformer and his pupils w ith the Bodhisattva M anjur, who is seen sur u? rounded by the eighl Bodhisattvas and the ten Tathgatas. P ainling Nr. 36 (26 3 //| x 19). rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa is seen in the middle. W ith his r ig h t hand he is ma kin g the sign of argum entation and is h o ld in g the -stalk of the lotus flower sup p orting the sword. The left hand is h o ld in g an alms bowl. Round the central figure are drawn numerous scenes from the Life of Tsonkha-pa, images of the thousand Tathgatas, Vajrapni, and M anjur. In the lower corner, to the left, the D harm arja Sron-btsan sgam-po, sur rounded by courtiers wearing fu r caps and overcoats. Painting Nr. 7 (18 1/2 x 12 1/2). This p a in tin g represents the lama D u l- dsin Graga-pa rgyal-m tshan (Vinyadhara K lr tid h v a ja ) . He was the pupil of rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa, and was famous for his scholarly activity thro u g h o u t Tibet (*). On this p a in tin g lie is seen seated on a throne ric h ly covered w ith e m broi dered cloth. He wears the ordinary lama dress. In his hands he is h o ld in g the thunderbolt and the bell. In front of the throne is seen a table, on w hich are placed the d ru m , the

vessel, the alms bowl, and a vase w ith a lotus flower. The p a in tin g is the w o rk of a Derge or Khams artist.

(*) H u t h , Geschichte des Buddhism us in der Mongolei. Text, p. 118; Tra nslation, p. i 85 .

LIST OF PAINTINGS

Nr.

j. Buddha and the sixteen great arhats................................... 2. Arhats .................................. ........................................................

3 . Arhats

PI. I . Pl. I I . PI. I I IPl. - IVPl. V.

.......................................................................................... ...........................................................................................

4. Arhats

5. Buddha and his two great disciples........................................ 6. kyamuni .................................................................................. 7. Amitbha ..................................................................................... 8. Vajrakla 9. Samvara 10. Samvara ..................................................................................... ................. ..................................................................... .......................................................................................

Pl. VI. Pl. VII.

11. Yamntaka ................. ................................................................ 12. mGon-po phyag-drug 13 . Maitreya ............................................................. Pl. V III. Pl. IX. Pl. X. Pl. XI. Pl. X II.

............. .........................................................................

14 . Maitreya of Tashi-lhunpo ...................................................... 15. Avalokitevara 16. Avalokitevara 17. Avalokitevara 18. Avalokitevara ........................................................................... ............................................................................ ............................................................................ ............................................................................

19. Simhanda-Lokevara ............................................................... 20. Mandala of Amoghapa ......................................................... 21. Am oghapa-Lokevara............................................................. 22. The green Tr ..................................................... ..................... 2. The w hite Tr .......................................................................... 2. Usnlsa-Sittapatr ................................................. .....................
25 . Na-re mkha-spyod-ma

Pl. X III. Pl. XIV.

Color plate.

.............................................................. Pl. XV.

26. Padmasambhava

....................................................................... .

27. The miracles of Padmasambhava.............................................. 28. Zans-mdog dpal-ri ........................................... ......................... Pl. XVI.

TIBETAN PAINTINGS
2. 29. Zans-mdog d p a l-ri .....................................................................
3 o. rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa ............................................... - .............. 31.
..................................................................................................

33 .

................................................................ .................................................................
...................................................................................................

34.
35 36 .

PI. X V II.

........ ........................................................ .. ..............................................................

7. A la m a ..............................................................................................

B IB L IO G R A P H Y

Bacot

(J.). A propos de documents tibtains (Bulletin se Guimet, fase. 2). Paris and Bruxelles, 1921.

archologique du

M u

Bacot

(J.).

La Dcoration Tibtaine. Paris 192. and Rouse (W. H. D .). Cikssamuccaya. Translated f r o m Sans

B e n d a l l (G .)

krit. Ind ia n Texts series. London, 1922.

B e n d a ll

(G.).

ikssamuccaya

(Bibliotheca

Buddhica,

1),

St. Petersburg,

1897-1902.
B lo n a y

(G.

d e

).

Matriaux p o u r servir

l'histoire de la desse bouddhique

Tard. Paris 1896.

D as

(Sarat-Chandra). In d ia n Pandits in Tibet. (Journal of the Buddhist Text Society of India, 1, 189, pp. 7-1).

Foucher Foucher

(A.). L art grco-bouddhique du Gandhra. Paris, 1 9 0 6 -1 9 2 3 . (A.). Etude sur iconographie bouddhique de Inde daprs des do

cuments nouveaux (Bibliothque de l Ecole des Hautes-Etudes, Sciences r e li gieuses), X l I I t h volume, ist part. Paris, 1900. 2nd part. Paris, 1906.
F o u c iie r
G iles

(A.). The Beginnings of Buddhist A rt. Paris, 1918.

( ll.- A .j. The travel of Fa-hsien. Cambridge, 192. (A.). M ythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei. Leip

G r n w e d e l

zig, 1900.
G r n w e d e l

(A.). Die Geschichten der vierundachtzig grossen Zauberer (Baess

ler A rch iv , V, 4 / 5 ) ; Index (Jrgensen), Bd. VI, Heft 3 ).

G rnw e d e l

(A.). Obzor sobraniya predmetov

lamaiskago kulla

E. E. Uch

tomskago (Bibi. Buddh. VI, fase. 1 & 2). St. Petersburg, 1906.
G r n w e d e l

(A.). Altbuddhistische Kultsttten in

Chinesisch-Turkistan (Ivni

glich-Preussische Turfan-Expeditionem ). Berlin, 1912.

G r n w e d e l

(A.). Buddhist Art in India. Transi, by A. C. Gibson, London,

1901.

88

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H a c k in

(J.). Guide-Catalogue du Muse G uim et. Les collections bouddhiques.

Paris & Bruxelles, 192. (J.). L 'A rt Tibtain. Paris, 191. j . (J.). Les scnes figures de la vie du Bouddha dans Viconographie

H a c k in H a c k in

tibtaine (Mmoires concernant l Asie Orientale, Vol. H). Paris, 1916.

H a c k in

(J.). Documents tibtains de la mission Bacot (Bulletin archologique du Muse Guimet, fasc. 11), Paris, 1921.

H u th (G.). Geschichte des Buddhismus in der Mongolei, 'text. Strassburg, 1892. Translation. Strassburg, 1896.
K e r n ( 11.).

Manual of Indian Buddhism (Grundriss der

Indo-arischen Philo

logie und Altertum skunde). Strassburg, 1896.

K e rn

(H.). Saddharma-Pundurika (Sacred books of the Fasl, Vol. XXI). Ox ford, 1909.

L u fe r

(.). Dokumente der indischen Kunst, erstes Heft, Malerei. Das C itra

laksana, nach dem tibetischen T a n ju r herausgegeben und bersetzt. Leip zig, 191.
L u fe r L u fe r

(B.). Der Roman einer Tibetischen K nigin. Leipzig, 1911. (B.). Skizze der Mongolischen L ilte m tu r (Extrait de la Revue Orien tale), 1907.

L u fe r

(B.). Chinese Clay Figures. Pari

I.

Prolegomena 011 the History of

Defensive A rm o u r (Field Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Se ries, vol. X III, No. 2). Chicago, 1914 . La
V a l l e P o ussin

(L.

d e

).

Bouddhisme, Eludes et Matriaux, 1898.

L vi

(S.). Le Nepal. Etude historique d 'u n royaume hindou (Annales du M u de Guimet, Bibliothque d tudes, Vol. W I - X I X ) . Vol. L Paris, 90) ; Vol. II. Paris, 1900 ; Vol. III . Paris, 1908.

L vi

(S.) & 1916).

C iiavan nes

(Ed.). Les seize arhats protecteurs de la Loi (.1. As.,

L e C oq

(A. von). Die Buddhistische sptantike in Mittelasien.. Erster TeiJ. Die der Kgl. Preussischen T urfan Expeditionen). Berlin,

Plastik (Ergebnisse 1922.

Manen

(Johan van). C ontribution to Ihe Bibliography of Tibet (Journal o f t h e Asiatic Society of Bengal. New series), vol. X V III, 1922, N. 8.

M a r s h a l l M a r s h a l l

(Sir John). 4 guide to Sanchi. Calcutta, 1918. (Sir John). A guide to Taxila. Calcutta, 1918.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
M it r a

(Rjendralla). The Skrt. Buddhist Literature of Nepal. Calcutta, 1882. (S. d ). Sbornik izobrazeni 300 burkhanov (Bibi. Buddhica, V). St.

O ld e n b u r g

Petersburg, 190.
P e l l io t P e l l io t

(P.). Les grottes de Touen-houang, vol. I-Vl. Paris, 1920-1924.

(P.).

La Mission Pelliot (Bulletin archologique du Muse Guimet.

fase. 2). Paris &. Bruxelles, 1921.

P e l l io t P e l l io t (P.). (P .).

Le cycle sexagnaire dans la chronologie tibtaine (J. As. 191) Quelques transcriptions chinoises de noms tibtains (Toung-

Pao, 1916), pp. 18-20. Rapson (. J.). The Cambridge History of India. Vol. 1, Ancient India. Cam bridge, 1922.
R o c k iu ll Ro e r ic h

(W. W .). The life of the Buddha. London, 1907. (N. C . ) . lk o n n y Terem, Sobranie Socineni. Moscow, 19 4 , pp. 27-40. (G.). Die Geschichte der Dalalamas. Heidelberg, 191.

SciruLEM AN.N T o u ssaint

(G.-Ch). Padma than-yig (Ch. 1 & X II- X X II are translated in the

Bulletin de l Ecole franaise d Extrme-Orient, vol. XX, p. i 3-56 ; ch. IIXI are translated in the J. As., 192).
V isser

(M. W .

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).

Die P fauenk nigin

(K ung-tsioh

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my-) in China und Japan (Festschrifth f r Friedrich l l i r t h ) . Berlin, 1920.

13

INDEX

Abhisambodhana, 3 . Aoka, 2, 3 . Aj an la, i , i 3 . A j i t a, . Akagarblia, 47. Aksobhya, 7, 07, 66, 82. Alexander the Great, 5 . Altan Khan, . Am uvarm an, 7. A indo, 12. Ainitabha, 3 3 , , 5 6 , 67, 5 8 , 5 q, 60, >> 66, "72, 77. Ainityus, 8 3 . A mokhapa-Lokevara, 70. Amokhasiddhi, 57, 66. Angaja, 10. Anigo, i/|. Burgess, 59. Bu rn o u f, 4 {note). Byams-chen ehos-rje, 12, 2> . Byams-pa bkra-cis, 26. Bvan-chub-od, .

akiam uni, .see Buddha. akyas, 4 (note). akyasimba, 78. antaraksita, 8. ntideva, 45 . ariputra, 29, 3 3 . Central Asia, 1. Central India, 2, 5 . Chandanaka, 4 (noie). Chandakanivartana, 4 (note). Chavannes, Edouard, 1, 28, 3 o, China, i , 5 6 . C h in-Lung , i 3 . Ch k l aver, George, 26. Chos-rgyal, 7. Cho's-rgyal-gsan-sgrub, 82. Chos-rgyal-nan-sgrub, 82. Chos-sgrags rgva-mtsho, 57. Chos-rgyal phyi-sgrub, 43 , 82. Christ, . ikhT, 5 3 . gin-rje-gsed, 9. ilpastras of India, 21. rivaistic cuits, 2. maanapati, 72. ravasti, !\. rldev, 3 3 , 4 3 . dapant hak a, 3 1, 3 2.

Amivaineya, \ {noie).
Aph ed a, , 2.

Asia, .
Atia, 10, 11, 38 , 5 2 . Avalokitevara, 2, 2, 7, 5 3 , 5 5 , 5 y, 60, 61, 6 5 , 66, 68, 72, 77, 82.

Baeol, Jacques, \ (note), >1.

Bactria, 5 .
Bad lira, 3 o. Bakula, 3o. Benares, 2, 3 , 61. Bendall, ., 45 (note). Bhaisajyaguru, 5 6 , 8 3 . Brhut, 2, 3 , /1. Bhattarika, 6 5 . Bimbisra, . Bodh-gay, 3 . Bodhisattva, passim. Bon, 8, 9. Blonay, de, 65 (note). Brahma, I\. Brom-ston, 10, 3 8 . Buddha, passim.

D
Dkins, 4 2. Dam-can mgar-ba nag-po, 70 bDe-mchog, 42. Dcmieville, 29. Derge, 15 , 16, 8 3 . Devvatra, 4 .

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

Dharmacakrapravartana, 3 . D harm ar, 62. Dharmadhtu Vagvra, 6 3 . Dharmarja, 7. Dharmatala, 29, 3 1, 2. Dhrtarstra, 2. Dhyni-Buddhas, 25 (list), 35 . Dipankara, 3 3 . D ipnkararjnana, io, 79. Divyvadna, 4 . Dixon, V. V., 26. Dod-dral-mna, 9. rD o-rje gro-lod, 78. rD o-rjc phur-pa, 9. D u l-dsin Graga-pa-rgyal-mtshan, 8 3 . hD l-rgyal, h i.

G up ta, 7. Gur-gyi-m gon-po, 4 ^. rGyal-ba, 20. rGyal-ba Tson-kha-pa, 10, 11, 12, 25 , 42, 5 2 , 61, 62, 67. 74, 81, 82, 8 3 . Gyalgtse School, 16. rGval tshab-rje, 12, 4 .

H
Hackin, J., 4 (noie), 21. H ayagrba, 9, 70. Hevajra, 1. Himalayan Slates, 9, 61. Hindu-Kush, 5.1. H irth , 70 (note). H o-ang Mahay ana, 8. H san-Tsang, 5 o. Hmkra, 9. H uth, i 3 (note), 83 (note). Hva-ang, 29, 3 i , 2. i

E
Egypt, 5 . Ekajati, 75. Exalted One, see Buddha.

F
Fa-llsien, Feist, 2 Foucher, 21, 36 (noie), 49, 5 o, 5 4 . {note). Alfred, 3 , 5 , 6, i 4 {note), (note), 5 i , 5 4 , 59 (note), 69 70, 71 (note).

India, 2. Ind ia n Archaelogical Survey, 1. Indra, 4 . In d ra b h ti, 8. 1-tsing, 61 j Jambhala, 5 8 , 66. Jam-dbyans dkar-po, 62. Japan, 5 6 . Jtakas, 2, 3 . Jti, 3 . Java, i . rJe-btsn Mar-pa, 3 8 , 74, 79. rJe-btsn Mi-la-ras-pa, 74, 79. rJe-tshab-rje, 81. Joglm r, 6. Jo-Khang, 7. Jo-mo bkris-tshe-rin-ma, 9.

G
dGa-ldan, 12. Gandhra, 1, 5 , 6, 7, ] 3 , 27, 3 6 , 5 i. Ganges, 2. Garda, 3 3 . Gautama, see Buddha. dGe-bdan-pa, 12. Giles, 49 (note), 5 o, 54 (note). Godan khan, 11. mGonpo, 9. inGon-po-ma-lin, 9, 78. mGon-po-phyag-drug-pa, 4 3 . Gopaka, 3 i. sGra-dbyans-rgval-po, 57. Grags-pa, 11. sGrol-dkar, 7. Groot, de, 46 (note). Grnwedel, A., Prof., 3 , i 4 (note), 21, 36 (note), 4 i (note), 5 4 , 5 y, 63 (note), 69 (note), 71 (note). Guimet (Muse), 4 (note), 21.

bRa-brgynd-pa, 3 8 . bKa-gdams-pa, 10. m K a-gro-sen-ge gdon-can, -S. Kalacakra, 8. Klika, , 2. KamalaTla, 8.

INDEX

93

Kanakabharadvya, . Kanakavatsa, 3 i , 2. K anjur, 18. Kansu, 9, 11. Kapla, 33 . Kapilavastu, 3 . Karmaklla, 4 o. Kern, 53 (note). inKha-gro ye-es m tsho-rgyal, 77. Khams, 16, 8 3 . Khams-gsum-gsod-byed, 9. inKhas-grub bSod-nams rgya-mtsho dpal-bzan-po, i 3 . mKas-grub-rje, 12, 8 i. K hon-dkon-m chog rgyal-po, 10. Khotan, 14 . K h ri Ral-pa-can, 9. Khri-sron Ide, 8, 9, 2, 6 3 . Khubilai-Khan, . bKra-is Ihun-po, 15. Krodyas, 4 (note). Ksitigarbha, 47. Kuan- y in , 54 . sKu-bum,* 11. Kuinagara, 3 . Kukkutapda, 49. K uku-nor, 7, 10. Kun-dga snin-po, 81. Kundopadhniya, 37. K u m ra, 6 3 . Kuru ku lle , 71. Kuvera, 3 3 , 71.

Macedonian Empire, 5 . Ma-cig dpal Iha-mo, 3 3 . Magadha, 4 , 71. dMagzor-ma, 3 3 . Mahbhiniskramana, 4 . Mahcrya, 8. Mahctavat, 69, 70. Mhkacyapa, 27. Mahakala, 3 3 , 4 , 72. Mah man trn usrin, 69. Mahmyr, 68, 70. Mahpandita dGe-dun grub-pa, 12. Mahparinibhna-sutta, 5 (note). Mah prtihrya, 4. Mahpratisar, 68, 69. Mahsahasrapramrdinl, 68, 69. Mahsiddha-Lu-pa, 74. Mahsiddha-Saraha, 74. Malisidda-To-lo-pa, 74. Maineyas, 4 (note). Maitreya, 8, 12, 22, 47, 4 9 , 5 o, 52 , 79> 8 3 . Mallas, 4 (note). Mmalu, 66. Mandrava, 77. Mandgalhyana, 29, 33 . Manen, van, 20 (note). M anjur, 12, 43 , 47, 5 4 , 6, 82, 8 3 . Manjughosa, 58 , 62. Mrcl, 70. Marshall, Sir J., 2 (note), 6. Maury a, 2. Mchod-rten rnam-dag, 4. Mi-gyo g tu n -k h u n , 9. M i- khrugs-pa, 57. Mi-la ras-pa, 3 8 . M ing, 12, 14 , 21. M non-m khyen-gryal-po, 57. Mrgadava, 3 . Mya-nan-med mchog-dpal, 57.

L
Lalita-Vislara, 4 (note). Lufer, B., Prof., i t (note), 2 [note), 38 (note). Leumann, 29. Levy, S., Prof., 28, 3 o, 3 1, 47 (note), 62 (note), 68 (note). Lha-ehen-po-rdo-rje bar-ba rtsal, 4 o. Lha-Tdan, 7. Lhasa, 7, 12, 16, 54 , 79. Lobzang M in g y u r, Head-Lama, 25 . Locan, 66. bLo-Idan phiogs-sred, 78. kLon-ehen rab-byams-pa, 75. Lo-tsa-ba Pagur Vairoana, 9. L u m b in , 3 . Lung-m en, 1. kL u -rg y a l Ngarja, 4 .

N
Ngasena, 3 i . sNags-kvi-srun-ma, 4o. Nlanda, 8. rNam -rgyal snam-ma, 9. rNam Sron-btsan, 7. Na-ro mkha-spyod-ma, 57. sNar-than, t5, 17.

TIBETAN PAINTINGS

Nepal, 7, i 3 , i 4 , 61. Nepal Terai, 3 . Nicholas, S \ 62. N i-m aod zer, 78. rNim-ma-pa, 9, 10. Nirvna, 5 . North-Western India. 5 . I Oddiyna, 8, 7, 77. Ogdi, 11. Oldenburg, d . Prof., 5 4 p Padmaklla, . Padma rgyal-po, 78. Padmasambhava, 8, 9, 2.5, 3 8 , 9, 4 3 , 63 , 7, 75, 76, 77, 78, 81. Padma T han-yig, 8. dPal-dus-kyi khor-lo, 4 i. dPal-gsan ba dus-pa, .. dPal-Idan iha-mo, 40. dPal-k horlo sdom-pa, 43. dPal-rdo-rje, 9. Pandara, 66. Panthaka, 3 o, 2. Parinirvana, 3 , . Parnaavarl, 70. Parthia, 6. Pelliot, Paul, Prof., 10, i t (note), i 4 (noie), 26, 9 (note). Peking, 11, 1, 2. Phags-pa bLo-gros rgyal mtsan, 1 \ . Phyag-bsi mgon-po, . Pindola, 27, 28, 3 o. Ping, 5 o. Porhantu, 12. Potala, 5 , 65 . Przvlusky, 3 o.

Rmgarh H ill, 6. Rapson, E.-J., 3 (note), 6 (note). Ratnakla, . Ratnasambhava, 57, 66. Rhys-Davids, Prof., 27. Rigs-dsinja-m tshon snin-po, 74. Rockhill, 54 (note). Rol-pai rdo-rje, 81. Roruka, 4 Rouse, W ., 45 {note). Rudryana, . Rum m indel, 3 . Rva-sgreng, 10.

s
Sdhanas, 21. Samantabhadra, 9, 3 8 , 43,4 7, 79. Samvara, 7. bSam-yas-gling, 9. Sam-yas rtshe dmar-po, 78. Sanchi, 2, 4 , 5 . Snkya, . Srnth, 2. Sarvanivaranaviskambh, 47. Sarvaynamitra, 65 . Saskya, 10, t i . Schulemann, 11 (note). Sen-ge sgra-sgrogs, 78. Sera, 12, 2. gSer-bsan dri-med, Sgrol-Ijan, 7. Shang-tu, 11. Shan-si, 6 t . Shigatse, 12, 15 , 17. Siddhrtha, see Buddha. Sikim , t 8 , 26. bSil-ba tshal-gyi d u r-kh ro d , 8. Simbhanada Lokevara, 5 8 , 69. Simbhanada-Manjuri, 62. Sittapatr, 2, 66. gSol-debs-liu-bdun-m a, 76. Spooner, Brainerd, 36 . Srid-pai rgyal-m o, 4 o. Sron-btsan sgam-po, 7, 8, 66, 8 3 . Ssu-ch uan, 7. Steed, W . W ., D r., 27. Stein, Sir Aurel, , 3 6 , 5 i , 56 . Sugata, 68. Sukhvatl, 57. Surguja State, 6. Stras, 10.

Q
Qaraqorum, t t , 5 1 .

r
Rhu, 40, 71, 75. Rhula, 3 o. Raja M itra, 53 (note), 70 (note). Bjagrha, . BksasI, 79.

INDEX

T ui-tsung, 7. Tala, 12. T ang, 7, i 5 . Tanlras, 9, 2,4. T anlric School, 9, 10,11, 24, 7, 4 2 , 5 1, 69, 62, 7, 74, 82. Tr, 7, 2, 60, 6 5 , 66, 72. Trs, 5 4 . Tashiding, 26. Tashi-lhunpo, 15 , 16, 26, 5 2 . gTer-ma, 9. gTer-stonjigs-nied gl/n-pa, 75. T h o n -m i Sambhota, 8, 63 . sTobs-chen bskul bycd, 9. Toussaint, 8 (note). bTsan rgyal, 4 i . mTshan-legs rgyal-po, 57. mTsho-skyes rdo-rje, 78. Tiim d, i3. Tun-huang, 9, 5 1, 5 6 . T urkistan, Chinese, r, 6, 9, 5 6 . Tusuta, 5o. Uig h u r, 10, 11. Ukh tom sky, Prince, 21. Usnlsa-Sittapatr, 66, 6 Usn i savijay, 2, 72.
j
i

Vajradhara, 43 . Vajradhtvivar, 66. Vajrakla, 20, 7, 3 8 , 4 o. Vajrapni, 47, 5 4 , 5 8 , 72, 8 3 . Vajrasattva, 3 8 , 58 , 82. Vajravh, 5 8 , 70. V a jrip tra , 3 o. Valle Poussin, de la, Prof., 8. Vanvasi, 3 i . Vasudhr, 3 3 , 71. Viramala, 10, 6. Vimalaprabh, 8. Vinaya, 10. Vipay, 5 3 . Virdhaka, 29, 2. Virpksa, 2. Visser, W ., 70 (note).

w
Wei, i . W in le rn itz , 69 (note). W u - t ai-shan, 6 t .

Y
Yaina, 71, 72, 82. Yamntaka, 7, /j2, 63 , 81, 82, 8 3 . Y-dam Guru drag-dm ar, 78. Ye-es mgon-po, 4 o. Yellow-cap Sect, 10, 16. Yi-dam, 9, 25 . Yuan Dynasty, i 4 dbYug-snon sder-bo, 9. Yun-Kang, t . Yung-lo, T2.

v
Vgvara, 61. Vail, 4. Vairavana, 2, 4 2. Vaidrya cer-po, 20. Vaidrya-raja, 33 . Yaidryaprabhr j a, 56 Vairoana, 3 8 , .^7, 66.

z
i

Za-hor-ma, 7. Zans-mdog, 76.

MASTER INSTITUTE
OF UNITET ARTS
Founded in New Y o rk , Novem ber 17, 1921

MUSIC

PAINTIN G

SCULPTURE CLASS

ARCHITECTURE BALLET < Ail <

OPERA

DRAMA Art

LECTURES Art has ils

w ill uniliy all h u m a n ity .

is one indivisible.

many branches, yel all are one. t hesis. Art is for all.

Art is t he manifestation of the com ing syn The gates of the sa

Everyone w il l enjoy true art.

cred source )) must de wide open fo r everybody, and the lig h t of art w ill i n fluence numerous hearts w ith a new love. At first this feeling w ill be

unconscious, b u t after all it w ill p u rify hum an consciousness, and how many young hearts are searching for som ething real and beautiful ! So, give it them. B ring art to the people where il belongs. to

We should have1 not only

museums, theatres, universities, public1 libraries, railway stations and hospitals, but even prisons decorated and beautified. sons. Paths of blessings . Then we shall have no more p r i

THE. OFFICERS
N ich o la s
R oe m e n , ,

H onorary President

Loi is L. H o r c h Ma
i r

President , Vice-Presiden t Executive Director N e w Y o rk , N . Y .

14

i i:

L ic iit mann R. G r a n t ,

F rances

310 R ive rsid e D riv e

THE FACULTY PIANO

M ax D r it t l e r E sth er J. L ic h t m a n n M a u r ic e L ic h t m a n n

THEORY AND COMPOSITION

F re d e ric A lfre d Jacobi

J. S w an

Deems T a y l o r E do ard o T ru c c o

Si n a L i c h t m a n n Et h e l P r i n c e T h o m p s o n

SOLFEGE AND EAR-TRAINING

M a r g a r e t A nd erso n

ORGAN
M a rta

E. K l e i n

CHURCH MUSIC ( ]ONSTAN'TINE UKETOF F

HARP
C a rlo s S a lz e d o

N ic o l a A . M o n t a m M
eyer

P osner

VIOLIN
W
il l ia m

C oad

PAINTING AND DRAW ING

C h e s te r L e ic ii

Karl K raeuter

M a r y M a c Rae W h i t e

VIOLONCELLO APPLIED DESIGN

Pa u l K efer J ohn M i E d w a r d J. W im m e r
ndy

THEATER DECORATION
ORCHESTRAL A lfre d IN S T R U M E N T S R o b e r t E dm und Jones B ra in L e e S im o n s o n H u m b e rt B u ld rin i V in c e n t C. B u o n o A l b e r t P. F r ie s e G u s ta v e H e im

INTERIOR DECORATION
M a ry F a n to n R o b e rts

ILLUSTRATION
A lb e r t S te rn e r

C a r l IIln ric iis M.

11.

M anne

M ax S c h lo s s b e rg M a u ric e Van P ra a g Max W o c k e n f u ss

ETCHING
M ic h a il Rou n d a l t z e f f

SCULPTURE
A l b e r t Jae ge rs R o b e rt L a u re n t

VOICE
A l b e r t o B im b o n i J. B e r t r a m F ox

ARCHITECTURE
A l f r e d B o ss o m W . E. V lR R IC K

I I . R e g i n a l d Sp i e r A nne St e v e n s o n

BALLET
R osa M u nd e

LANGUAGES
M a t h il d e T r u c c o

DALCROZE EU RYTHMIC S
M a r g u e r it e H e a to n

LECTURES
G eorge C la u d e B e llo w s B ragdon G eddes

Yo de M a n z ia r ly

\ o r m a n -B e l L o u is A.

DRAMA
S i. C l a ir B a y f ie ld

G r u e n b e r g

M e r r it t M u KERJI

O ssip

D y m o w

Dhan Go p a l
H a h d in g e

Sc h o lle

J O U R N A L IS M
M ary K anton Ro berts

St a r k J osiAir

Y oung Z u r

MASTER INSTITUTE OF UNITED ARTS

THE AIMS
It is w ith special cognizance of the needs of the American world of arts, that the Master Institute of United Arts was organized on November

17, 1931.

Despite the present plenitude of schools it was felt that there was still needed one w hich would b r in g a new message to the legion of those seeking for Beauty and for a m edium of creation. P rim a rily , the aim of the Master Institute of

United Arts is to in still into its pupils an unswerving devotion to the highest ideals of art. of all arts. It aims also to b r in g to youth a new inspiration for the unity In the present tu r m o il men have learned that in art is to be found But

the one solace, the one bridge of understanding between all h u m a n ity .

if the arts would endure and gain strength ; if they would accomplish their mis sion in the need of todays chaos, they must eschew partisanship and unite their forces. The Master Institute of United Arts is a im in g to help the achievement of this ideal by im p a rtin g to the student not only a profound comprehension of his own medium of expression but also a respect and understanding of the crafts of his fellow artists. W ith such a broader aspect, we may strive towards

that time when creators of all branches w ill jo in forces and battle side by side for the com ing apotheosis of Art.

THE FACULTY In the accomplishment of its aims the Master Institute of United Arts has had the privilege of enlisting a faculty of artists of broad vision and ideals. Each members af the staff has gained distinction in his respective art as well as in teaching, and perhaps no more representative list of instructors in all arts has ever been assembled in one staff.

STUDENT ADVANTAGES
The opportunities fo r general culture not possible in private or home study are especially emphasized in the Master Institute of United Arts. For the strengthening of the u n ity of the arts, and to fu rth e r artistic i n t er cour se between the various departments, the Master Institute provides fo r its stu dents a series of lectures dealing w ith all arts. To the lectures all students en privilege of free

rolled in the Master Institute in any department, have the attendance.

The lectures w i l l be given by some of the most eminent autho phases of music, p ainting , sculpture, architecture,

rities and w i l l deal w ith

drama and art criticism , literature and related subjects. In addition to the lectures, the Master Institute w il l present d u r in g the

year, exhibitions, productions and concerts by students and v is itin g artists. By l i m i t i n g the size of its classes, the Master Institute also assures each student of in d iv id u a l attention, and the essential personal relation between the student and teacher is constantly maintained. Especial effort is made by the Master Institute to arouse the children in the various departments to creative expression. This is accomplished th ro u g h

group meetings and talks on A r t to the children.

A N EW HOME W it h in ils short history the Master Institute of United Arts has made such strides in its enrollm ent and influence that a considerable increase in quarters has been found necessary. The Master Institute has now purchased a spacious

permanent home at 3 10 Riverside Drive, which it w ill occupy at the b eginn ing of the new term, Oct. 8, 192. The unusual location of the house, as well as

its splendid accommodations w il l give the students o p portun ity of w o rk in g un der the most in s p irin g conditions. The lib ra ry , studios and recreation rooms

w ill enable the student to spend his free hours at the Master Institute to excel lent advantage. A dditional conveniences are assured in an A rt and Music Shop where the stu dent may purchase his supplies and music at the most reasonable prices. A

Tea Room has also been established for the convenience of the students. As the Master Institute of United Arts provides courses fo r students in all grades of advancement, no previous requirements are stipulated. Those stu

dents, however, who desire to enter advanced courses, are required to show evi
l5*

dence of previous education or practice.

In the ease of students in music, this

may be done th ro u g h a hearing before members of the directorate and faculty and in the graphic arts, th ro u g h examples of the students w ork. As the Master Institute m aintains a h ig h standart of scholarship and de

portement, it is essential that every enrolled student adheres to the necessary qualifications. CERTIFICATE OF THE SCHOOL A Certificate of the Master Institute of United Arts w ill be granted to stu dents in all departments who have satisfactorily completed the prescribed cour ses and have passed the requirements made by the directorate and faculty.

SCHOLARSHIPS AUD PRIZES Provision has been made fo r the g ra n tin g of a n um ber of scholarships. These are awarded competitively solely 011 the basis of m erit, to those students who seem best endowed to take f u l l advantage of the op p o rtu n ity offered to them. In addition to the scholarships provided by the Master Institute, there w ill be the fo llo w in g special awards of m erit. Rabindra Nath. Tagore Scholarship An annual award to an advanced student in the school p ro v id in g one years tu itio n in painting. Maurice Maeterlinck Scholarship An annual award p ro v id in g a years tu itio n in the p a in tin g department. Nicholas Roerich Scholarships Two annual awards each p r o v id in g a years tu itio n in the music depart ment. Louis L. H orch Scholarship An annual award p ro v id in g one yeans tuitio n in the piano department. The Master Institute has also made provision to grant several prizes for the most noteworthy w o rk done by the students d u r in g the school year. The w ork

Master Institute w il l also purchase for its permanent collection the best done by a p u p il in the p a in tin g and sculpture dpartements.

T hro u g h the co-operation of Corona M undi, Inc., International A r t Center, the Master Institute is enabled to award each year, to the most w o rth y students in each department, a w o rk of art, a im in g thereby to inspire the students to greater in tim a cy w ith creative works.

CONTEST Under the auspices of Corona M undi, Inc., the Master Institute of United Arts w ill hold several contests each year, to w h ic h students of the school as well as outsiders are eligible. follows : Com ptition fo,r the Best Song To be w ritte n to the text either of a Psalm or one of the poems of Ra bindra Nath Tagore, or one of the poems of W a lt W h itm a n . to close on Dec. 12, 192. Com petition f o r a Costume Design The Theme fo r the Design to be based on Atlantis. March 9, 192. Details and conditions of each contest w i ll be announced subsequently and may be had on application to the Master Institute of United Arts. Contest to close Contest For the ensuing year the contests planned are as

SCHOOL CALENDAR Enrollm ents fo r the fa ll term w ill begin on September i5 th , in all cour ses. The opening date fo r all courses is October 8th. Private instruction

may be begun before or any tim e after that date by special arrangement. The regular school session w i l l last for th irty-five weeks, closing on June 7th. D u rin g the session the fo llo w in g holidays w il l be observed T hanksgiving Day ............................. Christmas Vacation ............................ L in c o ln s Birthday ............................. .................... November 3 o December 22 to January February 12 February 22 A p r il 12-21

Washnigton's Birthday S pring Vacation

.................................

SUMMER SESSION A sum mer session of six weeks w i l l be held opening on June 25 1924 . This w ill include Elective, Master and Norm al Classes, and private instruction in all subjects. Details of this w o rk w i ll be given in a later announcement.

TERMS OF ENROLLMENT
The Master Institute of United Arts is open to students of either sex and any age. A ll students entering the Master Institute do so w ith the distinct unders

tanding that they w i l l adhere to all regulations of the Master Institute and are expected to m aintain the h ig h standard set by the Institute. Students may enroll any tim e d u r in g the school year. It is understood that all students e n ro llin g in October are enrolled fo r the entile season of 35 weeks and are liable for the f u ll tuition. Those entering later in the year w ill be enrolled for the balance of the season. No deductions are made fo r absences fr o m lessons or fo r w ith-draw al before the (lose of the season. In the case of an absence where the cause is deemed

sufficiently serious by the directorate and where notice shall have been given in w r itin g at least twenty fo u r hours in advance of the tim e scheduled for the lesson may be made up at the convenience of the teacher. which is missed can be made up. A ll tu itio n fees are payable in advance and are calculated fo r the entire sea son. For the convenience of the student, the Master Institute has arranged to No class w o rk

have the payment of tu itio n made in three equal installments, the first due upon entrance, the second on January 4 th and the th ir d on March 21st. In cour In

ses where the fee is small, the entire tu itio n must be paid upon entrance.

the classes of P ainting, Etching, Illu stra tio n and Sculpture, payments are made on a m onthly basis. All Enrollm ents, arrangements for hours and payments must be made direc tly to the office. For fu rth e r in fo rm a tio n address the Executive Director.

310 Riverside D r iv e , New York City

Phones : Clarkson 0420-0421

CORONA MUNDI
------------------ IN C .------------------

IN T E R N A T I O N A L

-----ART CENTER----THE OFFICERS Prof. Loi is

N ic h o la s L. R o e r ic h ,

Honorary President

H o r c h ,

President Vice-President Direetor-Curator Executive Director

M a l r ic e

L ic h t m a n n , R o e r ic h , G r a n t ,

Sv ia to s lav F rances R.

BEAUTY-THE CONQUEROR ! A vital call at once idealistic and practical has brought into being CORONA MUNDI, Inc., as an international center of art. At the present time, art re

mains the one bond of understanding between nations, and the sole m edium of friendly intercourse ; for there are no nations in mies. Art and Beauty has no ene

Furthemore, at a moment when an unparalleled fluctuation has upset

all existing standards of values ; when foreign moneys have deteriorated in un precedented manner, art objects alone have whithstood the chaos and have in fact increased in intrinsic value. The experience of the last few years has esta

blished the uncontrovert ible fact that the only true and unassailable Valuta rests in art . In the lig h t of these significant truths, if is certain that the time has come to spread among all peoples and classes a newer education that of the practical as well as idealistic value of Beauty. Too long has art been held aloof ; when

men learn that Arts is not a luxury , they w ill learn also to recognize its new applications in every day life.

The means of spreading this new gospel m ust come th ro u g h some great co-operative organization w h ic h shall act as mediators in the newly destined interchange of art objects, and it is w it h this aim that CORONA M UNDI has been established. In its fu n ctio n CORONA MUNDI desires not only to enlist

artists or collectors, but all intellectuals, all w orkm en, or students, and even the children fo r it is these last who w i l l be the creators of the c o m in g culture. It is w ith this ideal in view that CORONA M UNDI has answered the call and has begun its existence dedicated to the tr u ly practical vision of p ro m o tin g the sense of Beauty among all peoples of every class, to create real friends of art among the masses, and to establish among all peoples that derstanding and relation Art. com m on language of un

ITS AIMS In the c arrying out of its aims, as an International A r t Center, CORONA MUNDI w ill pursue the fo llo w in g activities: To hold exhibitions, and to arrange publications, productions, lectures and concerts. To arrange to u rin g and loan exhibitions, p la n n in g galleries, factories and shools, even in hospitals, from centers of art. To buy and sell art treasures and act as agents fo r all types of art, on the most reasonable basis. To assist Museums in the completion of th e ir collections, th ro u g h donations and subscriptions. To organize artistic and archaelogical research expeditions. To establish agencies and branches in all foreign countries. To catalogue and systematize collections ; expertize and restore. them in all kinds of far

prisons, and in villages

R R I C H
M U S E U M
Founded Novem ber 17, 1923

a ll

O p e n to p u b l i c S undays an d H o ly d a y s f r o m l O to 5.

For fa rth e r

inform ation

address

the

Executive

D irector :

310 RIVERSIDE NEW YORK CITY

Phones : Clarkson 0420-0421,

LA V IE DES PEUPLES
a Synthetic Review.
A t the present tim e it is of the utm ost im portance to foster m u tu a l under standing between the various countries. The p rim a ry aim o f La Vie des Peu ples a new Paris m o n th ly Magazine is to establish such a contact by g iv in g first hand in fo rm a tio n ad im p a rtia l articles on cu ltu ra l, p o litic a l and economical m atters, contributed by w e ll know n w riters in every field of hum an activit. L a Vie des Peuples
E m ile Baum ann
h a s s e c u re d th e c o lla b o r a t io n o f M . A n e z a k i

(Japan),

(France), J a m e s B e c k (U.S.A.),

Jean Bens

(Czekho-Slovakia),

C h a r ly C l e r c

(Switzerland), S e rg e E l i s s e f f (Russia), G e o rg e s G r e b e n s t c h i k o f f

(Siberia), N. Y o r g a (R um ania) , ll a n s H in c k (Danemark), A le x a n d e r K u p r i n (Rus sia), C h a rle s L o is e a i (France), R g is M ic h a u d (France), N. P o l i t i s (Greece), F r a n

o is P o r c h e

(France), N ic o la s R o e r ic h (Russia), G e o rg e R o e r ic h (Russia), A n t o in e (France), a n d m a n y o th e rs .

R o u g ie r ( Switzerland ) , R e n S c h n e id e r

For fu rth e r in fo rm a tio n address La Rdaction de La Vie des Peuples

5 4 , rue Jacob, Paris (France)

A l b i - Imp. Ed. J u lie n . - 137- 25

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