DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

TERM 2008-09

B. Tech II/IT II Semester

UNIT-IV PPT SLIDES

Text Books: (1) DBMS by Raghu Ramakrishnan
(2) DBMS by Sudarshan and Korth


INDEX
UNIT-4 PPT SLIDES
S.NO Module as per Lecture PPT
Session planner No Slide NO
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. The Form of a Basic SQL Queries L1 L1- 1 to L1- 15
2. Query operations & NESTED Queries L2 L2- 1 to L2- 15
3. NESTED Queries L3 L3- 1 to L3- 9
4. Aggregate Operators L4 L4- 1 to L4- 9
5. Null Values L5 L5- 1 to L5 -9
6. Complex I.C in SQL-92 L6 L6- 1 to L6- 8
7. Triggers and Active Databases L7 L7- 1 to L7- 5
8. Designing Active Databases L8 L8- 1 to L8- 10




Slide No:L1-1
History
IBM Sequel language developed as part of System R
project at the IBM San Jose Research Laboratory
Renamed Structured Query Language (SQL)
ANSI and ISO standard SQL:
SQL-86
SQL-89
SQL-92
SQL:1999 (language name became Y2K compliant!)
SQL:2003
Commercial systems offer most, if not all, SQL-92
features, plus varying feature sets from later standards
and special proprietary features.
Not all examples here may work on your particular
system.
Slide No:L1-2
Data Definition Language
The schema for each relation, including
attribute types.
Integrity constraints
Authorization information for each relation.
Non-standard SQL extensions also allow
specification of
The set of indices to be maintained for
each relations.
The physical storage structure of each
relation on disk.
Allows the specification of:
Slide No:L1-3
Create Table Construct
An SQL relation is defined using the create
table command:
create table r (A
1
D
1
, A
2
D
2
, ..., A
n
D
n
,
(integrity-constraint
1
),
...,
(integrity-constraint
k
))
r is the name of the relation
each A
i
is an attribute name in the schema
of relation r
D
i
is the data type of attribute A
i
Example:
create table branch
(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30),
assets integer)
Slide No:L1-4
Domain Types in SQL
char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-
specified length n.
varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with
user-specified maximum length n.
int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is
machine-dependent).
smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent subset
of the integer domain type).
numeric(p,d). Fixed point number, with user-specified
precision of p digits, with n digits to the right of decimal
point.
real, double precision. Floating point and double-
precision floating point numbers, with machine-
dependent precision.
float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified
precision of at least n digits.
More are covered in Chapter 4.


Slide No:L1-5
Integrity Constraints on Tables
not null
primary key (A
1
, ..., A
n
)
Example: Declare branch_name as the primary key for branch
.
create table branch
(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30) not null,
assets integer,
primary key (branch_name))
primary key declaration on an attribute automatically ensures
not null in SQL-92 onwards, needs to be explicitly stated in
SQL-89
Slide No:L1-6
Basic Insertion and Deletion of Tuples
Newly created table is empty
Add a new tuple to account
insert into account
values ('A-9732', 'Perryridge', 1200)

Insertion fails if any integrity constraint is
violated
Delete all tuples from account
delete from account
Note: Will see later how to delete selected tuples


Slide No:L1-7
Drop and Alter Table Constructs
The drop table command deletes all information
about the dropped relation from the database.
The alter table command is used to add
attributes to an existing relation:
alter table r add A D
where A is the name of the attribute to be added
to relation r and D is the domain of A.
All tuples in the relation are assigned null as
the value for the new attribute.
The alter table command can also be used to
drop attributes of a relation:
alter table r drop A
where A is the name of an attribute of relation r
Dropping of attributes not supported by many
databases
Slide No:L1-8
Basic Query Structure
A typical SQL query has the form:

select A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n

from r
1
, r
2
, ..., r
m

where P

A
i
represents an attribute
R
i
represents a relation
P is a predicate.
This query is equivalent to the relational algebra
expression.


The result of an SQL query is a relation.
)) ( (
2 1 , , ,
2 1
m P A A A
r r r
n
[

o
Slide No:L1-9
The select Clause
The select clause list the attributes desired in the result
of a query
corresponds to the projection operation of the
relational algebra
Example: find the names of all branches in the loan
relation:
select branch_name
from loan
In the relational algebra, the query would be:

branch_name
(loan)
NOTE: SQL names are case insensitive (i.e., you may use
upper- or lower-case letters.)
E.g. Branch_Name BRANCH_NAME branch_name
Some people use upper case wherever we use bold
font.
Slide No:L1-10
The select Clause (Cont.)
SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query
results.
To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the
keyword distinct after select.
Find the names of all branches in the loan relations,
and remove duplicates
select distinct branch_name
from loan

The keyword all specifies that duplicates not be
removed.

select all branch_name
from loan
Slide No:L1-11
The select Clause (Cont.)
An asterisk in the select clause denotes all
attributes
select *
from loan
The select clause can contain arithmetic
expressions involving the operation, +, , -, and
/, and operating on constants or attributes of
tuples.
E.g.:
select loan_number, branch_name,
amount - 100
from loan

Slide No:L1-12
The where Clause
The where clause specifies conditions that the
result must satisfy
Corresponds to the selection predicate of the
relational algebra.
To find all loan number for loans made at the
Perryridge branch with loan amounts greater
than $1200.
select loan_number
from loan
where branch_name = 'Perryridge' and
amount > 1200
Comparison results can be combined using the
logical connectives and, or, and not.

Slide No:L1-13
The from Clause
The from clause lists the relations involved in the
query
Corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of
the relational algebra.
Find the Cartesian product borrower X loan
select -
from borrower, loan
Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all customers
having a loan at the Perryridge branch.
select customer_name, borrower.loan_number, amount
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number and
branch_name = 'Perryridge'

Slide No:L1-14
The Rename Operation
SQL allows renaming relations and attributes
using the as clause:
old-name as new-name
E.g. Find the name, loan number and loan
amount of all customers; rename the column
name loan_number as loan_id.
select customer_name, borrower.loan_number as
loan_id, amount
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number
Slide No:L1-15
Tuple Variables
Tuple variables are defined in the from clause via the
use of the as clause.
Find the customer names and their loan numbers and
amount for all customers having a loan at some branch.
Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than
some branch located in Brooklyn.
select distinct T.branch_name
from branch as T, branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and S.branch_city = 'Brooklyn'
Keyword as is optional and may be omitted
borrower as T borrower T
Some database such as Oracle require as to be omitted

select customer_name, T.loan_number, S.amount
from borrower as T, loan as S
where T.loan_number = S.loan_number
Slide No:L2-1
Example Instances
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
sid bid day
22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96
R1
S1
S2
We will use these
instances of the
Sailors and Reserves
relations in our
examples.
If the key for the
Reserves relation
contained only the
attributes sid and
bid, how would the
semantics differ?
Slide No:L2-2
Basic SQL Query
relation-list A list of relation names (possibly with a
range-variable after each name).
target-list A list of attributes of relations in relation-list
qualification Comparisons (Attr op const or Attr1 op
Attr2, where op is one of )
combined using AND, OR and NOT.
DISTINCT is an optional keyword indicating that the
answer should not contain duplicates. Default is that
duplicates are not eliminated!
SELECT [DISTINCT] target-list
FROM relation-list
WHERE qualification
< > = s > = , , , , ,
Slide No:L2-3
Conceptual Evaluation Strategy
Semantics of an SQL query defined in terms of the
following conceptual evaluation strategy:
Compute the cross-product of relation-list.
Discard resulting tuples if they fail qualifications.
Delete attributes that are not in target-list.
If DISTINCT is specified, eliminate duplicate rows.
This strategy is probably the least efficient way to
compute a query! An optimizer will find more efficient
strategies to compute the same answers.
Slide No:L2-4
Example of Conceptual Evaluation
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=103
(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96
Slide No:L2-5
A Note on Range Variables
Really needed only if the same relation appears
twice in the FROM clause. The previous query can
also be written as:
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND bid=103
SELECT sname
FROM Sailors, Reserves
WHERE Sailors.sid=Reserves.sid
AND bid=103
It is good style,
however, to use
range variables
always!
O
R
Slide No:L2-6
Find sailors whove reserved at least one boat
Would adding DISTINCT to this query make a
difference?
What is the effect of replacing S.sid by S.sname in
the SELECT clause? Would adding DISTINCT to this
variant of the query make a difference?
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid
Slide No:L2-7
Expressions and Strings
Illustrates use of arithmetic expressions and string
pattern matching: Find triples (of ages of sailors and
two fields defined by expressions) for sailors whose
names begin and end with B and contain at least three
characters.
AS and = are two ways to name fields in result.
LIKE is used for string matching. `_ stands for any one
character and `% stands for 0 or more arbitrary
characters.
SELECT S.age, age1=S.age-5, 2*S.age AS age2
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.sname LIKE B_%B
Slide No:L2-8
String Operations
SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons
on character strings. The operator like uses patterns
that are described using two special characters:
percent (%). The % character matches any substring.
underscore (_). The _ character matches any character.
Find the names of all customers whose street includes the
substring Main.
select customer_name
from customer
where customer_street like '% Main%'
Match the name Main%
like 'Main\%' escape '\'
SQL supports a variety of string operations such as
concatenation (using ||)
converting from upper to lower case (and vice versa)
finding string length, extracting substrings, etc.
Slide No:L2-9
Ordering the Display of Tuples
List in alphabetic order the names of all customers
having a loan in Perryridge branch
select distinct customer_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower loan_number =
loan.loan_number and
branch_name = 'Perryridge'
order by customer_name
We may specify desc for descending order or asc
for ascending order, for each attribute; ascending
order is the default.
Example: order by customer_name desc
Slide No:L2-10
Duplicates
In relations with duplicates, SQL can define how
many copies of tuples appear in the result.
Multiset versions of some of the relational algebra
operators given multiset relations r
1
and r
2
:
1. o
u
(r
1
): If there are c
1
copies of tuple t
1
in r
1
,
and t
1
satisfies selections o
u
,
, then there are c
1
copies of t
1
in o
u
(r
1
).
2. H
A
(r ): For each copy of tuple t
1
in r
1
, there is
a copy of tuple H
A
(t
1
) in H
A
(r
1
) where H
A
(t
1
)
denotes the projection of the single tuple t
1
.
3. r
1
x r
2
: If there are c
1
copies of tuple t
1
in r
1

and c
2
copies of tuple t
2
in r
2
, there are c
1
x c
2

copies of the tuple t
1
. t
2
in r
1
x r
2
Slide No:L2-11
Duplicates (Cont.)
Example: Suppose multiset relations r
1
(A, B)
and r
2
(C) are as follows:
r
1
= {(1, a) (2,a)} r
2
= {(2), (3), (3)}
Then H
B
(r
1
) would be {(a), (a)}, while H
B
(r
1
) x r
2

would be
{(a,2), (a,2), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3)}
SQL duplicate semantics:
select A
1
,
,
A
2
, ..., A
n

from r
1
, r
2
, ..., r
m

where P
is equivalent to the multiset version of the
expression:


)) ( (
2 1 , , ,
2 1
m P A A A
r r r
n
[

o
Slide No:L2-12
Set Operations
The set operations union, intersect, and except
operate on relations and correspond to the
relational algebra operations , , .
Each of the above operations automatically
eliminates duplicates; to retain all duplicates use
the corresponding multiset versions union all,
intersect all and except all.

Suppose a tuple occurs m times in r and n times in
s, then, it occurs:
m

+ n times in r union all s
min(m,n) times in r intersect all s
max(0, m n) times in r except all s
Slide No:L2-13
Set Operations
Find all customers who have a loan, an account, or
both:
(select customer_name from depositor)
except
(select customer_name from borrower)

(select customer_name from depositor)
intersect
(select customer_name from borrower)
Find all customers who have an account but no loan.
(select customer_name from depositor)
union
(select customer_name from borrower)
Find all customers who have both a loan and an account.
Slide No:L2-14
Find sids of sailors whove reserved a red or a green
boat
UNION: Can be used to
compute the union of any
two union-compatible sets of
tuples (which are themselves
the result of SQL queries).
If we replace OR by AND in
the first version, what do we
get?
Also available: EXCEPT
(What do we get if we replace
UNION by EXCEPT?)
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid
AND (B.color=red OR B.color=green)
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid
AND B.color=red
UNION
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid
AND B.color=green
Slide No:L2-15
Find sids of sailors whove reserved a red and a green
boat
INTERSECT: Can be used to
compute the intersection of
any two union-compatible
sets of tuples.
Included in the SQL/92
standard, but some systems
dont support it.
Contrast symmetry of the
UNION and INTERSECT
queries with how much the
other versions differ.
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B1, Reserves R1,
Boats B2, Reserves R2
WHERE S.sid=R1.sid AND R1.bid=B1.bid
AND S.sid=R2.sid AND R2.bid=B2.bid
AND (B1.color=red AND B2.color=green)
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid
AND B.color=red
INTERSECT
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid
AND B.color=green
Key field!
Slide No:L3-1
Nested Queries
A very powerful feature of SQL: a WHERE clause can
itself contain an SQL query! (Actually, so can FROM and
HAVING clauses.)
To find sailors whove not reserved #103, use NOT IN.
To understand semantics of nested queries, think of a
nested loops evaluation: For each Sailors tuple, check the
qualification by computing the subquery.
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.sid IN (SELECT R.sid
FROM Reserves R
WHERE R.bid=103)
Find names of sailors whove reserved boat #103:
Slide No:L3-2
Nested Queries with Correlation
EXISTS is another set comparison operator, like IN.
If UNIQUE is used, and * is replaced by R.bid, finds
sailors with at most one reservation for boat #103.
(UNIQUE checks for duplicate tuples; * denotes all
attributes. Why do we have to replace * by R.bid?)
Illustrates why, in general, subquery must be re-
computed for each Sailors tuple.
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM Reserves R
WHERE R.bid=103 AND S.sid=R.sid)
Find names of sailors whove reserved boat #103:
Slide No:L3-3
Aggregate Functions
These functions operate on the multiset of
values of a column of a relation, and return a
value
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
Slide No:L3-4
Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
Find the average account balance at the Perryridge
branch.
Find the number of depositors in the bank.
Find the number of tuples in the customer relation.
select avg (balance)
from account
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'
select count (*)
from customer
select count (distinct customer_name)
from depositor
Slide No:L3-5
Aggregate Functions Group By
Find the number of depositors for each branch.
Note: Attributes in select clause outside of aggregate functions must
appear in group by list
select branch_name, count (distinct customer_name)
from depositor, account
where depositor.account_number = account.account_number
group by branch_name
Slide No:L3-6
Aggregate Functions Having Clause
Find the names of all branches where the average
account balance is more than $1,200.
Note: predicates in the having clause are applied after the
formation of groups whereas predicates in the where
clause are applied before forming groups

select branch_name, avg (balance)
from account
group by branch_name
having avg (balance) > 1200
Slide No:L3-7
Nested Subqueries
SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of
subqueries.
A subquery is a select-from-where expression
that is nested within another query.
A common use of subqueries is to perform tests
for set membership, set comparisons, and set
cardinality.
Slide No:L3-8
In Construct
Find all customers who have both an account and
a loan at the bank.
Find all customers who have a loan at the bank but do not have
an account at the bank
select distinct customer_name
from borrower
where customer_name not in (select customer_name
from depositor )
select distinct customer_name
from borrower
where customer_name in (select customer_name
from depositor )
Slide No:L3-9
Example Query
Find all customers who have both an account
and a loan at the Perryridge branch
Note: Above query can be written in a much simpler manner. The
formulation above is simply to illustrate SQL features.
select distinct customer_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number and
branch_name = 'Perryridge' and
(branch_name, customer_name ) in
(select branch_name, customer_name
from depositor, account
where depositor.account_number =
account.account_number )
Slide No:L4-1
Some Construct
Find all branches that have greater assets than
some branch located in Brooklyn.
Same query using > some clause
select branch_name
from branch
where assets > some
(select assets
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')
select distinct T.branch_name
from branch as T, branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and
S.branch_city = 'Brooklyn'
Slide No:L4-2
All Construct
Find the names of all branches that have greater
assets than all branches located in Brooklyn.
select branch_name
from branch
where assets > all
(select assets
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')
Slide No:L4-3
Exists Construct
Find all customers who have an account at all
branches located in Brooklyn.
select distinct S.customer_name
from depositor as S
where not exists (
(select branch_name
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')
except
(select R.branch_name
from depositor as T, account as R
where T.account_number = R.account_number and
S.customer_name = T.customer_name ))
Note that X Y = X _ Y
Note: Cannot write this query using = all and its variants
Slide No:L4-4
Absence of Duplicate Tuples
The unique construct tests whether a subquery
has any duplicate tuples in its result.
Find all customers who have at most one account
at the Perryridge branch.
select T.customer_name
from depositor as T
where unique (
select R.customer_name
from account, depositor as R
where T.customer_name = R.customer_name
and
R.account_number =
account.account_number and
account.branch_name = 'Perryridge')

Slide No:L4-5
Example Query
Find all customers who have at least two accounts
at the Perryridge branch.
select distinct T.customer_name
from depositor as T
where not unique (
select R.customer_name
from account, depositor as R
where T.customer_name = R.customer_name and
R.account_number = account.account_number and
account.branch_name = 'Perryridge')
Variable from outer level is known as a
correlation variable
Slide No:L4-6
Modification of the Database Deletion
Delete all account tuples at the Perryridge
branch
delete from account
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'

Delete all accounts at every branch located in
the city Needham.
delete from account
where branch_name in (select branch_name
from branch
where branch_city =
'Needham')

Slide No:L4-7
Example Query
Delete the record of all accounts with balances
below the average at the bank.
delete from account
where balance < (select avg (balance )
from account )
Problem: as we delete tuples from deposit, the average balance
changes
Solution used in SQL:
1. First, compute avg balance and find all tuples to delete
2. Next, delete all tuples found above (without recomputing avg or
retesting the tuples)
Slide No:L4-8
Modification of the Database Insertion
Add a new tuple to account
insert into account
values ('A-9732', 'Perryridge', 1200)

or equivalently

insert into account (branch_name, balance,
account_number)
values ('Perryridge', 1200, 'A-9732')

Add a new tuple to account with balance set to null
insert into account
values ('A-777','Perryridge', null )

Slide No:L4-9
Modification of the Database Insertion
Provide as a gift for all loan customers of the Perryridge
branch, a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve
as the account number for the new savings account
insert into account
select loan_number, branch_name, 200
from loan
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'
insert into depositor
select customer_name, loan_number
from loan, borrower
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'
and loan.account_number =
borrower.account_number
The select from where statement is evaluated fully before
any of its results are inserted into the relation
Motivation: insert into table1 select * from table1
Slide No:L5-1
Modification of the Database Updates
Increase all accounts with balances over
$10,000 by 6%, all other accounts receive 5%.
Write two update statements:
update account
set balance = balance - 1.06
where balance > 10000

update account
set balance = balance - 1.05
where balance s 10000
The order is important
Can be done better using the case statement
(next slide)
Slide No:L5-2
Case Statement for Conditional Updates
Same query as before: Increase all accounts with
balances over $10,000 by 6%, all other accounts
receive 5%.

update account
set balance = case
when balance <= 10000 then
balance *1.05
else balance * 1.06
end

Slide No:L5-3
More on Set-Comparison Operators
Weve already seen IN, EXISTS and UNIQUE. Can also use
NOT IN, NOT EXISTS and NOT UNIQUE.
Also available: op ANY, op ALL, op IN
Find sailors whose rating is greater than that of some
sailor called Horatio:
> < = > s = , , , , ,
SELECT *
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.rating > ANY (SELECT S2.rating
FROM Sailors S2
WHERE S2.sname=Horatio)
Slide No:L5-4
Rewriting INTERSECT Queries Using IN
Similarly, EXCEPT queries re-written using NOT IN.
To find names (not sids) of Sailors whove reserved both
red and green boats, just replace S.sid by S.sname in
SELECT clause. (What about INTERSECT query?)
Find sids of sailors whove reserved both a red and a green boat:
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid AND B.color=red
AND S.sid IN (SELECT S2.sid
FROM Sailors S2, Boats B2, Reserves R2
WHERE S2.sid=R2.sid AND R2.bid=B2.bid
AND B2.color=green)
Slide No:L5-5
Division in SQL
Lets do it the hard way,
without EXCEPT:
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S
WHERE NOT EXISTS
((SELECT B.bid
FROM Boats B)
EXCEPT
(SELECT R.bid
FROM Reserves R
WHERE R.sid=S.sid))
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S
WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT B.bid
FROM Boats B
WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT R.bid
FROM Reserves R
WHERE R.bid=B.bid
AND R.sid=S.sid))
Sailors S such that ...
there is no boat B without ...
a Reserves tuple showing S reserved B
Find sailors whove reserved all boats.
(1)
(2)
Slide No:L5-6
Aggregate Operators
Significant extension of
relational algebra.
COUNT (*)
COUNT ( [DISTINCT] A)
SUM ( [DISTINCT] A)
AVG ( [DISTINCT] A)
MAX (A)
MIN (A)
SELECT AVG (S.age)
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.rating=10
SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM Sailors S
SELECT AVG ( DISTINCT S.age)
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.rating=10
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.rating= (SELECT MAX(S2.rating)
FROM Sailors S2)
single column
SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT S.rating)
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.sname=Bob
Slide No:L5-7
Find name and age of the oldest sailor(s)
The first query is illegal!
(Well look into the reason
a bit later, when we
discuss GROUP BY.)
The third query is
equivalent to the second
query, and is allowed in
the SQL/92 standard,
but is not supported in
some systems.
SELECT S.sname, MAX (S.age)
FROM Sailors S
SELECT S.sname, S.age
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.age =
(SELECT MAX (S2.age)
FROM Sailors S2)
SELECT S.sname, S.age
FROM Sailors S
WHERE (SELECT MAX (S2.age)
FROM Sailors S2)
= S.age
Slide No:L5-8
Motivation for Grouping
So far, weve applied aggregate operators to all
(qualifying) tuples. Sometimes, we want to apply
them to each of several groups of tuples.
Consider: Find the age of the youngest sailor for
each rating level.
In general, we dont know how many rating levels
exist, and what the rating values for these levels
are!
Suppose we know that rating values go from 1 to
10; we can write 10 queries that look like this (!):
SELECT MIN (S.age)
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.rating = i
For i = 1, 2, ... , 10:
Slide No:L5-9
Queries With GROUP BY and HAVING
The target-list contains (i) attribute names (ii) terms
with aggregate operations (e.g., MIN (S.age)).
The attribute list (i) must be a subset of grouping-list.
Intuitively, each answer tuple corresponds to a group,
and these attributes must have a single value per
group. (A group is a set of tuples that have the same
value for all attributes in grouping-list.)
SELECT [DISTINCT] target-list
FROM relation-list
WHERE qualification
GROUP BY grouping-list
HAVING group-qualification
Slide No:L6-1
Conceptual Evaluation
The cross-product of relation-list is computed, tuples
that fail qualification are discarded, `unnecessary fields
are deleted, and the remaining tuples are partitioned
into groups by the value of attributes in grouping-list.
The group-qualification is then applied to eliminate some
groups. Expressions in group-qualification must have a
single value per group!
In effect, an attribute in group-qualification that is not
an argument of an aggregate op also appears in
grouping-list. (SQL does not exploit primary key
semantics here!)
One answer tuple is generated per qualifying group.
Slide No:L6-2
Find age of the youngest sailor with age 18, for each
rating with at least 2 such sailors
SELECT S.rating, MIN (S.age)
AS minage
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.age >= 18
GROUP BY S.rating
HAVING COUNT (*) > 1
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
29 brutus 1 33.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
32 andy 8 25.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
64 horatio 7 35.0
71 zorba 10 16.0
74 horatio 9 35.0
85 art 3 25.5
95 bob 3 63.5
96 frodo 3 25.5


Answer relation:
>
Sailors instance:
rating minage
3 25.5
7 35.0
8 25.5


Slide No:L6-3
Find age of the youngest sailor with age 18, for each
rating with at least 2 such sailors.
rating age
7 45.0
1 33.0
8 55.5
8 25.5
10 35.0
7 35.0
10 16.0
9 35.0
3 25.5
3 63.5
3 25.5


>
rating minage
3 25.5
7 35.0
8 25.5


rating age
1 33.0
3 25.5
3 63.5
3 25.5
7 45.0
7 35.0
8 55.5
8 25.5
9 35.0
10 35.0


Slide No:L6-4
Find age of the youngest sailor with age 18, for each rating with at
least 2 such sailors and with every sailor under 60.
rating age
7 45.0
1 33.0
8 55.5
8 25.5
10 35.0
7 35.0
10 16.0
9 35.0
3 25.5
3 63.5
3 25.5


>
rating age
1 33.0
3 25.5
3 63.5
3 25.5
7 45.0
7 35.0
8 55.5
8 25.5
9 35.0
10 35.0


rating minage
7 35.0
8 25.5


HAVING COUNT (*) > 1 AND EVERY (S.age <=60)
What is the result of
changing EVERY to
ANY?
Slide No:L6-5
Find age of the youngest sailor with age 18, for each rating
with at least 2 sailors between 18 and 60.
SELECT S.rating, MIN (S.age)
AS minage
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.age >= 18 AND S.age <= 60
GROUP BY S.rating
HAVING COUNT (*) > 1
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
29 brutus 1 33.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
32 andy 8 25.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
64 horatio 7 35.0
71 zorba 10 16.0
74 horatio 9 35.0
85 art 3 25.5
95 bob 3 63.5
96 frodo 3 25.5


Answer relation:
>
Sailors instance:
rating minage
3 25.5
7 35.0
8 25.5


Slide No:L6-6
For each red boat, find the number of
reservations for this boat
Grouping over a join of three relations.
What do we get if we remove B.color=red from
the WHERE clause and add a HAVING clause with
this condition?
What if we drop Sailors and the condition
involving S.sid?
SELECT B.bid, COUNT (*) AS scount
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid AND B.color=red
GROUP BY B.bid
Slide No:L6-7
Find age of the youngest sailor with age > 18,
for each rating with at least 2 sailors (of any age)
Shows HAVING clause can also contain a subquery.
Compare this with the query where we considered only
ratings with 2 sailors over 18!
What if HAVING clause is replaced by:
HAVING COUNT(*) >1
SELECT S.rating, MIN (S.age)
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.age > 18
GROUP BY S.rating
HAVING 1 < (SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM Sailors S2
WHERE S.rating=S2.rating)
Slide No:L6-8
Find those ratings for which the average age is the
minimum over all ratings
Aggregate operations cannot be nested! WRONG:
SELECT S.rating
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.age = (SELECT MIN (AVG (S2.age)) FROM Sailors S2)
SELECT Temp.rating, Temp.avgage
FROM (SELECT S.rating, AVG (S.age) AS avgage
FROM Sailors S
GROUP BY S.rating) AS Temp
WHERE Temp.avgage = (SELECT MIN (Temp.avgage)
FROM Temp)

Correct solution (in SQL/92):
Slide No:L7-1
Null Values
Field values in a tuple are sometimes unknown (e.g., a rating has
not been assigned) or inapplicable (e.g., no spouses name).
SQL provides a special value null for such situations.
The presence of null complicates many issues. E.g.:
Special operators needed to check if value is/is not null.
Is rating>8 true or false when rating is equal to null? What about
AND, OR and NOT connectives?
We need a 3-valued logic (true, false and unknown).
Meaning of constructs must be defined carefully. (e.g., WHERE
clause eliminates rows that dont evaluate to true.)
New operators (in particular, outer joins) possible/needed.
Slide No:L7-2
Null Values
It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by
null, for some of their attributes
null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not
exist.
The predicate is null can be used to check for null
values.
Example: Find all loan number which appear in the
loan relation with null values for amount.
select loan_number
from loan
where amount is null
The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is
null
Example: 5 + null returns null
However, aggregate functions simply ignore nulls
More on next slide
Slide No:L7-3
Null Values and Three Valued Logic
Any comparison with null returns unknown
Example: 5 < null or null <> null or null = null
Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:
OR: (unknown or true) = true,
(unknown or false) = unknown
(unknown or unknown) = unknown
AND: (true and unknown) = unknown,
(false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
NOT: (not unknown) = unknown
P is unknown evaluates to true if predicate P
evaluates to unknown
Result of where clause predicate is treated as false if it
evaluates to unknown
Slide No:L7-4
Null Values and Aggregates
Total all loan amounts
select sum (amount )
from loan
Above statement ignores null amounts
Result is null if there is no non-null
amount
All aggregate operations except count(*)
ignore tuples with null values on the
aggregated attributes.
Slide No:L7-5
Joined Relations**
Join operations take two relations and return as a
result another relation.
These additional operations are typically used as
subquery expressions in the from clause
Join condition defines which tuples in the two
relations match, and what attributes are present in
the result of the join.
Join type defines how tuples in each relation that
do not match any tuple in the other relation (based
on the join condition) are treated.
Slide No:L8-1
Joined Relations Datasets for Examples
Relation loan
Relation borrower
Note: borrower information missing for L-260 and loan
information missing for L-155
Slide No:L8-2
Joined Relations Examples
loan inner join borrower on
loan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number
loan left outer join borrower on
loan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number
Slide No:L8-3
Joined Relations Examples
loan natural inner join borrower
loan natural right outer join borrower
Find all customers who have either an account or a loan (but not both) at the bank.
select customer_name
from (depositor natural full outer join borrower )
where account_number is null or loan_number is null
Slide No:L8-4
Joined Relations Examples
Natural join can get into trouble if two relations have
an attribute with
same name that should not affect the join condition
e.g. an attribute such as remarks may be present in
many tables
Solution:
loan full outer join borrower using (loan_number)
Slide No:L8-5
Derived Relations
SQL allows a subquery expression to be used in the
from clause
Find the average account balance of those branches
where the average account balance is greater than
$1200.
select branch_name, avg_balance
from (select branch_name, avg (balance)
from account
group by branch_name )
as branch_avg ( branch_name,
avg_balance )
where avg_balance > 1200
Note that we do not need to use the having clause,
since we compute the temporary (view) relation
branch_avg in the from clause, and the attributes of
branch_avg can be used directly in the where clause.

Slide No:L8-6
Integrity Constraints (Review)
An IC describes conditions that every legal instance of a
relation must satisfy.
Inserts/deletes/updates that violate ICs are disallowed.
Can be used to ensure application semantics (e.g., sid is
a key), or prevent inconsistencies (e.g., sname has to be
a string, age must be < 200)
Types of ICs: Domain constraints, primary key
constraints, foreign key constraints, general constraints.
Domain constraints: Field values must be of right type.
Always enforced.
Slide No:L8-7
General Constraints
Useful when more general ICs
than keys are involved.
Can use queries to express
constraint.
Constraints can be named.
CREATE TABLE
Sailors
( sid INTEGER,
sname CHAR(10),
rating INTEGER,
age REAL,
PRIMARY KEY (sid),
CHECK ( rating >= 1
AND rating <= 10
)

CREATE TABLE Reserves
( sname CHAR(10),
bid INTEGER,
day DATE,
PRIMARY KEY (bid,day),
CONSTRAINT noInterlakeRes
CHECK (`Interlake <>
( SELECT B.bname
FROM Boats B
WHERE B.bid=bid)))
Slide No:L8-8
Constraints Over Multiple Relations
CREATE TABLE Sailors
( sid INTEGER,
sname CHAR(10),
rating INTEGER,
age REAL,
PRIMARY KEY (sid),
CHECK
( (SELECT COUNT (S.sid) FROM Sailors S)
+ (SELECT COUNT (B.bid) FROM Boats B) < 100 )

Awkward and
wrong!
If Sailors is
empty, the
number of Boats
tuples can be
anything!
ASSERTION is the
right solution; not
associated with
either table.
CREATE ASSERTION smallClub
CHECK
( (SELECT COUNT (S.sid) FROM Sailors S)
+ (SELECT COUNT (B.bid) FROM Boats B) < 100 )

Number of boats
plus number of
sailors is < 100
Slide No:L8-9
Triggers
Trigger: procedure that starts automatically if
specified changes occur to the DBMS
Three parts:
Event (activates the trigger)
Condition (tests whether the triggers should run)
Action (what happens if the trigger runs)

Slide No:L8-10
Triggers: Example (SQL:1999)
CREATE TRIGGER youngSailorUpdate
AFTER INSERT ON SAILORS
REFERENCING NEW TABLE NewSailors
FOR EACH STATEMENT
INSERT
INTO YoungSailors(sid, name, age, rating)
SELECT sid, name, age, rating
FROM NewSailors N
WHERE N.age <= 18