LEXICAL SEMANTICS

fall winter 2009 - 2010

Lecture 4

The Development of Componential Analysis in the Generative Tradition: Lexical Decomposition

The contribution of GG to lexical semantics has been manifold: (1) a) proposing the concept of mental lexicon and thus laying stress on the manner in which lexical knowledge is stored and acquired; the generative tradition is an intrinsic part of the cognitivist paradigm. b) elaborating and refining a notion of lexical entry; c) describing the manner in which the lexicon stores syntactic features as well as the manner in which syntactic information is used in syntax (the projection of lexical items) d) very generally an important component of various formal approaches to grammar is negotiating the boundary between syntax and the lexicon.
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Semantic Component Deep Structure (2) Syntactic Component Surface Structure Phonologic Component

The semantic component consists of two elements: a. a lexicon that provides a meaning for each lexical item b. a finite set of projection rules, which assign readings to syntactic phrases by combining the readings assigned to their constituents.
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Each lexical entry contains the following types of markers: (3) a. grammatical markers, specifically the categorial and sub-categorial features (the c-selection feature);e.g. +N, +V, + -- NP, etc.

b.

semantic markers are the features which characterize more than one item; these features express similarities between items and therefore they show those aspects of the meaning which are in fact systematic and uncover the structure of content; e.g., [+ Animate], [+ Colour], [+State], [+Gradable];
distinguishers a marker which reflects the idiosyncratic element in each lexical element; the presence of a distinguisher shows the irreducible nature of words. Lexical items are not equivalent with componential definition selectional features, the fourth type of information provided by the dictionary refer tot the combinatorial abilities of lexical items: arguments are s-selected; modifiers s-select the modifee; e.g., drink + -- < liquid>NP. Notational conventions: semantic markers = () distinguishers = [] selectional restrictions = <>
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c.

d.

(4)

bachelor +Noun [Det ---] (human) (male) (animal) (male) (young) (young) (knigh)t .. [serving under [having the first the banner of another] or lowest academic degree] (seal) [when without a mate during the breeding season] semantic markers grammatical markers

(adult) (never married)

distinguishers selectional restrictions

(5) (i) states (ii) achievements (iii) accomplishments

S(x) BECOME (S (x)) (redden, soften, etc.) CAUSE(BECOME (S (x)))

Some properties of verb meanings:

a.

(6) I had a headache / a shower/ a surprise,). In any language there are light verbs. b. In anomalous V+N combinations, it is the verb which is assigned a new reading, rather than the noun.

(7) grasp a hand/ grasp a meaning; drink water/ drink knowledge

c.

These properties are apparent in the existence of light verbs which are highly polysemantic: be, have, run, make, do, set, go, come, take. For these, polysemy basically arises by combinations with nouns.

(8) Result: Generally the meaning of the verb is sharpened, therefore dependent on the V+ NP combination. Verb meaning depends on the verb-argument configuration. 8

The Wordnet analysis of BEAT (9) BEAT (all imply, contact, impact) {beat, strke, hit} contact verb {beat, flatten} change of state. {beat, throb, pulse} verb of motion {beat defeat} competition verb {beat, flog, punish} social interaction {beat, stir, whisk} cooking verb {beat, mark} count rhythm in music
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Result:

(10) 1. Verbs are relational and are basically defined by the number and configuration of their arguments. 2. The meaning of a verb is best represented by the syntactic configuration of its arguments, i.e., by the VP it projects. The lexical representation of any verb involves a system of relations (called Lexical Relational Structure) having an essentially syntactic form of the type in (i). (i) NP V NP 3. VP V XP X

X NP Complex VPs are lexically decomposed into simpler predications.

Lexical relational structures represent a syntax and they are subject to general principle of syntax. They involves the same categories defined in syntax: head, complement, specifier.

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(10)

ergative vs. unergative: VP

NP

V
V sleeps VP

Mary
(11) V
melt

NP
the ice
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Empirical facts:
a) unergatives assign Accusative case: cognate objects: to laugh a crazy laugh b) the zero-derived nature of unergatives in English: (12) to laugh/ a laugh, to walk, a walk, to run, a run, to swim/ a swim, to dance/ a dance, to whistle/ a whistle; to sneeze/ a sneeze; to scream / a scream; to shiver/ a shiver, etc. c) many ergative verbs have transitive light verb counterparts: (13) a. b. The child laughed. The child had a laugh. She sang. She did a song.

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(15)

a. unergatives VP
V V N

b. unaccusative VP
V NP

NP

melt

ice

Mary

run

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(16)

a. b. c. d. a. b. c. d.

The child laughed. The colt sneezed. Petronella sang. The ewes lambed. The child had a laugh/ She did her new song. The ewe had twins. This mare does a nice trot.

(17)

Unergatives cannot be embedded under causatives: suggestion they do not have a subject in l-syntax, but just a cognate object; they get their subject in syntax.

(19)

a.*The clown laughed the child.(got the child to laugh) b.*The alfalfa sneezed the colt. (got the colt to sneeze)
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(20) foal, fawn, whelp (dog, wolf), calve, pup, lamb, wether (ram) (21) a. b. c. Flicka foaled. The cow calved. VP (NP) V (22) a. b. c. Flicka had a calf. The cow had a calf. The doe had a fawn. V N foal

(23)
NP

VP
V V have N
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(27) lunch, dine, breakfast, picnic We lunched/had lunch at the Border Caf. (28) hay, berry, mushroom, fish, whale; get fish, get mushrooms (29) rain, snow, hail, sleet, drizzle, lighten, thunder It rained/ snowed / sleeted / drizzled a lot. It was raining cats and dogs.

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Another similar correlation: adjectives and inchoative verbs

(30) Verb to redden to fatten to soften to sharpen to solidify to thicken

Adjective red fat soft sharp solid thick

Verb to cool to thin

Adjectives cool thin

Hypothesis: Inchoatives are adjective incorporating verbs

red

red(d)

en

Location verbs (36) ground the planes, jail the prisoner, shelve the book, porch the newspaper, shelve, pen, corral, box, crate, coop, etc.
The book /is on the shelf The book got to be on the shelf He caused the book to be on the shelf.

(37) He shelved the book

(39)

He jailed the prisoners V V PP NP P (prisoners)

P N jail
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(40) a. For three years, the Sheriff of Nottingham jailed Robin Hood. b. The Sheriff of Nottingham jailed Robin Hood for three years. (41) PP for three years VP VP NP V (42) VP NP V V PP NP Robin P Hood P N jail

V
PP NP Robin P Hood

PP
P N jail PP for three years.
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Locatum verbs (43) a) carpet the floor, put the carpet on the floor, salt the food, sugar the cake, paint the wall, paper the wall, etc. b) bandage, bar, bell, blindfold, bread, butter, clothe, curtain, dress, fund, gas, grease, harness, hook, house, ink, oil, pepper, powder, saddle, salt, shoe, spice, water, word Incorporation affects complements, not the subjects, moreover it affects the lowest complement in the structure. Consequently, the correct paraphrase will be (44), not (45).
(44) The cowboy saddled the horse The cowboy fitted the horse with a saddle. The cowboy buttered the bread. The cowboy spread the bread with butter They curtained the room. They provided the room with curtains

(45) The cowboy saddled the horse. The cowboy put the saddle on the horse. The cowboy buttered the bread. The cowboy spread the butter on the bread. They curtained the room. They put curtains in the room.
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(46) Locatum verbs VP NP V V NP The the cowboy horse (47) VP NP V The cowboy (48) VP NP V The cowboy NP the horse V NP the saddle V

PP P P N saddle

PP P P on NP the horse

put

PP P P with NP a saddle
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fit

An important generalization. Verbal configurations which have inner subjects yield middles. An affected patient is the only role that undergoes middle formation

(49)

a. b.
a. b. c. d. a. b.

In this region, the sky darkens easily. Metals flatten easily

(50)

(51)

(52) We flattened the metal. We darkened the room We tightened the knot. We lengthened the word. (53) The sun melted the ice. The boy broke the window. (53) VP DP He V laugh V N tlaugh

The unergative configuration is Agentive and syntactically the specifier VP is filled, receiving an Agentive interpretation:
Hypothesis: being an Agent simply means being the specifier of VP.
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(54) Configurationally, the Theme is an inner subject: Goals /Locations/ Locatums qualify as inner objects: (55) V melt (56) V VP AP NP the ice A melt
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VP NP the ice

a.

Verbs of creation/consumption = transitive (unergative) verbs V V draw eat write do make DP a circle an apple a poem a dance a handout

(57)

b. (58)

Verbs of change of state (unaccusative) V/VP V turn paint AdjP DP the leaves the town A red red

c. (59)

Verbs of transfer (Locatum / Location verbs) VP V V DP give send teach a book a letter French P to to to PP P DP Sue France the children

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(60) -roles Agent Theme Goal Incremental Theme

Spec-vP Spec-SC (Inner subject) Comp-SC Comp-vP

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(61) a. Conflation should be associated with Merge b. Conflation occurs when a constituent is merged with whose p-signature is defective. The p-sig of is copied into the defective p-sig of . c. For economy reasons, the copied p-sig is pronounced only once in its upper position. d. Assume that heads whose p-sig is defective bear an [+affix] features. A [+affix] feature triggers copying the p-feature of the sister category at Merge. e. Conflation applies as early as possible
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(62) a. -er nominalzations paper cutter, can opener, , house-keeper, doorstopper, page-truner, truck driver, script writer, tiebreaker, homemaker, name-caller, noisemaker, blood donnor b. -ing compounds paper cutting, can-opening, , house-keeping, page-turning, truck driving, script writing, tiebreaking, homemaking, name-calling, noisemaking, fact-checking, fact-finding, etc.
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(63) nscriptwrite n er V writeVscriptwrite N script

Deriving the incroporations through conflation: a. Select write with [+affix] feature. b. Merge write and script. Copy the p-sig of script into write during Merge. c. Project the head (V= label the whole thing with the heads feature) d. Merge scriptwriter with er, with er having an affix feature. Copy the p-sig of scrptwrite into that of er again at Merge (Conflation Economy) e. Project the head n. f. Pronounce the entire structure as script writer.

(64) can-opener ncan-opener n Acan-open A N er opencan

Results: 1.The conflation mechanism derives the First Sister Principle

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