PART IV

Network Layer

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Figure 19.1

Internetwork

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Figure 19.2

Links in an internetwork

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Figure 19.3

Network layer in an internetwork

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Figure 19.7

Switching

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Figure 19.8

Datagram approach

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Note: Switching at the network layer in the Internet is done using the datagram approach to packet switching.

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Note: An IP address is a 32-bit address.

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Note: The IP addresses are unique and universal.

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Figure 19.9

Dotted-decimal notation

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Note: The binary, decimal, and hexadecimal number systems are reviewed in Appendix B.

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Example 1
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to dotteddecimal notation. a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

b.

11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal number (see Appendix B) and add dots for separation: a. 129.11.11.239 b. 249.155.251.15

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Example 2
Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary notation. a. 111.56.45.78

b.

75.45.34.78

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent (see Appendix B): a. b. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110

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Note: In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E.

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Figure 19.10

Finding the class in binary notation

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Figure 19.11 Finding the address class

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Example 3
Find the class of each address: a. b. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 11110011 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution
See the procedure in Figure 19.11. a. b. The first bit is 0; this is a class A address. The first 4 bits are 1s; this is a class E address.

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Figure 19.12

Finding the class in decimal notation

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Example 4
Find the class of each address: a. b. c. 227.12.14.87 252.5.15.111 134.11.78.56

Solution
a. b. c. The first byte is 227 (between 224 and 239); the class is D. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is E. The first byte is 134 (between 128 and 191); the class is B.

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Figure 19.13

Netid and hostid

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Figure 19.14

Blocks in class A

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Note: Millions of class A addresses are wasted.

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Figure 19.15

Blocks in class B

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Note: Many class B addresses are wasted.

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Note: The number of addresses in class C is smaller than the needs of most organizations.

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Figure 19.16

Blocks in class C

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Figure 19.17

Network address

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Note: In classful addressing, the network address is the one that is assigned to the organization.

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Example 5
Given the address 23.56.7.91, find the network address.

Solution
The class is A. Only the first byte defines the netid. We can find the network address by replacing the hostid bytes (56.7.91) with 0s. Therefore, the network address is 23.0.0.0.

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Example 6
Given the address 132.6.17.85, find the network address.

Solution
The class is B. The first 2 bytes defines the netid. We can find the network address by replacing the hostid bytes (17.85) with 0s. Therefore, the network address is 132.6.0.0.

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Example 7
Given the network address 17.0.0.0, find the class.

Solution
The class is A because the netid is only 1 byte.

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Note: A network address is different from a netid. A network address has both netid and hostid, with 0s for the hostid.

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Figure 19.18

Sample internet

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Note: IP addresses are designed with two levels of hierarchy.

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Figure 19.19 A network with two levels of hierarchy

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Figure 19.20 A network with three levels of hierarchy (subnetted)

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Figure 19.21 Addresses in a network with and without subnetting

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Figure 19.22

Hierarchy concept in a telephone number

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Table 19.1 Default masks

Class A B C In Binary 11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 11111111 111111111 11111111 00000000 In DottedDecimal 255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.0 Using Slash /8 /16 /24

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Note: The network address can be found by applying the default mask to any address in the block (including itself). It retains the netid of the block and sets the hostid to 0s.

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Example 8
A router outside the organization receives a packet with destination address 190.240.7.91. Show how it finds the network address to route the packet.

Solution
The router follows three steps: 1. The router looks at the first byte of the address to find the class. It is class B. 2. The default mask for class B is 255.255.0.0. The router ANDs this mask with the address to get 190.240.0.0. 3. The router looks in its routing table to find out how to route the packet to this destination. Later, we will see what happens if this destination does not exist.
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Figure 19.23

Subnet mask

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Example 9
A router inside the organization receives the same packet with destination address 190.240.33.91. Show how it finds the subnetwork address to route the packet.

Solution
The router follows three steps: 1. The router must know the mask. We assume it is /19, as shown in Figure 19.23. 2. The router applies the mask to the address, 190.240.33.91. The subnet address is 190.240.32.0. 3. The router looks in its routing table to find how to route the packet to this destination. Later, we will see what happens if this destination does not exist.

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