BY, ADARSH UDAYAN Roll no.

1 Std: IX A
Social Science project 2010-1 1 BCEM School July-2010

Miss. Kavitha K Department of history, teacher BCEM School

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled in the Research In Chess in the IXth standard, BCEM School, is a record of project carried out by Adarsh Udayan under my guidance and supervision.

Miss. Kavitha K Department of history, teacher BCEM School

Gurupuram July 2010

DECLARATION

I Adarsh Udayan (IX A) to here by declared that the project entitled Research InChess is a work done by me under the supervision of miss. Kavitha K, department of history BCEM School Gurupuram.

Adarsh Udayan IX A BCEM School Gurupuram

Gurupuram July 2010

Acknowledgement

I express all glory and thanks to good the almighty whose strengthened till now to complete my project.

I would like to express my thanks and sincere gratitude to my esteemed teacher Miss.Kavitha.k,department of history, BCEM School.

I express my sentimentence of gratitude to Miss.Mini head of the department of history BCEM School.Without whose valuable guidance and encourage it would not have been possible for me to bring out the project.

I express my thanks to the liberarian miss.Usha, who generously lend me suifficent books and periodicals which helped me a lot in the preparation of this work.

I am also fortunate to have help and assistant from my close relative and classmates and I thanked them all.

CONTENTS Sl no. 1 2 Topic Introduction Characteristics of the game a. Algebraic notation b. Moves i. King ii. Rook iii. Bishop iv. Queen v. Knight vi. Capturing vii. Pawns viii. Castling c. Relative piece values d. Object of the game e. Game notation f. Conduct of the game History a. Origin of chess b. Ancient precursors and related games c. Introduction to Europe d. Standardization of rules e. Set design f. The world championship and FIDE g. Women in chess Development of Theory a. Philidor and the birth of chess theory b. Morphy and the theory of attack c. Steinitz and the theory of equilibrium d. The Fischer clock Chess and artificial intelligence a. heuristics b. Computer chess c. Computer extension of chess theory Chess composition a. Studies about chess ANNEXTURE BIBLIOGRAPHY pg no.

6 7 8

INTRODUCTION

This is a research about the chess. This research is concentrated mainly with the origin of chess, old chess players of the world, some moves of the chess, recent years and this years chess players, studies about chess etc. Chess is a game of skill for two players, each of whom moves 16 figures according to fixed rules across a board consisting of an eight-by-eight pattern of squares. . Victory depends on concentration and intuitive vision. The chess master Siegbert Tarrasch declared that chess, like love, like music, has the power to make men happy. It is often called the royal game.

Characteristics of the game Chess is played on a board of 64 squares arranged in eight vertical rows called files and eight horizontal rows called ranks. These squares alternate between two colours: one light, such as white, beige, or yellow; and the other dark, such as black or green. The board is set between the two opponents so that each player has a light-coloured square at the right-hand corner. Algebraic notation Individual moves and entire games can be recorded using one of several forms of notation. By far the most widely used form, algebraic (or coordinate) notation, identifies each square from the point of view of the player with the light-coloured pieces, called White. The eight ranks are numbered 1 through 8 beginning with the rank closest to White. The files are labeled a through h beginning with the file at White s left hand. Each square has a name consisting of its letter and number, such as b3 or g8. Additionally, files a through d are referred to as the queenside, and files e through h as the kingside.. Moves The board represents a battlefield in which two armies fight to capture each other s king. A player s army consists of 16 pieces . There are six different types of pieces: king, rook, bishop, queen, knight, and pawn; the pieces are distinguished by appearance and by how they move. The players alternate moves, White going first. King White s king begins the game on e1. Black s king is opposite at e8. Each king can move one square in any direction; e.g., White s king can move from e1 to d1, d2, e2, f2, or f1. Rook Each player has two rooks (formerly also known as castles), which begin the game on the corner squares a1 and h1 for White, a8 and h8 for Black. A rook can move vertically or horizontally to any unobstructed square along the file or rank on which it is placed.

Bishop Each player has two bishops, and they begin the game at c1 and f1 for White, c8 and f8 for Black. A bishop can move to any unobstructed square on the diagonal on which it is placed. Therefore, each player has one bishop that travels only on light-coloured squares and one bishop that travels only on dark-coloured squares. Queen Each player has one queen, which combines the powers of the rook and bishop and is thus the most mobile and powerful piece. The White queen begins at d1, the Black queen at d8. Knight Each player has two knights, and they begin the game on the squares between their rooks and bishops i.e., at b1 and g1 for White and b8 and g8 for Black. The knight has the trickiest move, an L-shape of two steps: first one square like a rook, then one square like a bishop, but always in a direction away from the starting square. A knight at e4 could move to f2, g3, g5, f6, d6, c5, c3, or d2. The knight has the unique ability to jump over any other piece to reach its destination. It always moves to a square of a different colour. Capturing The king, rook, bishop, queen, and knight capture enemy pieces in the same manner that they move. For example, a White queen on d3 can capture a Black rook at h7 by moving to h7 and removing the enemy piece from the board. Pieces can capture only enemy pieces. Pawns Each player has eight pawns, which begin the game on the second rank closest to each player; i.e., White s pawns start at a2, b2, c2, and so on, while Black s pawns start at a7, b7, c7, and so on. The pawns are unique in several ways. A pawn can move only forward; it can never retreat. It moves differently than it captures. A pawn moves to the square directly ahead of it but captures on the squares diagonally in front of it; e.g., a

White pawn at f5 can move to f6 but can capture only on g6 or e6. An unmoved pawn has the option of moving one or two squares forward. This is the reason for another peculiar option, called en passant that is, in passing available to a pawn when an enemy pawn on an adjoining file advances two squares on its initial move and could have been captured had it moved only one square. The first pawn can take the advancing pawn en passant, as if it had advanced only one square. An en passant capture must be made then or not at all. Only pawns can be captured en passant. The last unique feature of the pawn occurs if it reaches the end of a file; it must then be promoted to that is, exchanged for a queen, rook, bishop, or knight. Castling The one exception to the rule that a player may move only one piece at a time is a compound move of king and rook called castlin g. A player castles by shifting the king two squares in the direction of a rook, which is then placed on the square the king has crossed. For example, White can castle kingside by moving the king from e1 to g1 and the rook from h1 to f1. Castling is permitted only once in a game and is prohibited if the king or rook has previously moved or if any of the squares between them is occupied. Also, castling is not legal if the square the king starts on, crosses, or finishes on is attacked by an enemy piece. Relative piece values Assigning the pawn a value of 1, the values of the other pieces are approximately as follows: knight 3, bishop 3, rook 5, and queen 9. The relative values of knights and bishops vary with different pawn structures. Additionally, tactical considerations may temporarily override the pieces usual relative values. Material concerns are secondary to winning.

Object of the game When a player moves a piece to a square on which it attacks the enemy king that is, a square from which it could capture the king if the king is not shielded or moved. The game is won when one king is in check and

cannot avoid capture on the next move; this is called checkmate. A game also can end when a player, believing the situation to be hopeless, acknowledges defeat by resigning. There are three possible results in chess: win, lose, or draw. There are six ways a draw can come about: (1) by mutual consent, (2) when neither player has enough pieces to deliver checkmate, (3) when one player can check the enemy king endlessly (perpetual check), (4) when a player who is not in check has no legal move (stalemate), (5) when an identical position occurs three times with the same player having the right to move, and (6) when no piece has been captured and no pawn has been moved within a period of 50 moves. In competitive events, a victory is scored as one point, a draw as half a point, and a loss as no points. Game notation A move can be recorded by designating the initial of the piece moved and the square to which it moves. For example, Be5 means a bishop has moved to e5. There are two exceptions: a knight is identified by N, and no initials are used for pawn moves. For example, 1 e4 means White s first move is a two-square advance of a pawn on the e-file, and 1 . . . Nf6 means Black s response is to bring a knight from g8 to f6. For both White and Black, castling kingside is indicated by 0-0, while castling queenside is notated by 0-0-0. Captures are indicated by inserting an x or : between the piece moving and the square it moves to. For pawn moves, this means dxe5 indicates a White pawn on d4 captures a piece on e5. En passant captures are designated by e.p. Checks are indicated by adding ch or + at the end of the move, and checkmate is often indicated by adding # or ++ at the end of the move. Notation is used to record games as they are played and to analyze them in print afterward. In annotating (commenting) on a game, an appended exclamation mark means a very good move, two exclamation marks are occasionally used to indicate an extremely good move, a question mark indicates a bad move, two question marks indicate a blunder, and the combination of an exclamation mark and a question mark on the same move indicates a double-edged or somewhat dubious move.

Conduct of the game Competitive chess is played according to a set of rules that supplement the basic laws governing how the pieces move. Among the more important rules are those governing completion of a move, recording of games, time controls (see The time element and competition), and penalties for illegal moves and other infractions. Tournament and match chess is distinguished from casual games by the strict provisions for completing a move. Unless preceded by the warning I adjust (French: j adoube ), a piece touched must be moved or captured (if legally possible), and a completed move may not be retracted. The players also are obligated to record their moves. Only after making a move can they stop their allotted time from elapsing, usually by depressing a device on the chess clock used in competitive play. A player can be penalized in a variety of ways, including forfeiture of the game, for consulting another player or any recorded material during the game, for analyzing the game on another board, or for distracting the opponent. Any player who realizes during a game that an illegal move has been made may demand that the position before the infraction be reinstated and that play proceed from there. If the illegality is discovered after the game is completed, the result stands without penalty. Muslims brought chess to North Africa, Sicily, and Spain by the 10th century. Eastern Slavs spread it to Kievan Rus about the same time. The Vikings carried the game as far as Iceland and England and are believed responsible for the most famous collection of chessmen, 78 walrus-ivory pieces of various sets that were found on the Isle of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides in 1831 and date from the 11th or 12th century.. . History Origin Of Chess Internationally famous mind game and it is believed to have originated from the Indian soil. There are many interesting legends pertaining to its origin.

One of the legend states that the wife of King Ravana (a character from the Indian epic of Ramayana) invented the game 4000-5000 years ago. There is also a reference in the Bhavishya Purana about the game. Chess existed in India before it was known to have been played anywhere else. The game might have originated from the ancient game of Chaturanga in India. Chaturanga, a Sanskrit word, refers to the four branches of the army, which are said in the Amarakosha (an ancient Indian Dictionary - S.B.) to be elephants, horses, chariots and foot soldiers. Chaturanga was played on a board of 64 squares consisting of four opposing players. It is the view of some historians that this game was also used in the allocation of land among different members of a clan when a new settlement was being established. H. J. R. Murry, in his work titled A History of Chess, has concluded that chess is a descendant of an Indian game played in the 7th century AD. The current form of the game emerged in Europe during the second half of the 15th century after evolving from an older game (Shatranj) of Indian origin. Aspects of art are found in chess composition. Theoreticians have developed extensive chess strategies and tactics since the game's inception. One of the goals of early computer scientists was to create a chess-playing machine. Chess is now deeply influenced by the abilities of chess programs and the opportunity for online play. In 1997 Deep Blue became the first computer to beat a reigning World Champion in a match when it defeated Garry Kasparov. The tradition of organized competitive chess started in the 16th century. The first official World Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, claimed his title in 1886; the current World Champion is Viswanathan Anand. Chess is a recognized sport of the International Olympic Committee, and is led by the FIDE. Today, chess is one of the world's most popular games, played by millions of people worldwide at home, in clubs, online, by correspondence, and in tournaments. Checkerboard game for two players, each of whom moves 16 pieces according to fixed rules across the board and tries to capture or immobilize (checkmate) the opponent s king. The game may have originated in Asia about the 6th century, though it continued to evolve as it spread into Europe in Byzantine times; its now-

standard rules first became generally accepted in Europe in the 16th century. The players, designated white or black, start with their pieces arranged on opposite ends of the board. Kings move one square in any direction but not into attack (check). Bishops move diagonally, and rooks horizontally or vertically, any number of unobstructed squares. Queens move like either bishops or rooks. Knights move to the nearest nonadjacent square of the opposite colour (an L shape) and ignore intervening chessmen. Pieces capture by moving to an enemy-occupied square. Pawns move forward one square (except one or two on their first move) and are promoted to any non-king piece if they eventually reach the last row. Pawns capture only one diagonal square forward of them. For one turn only, a pawn has the option, known as en passant, of capturing an enemy pawn that has just made a first move of two squares to avoid being captured by moving only one; the capture occurs as though the pawn had moved only one square. When the first row between a king and either rook is clear, and as long as the king and that rook have not moved, a maneuver known as castling can be done in which the king is shifted two squares toward that rook and the rook is placed directly on the other side of the king. Kings cannot castle when in check or through any square in which they would be in check. A draw, known as a stalemate, occurs if a player is not in check but any move he could make would place him in check. A draw also occurs if the same position occurs three times (such as through perpetual check ). Chess first appeared in India about the 6th century ad and by the 10th century had spread from Asia to the Middle East and Europe. Since at least the 15th century, chess has been known as the royal game because of its popularity among the nobility. Rules and set design slowly evolved until both reached today s standard in the early 19th century. Once an intellectual diversion favoured by the upper classes, chess went through an explosive growth in interest during the 20th century as professional and state-sponsored players competed for an officially recognized world championship title and increasingly lucrative tournament prizes. Organized chess tournaments, postal correspondence games, and Internet chess now attract men, women, and children around the world.

Ancient precursors and related games The origin of chess remains a matter of controversy. There is no credible evidence that chess existed in a form approaching the modern game before the 6th century ce. Game pieces found in Russia, China, India, Central Asia, Pakistan, and elsewhere that have been determined to be older than that are now regarded as coming from earlier distantly related board games, often involving dice and sometimes using playing boards of 100 or more squares. One of those earlier games developed into a four-player war game called chaturanga, a Sanskrit name for a battle formation mentioned in the Indian epic Mahabharata. Chaturanga was flourishing in northwestern India by the 7th century and is regarded as the earliest precursor of modern chess because it had two key features found in all later chess variants different pieces had different powers (unlike checkers and go), and victory was based on one piece, the king of modern chess. How chaturanga evolved is unclear. Some historians say chaturanga, perhaps played with dice on a 64-square board, gradually transformed into shatranj (or chatrang).The two-player game popular in northern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and southern parts of Central Asia after 600 ce. Shatranj resembled chaturanga but added a new piece, a firz n (counselor), which had nothing to do with any troop formation. A game of shatranj could be won either by eliminating all an opponent s pieces (baring the king) or by ensuring the capture of the king. The initial positions of the pawns and knights have not changed, but there were considerable regional and temporal variations for the other pieces. The game spread to the east, north, and west, taking on sharply different characteristics. In the East, carried by Buddhist pilgrims, Silk Road traders, and others, it was transformed into a game with inscribed disks that were often placed on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares. About 750 ce chess reached China, and by the 11th century it had come to Japan and Korea. Chinese chess, the most popular version of the Eastern game, has 9 files and 10 ranks as well as a boundary the river, between the 5th and 6th ranks that limits access to the enemy camp and makes the game slower than its Western cousin.

Introduction to Europe A form of chaturanga or shatranj made its way to Europe by way of Persia, the Byzantine Empire, and, perhaps most important of all, the expanding Arabian empire. The oldest recorded game, found in a 10thcentury manuscript, was played between a Baghdad historian, believed to be a favourite of three successive caliphs, and a pupil. Muslims brought chess to North Africa, Sicily, and Spain by the 10th century. Eastern Slavs spread it to Kievan Rus about the same time. The Vikings carried the game as far as Iceland and England and are believed responsible for the most famous collection of chessmen, 78 walrus-ivory pieces of various sets that were found on the Isle of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides in 1831 and date from the 11th or 12th century.. Chess and dice games were periodically banned by kings and religious leaders. For example, King Louis IX forbade the game in France in 1254. However, the game s popularity was helped by its social cachet: a chess set was often associated with wealth, knowledge, and power. It was a favourite of Kings Henry I, Henry II, John, and Richard I of England, of Philip II and Alfonso X (the Wise) of Spain, and of Ivan IV (the Terrible) of Russia. It was known as the royal game as early as the 15th century. World chess champions Championship Name region 1866 94 Steinitz, Wilhelm 1894 1921 Lasker, Emanuel 1921 27 Capablanca, Jos Ral 1927 35 Alekhine, Alexander 1935 37 Euwe, Max 1937 46 Alekhine, Alexander Botvinnik, Mikhail 1948 57 Moiseyevich 1957 58 Smyslov, Vasily Botvinnik, Mikhail 1958 60 Moiseyevich 1960 61 Tal, Mikhail Nekhemyevich

Nationality Austrian German Cuban Russian-French Dutch Russian-French Russian Russian Russian Latvian

Botvinnik, Mikhail Moiseyevich Petrosyan, Tigran 1963 69 Vartanovich 1969 72 Spassky, Boris Vasilyevich 1972 75 Fischer, Robert (Bobby) Karpov, Anatoly 1975 85 Yevgenyevich 1985 2000 Kasparov, Garry 2000 07 Kramnik, Vladimir 2007 Anand, Vishwanathan Other notable chess personalities: Anderssen, Adolf Loyd, Sam Morphy, Paul Nimzowitsch, Aron Philidor, Franois-Andr Rti, Richard Staunton, Howard 1961 63 Standardization of rules

Russian Georgian Russian American Russian Russian Russian Indian

The modern rules and appearance of pieces evolved slowly, with widespread regional variation. By 1300, for example, the pawn had acquired the ability to move two squares on its first turn, rather than only one at a time as it did in shatranj. But this rule did not win general acceptance throughout Europe for more than 300 years. Chess made its greatest progress after two crucial rule changes that became popular after 1475. Until then the counselor was limited to moving one square diagonally at a time. And, because a pawn that reached the eighth rank could become only a counselor, pawn promotion was a relatively minor factor in the course of a game. But under the new rules the counselor underwent a sex change and gained vastly increased mobility to become the most powerful piece on the board the modern queen. This and the increased value of pawn promotion added a dynamic new element to chess. Also, the

chaturanga piece called the elephant, which had been limited to a twosquare diagonal jump in shatranj, became the bishop, more than doubling its range. Until these changes occurred, checkmate was relatively rare, and more often a game was decided by baring the king. With the new queen and bishop powers, the trench warfare of medieval chess was replaced by a game in which checkmate could be delivered in as few as two moves. The last two major changes in the rules castling and the en passant capture took longer to win acceptance. Both rules were known in the 15th century but had limited usage until the 18th century. Minor variations in other rules continued until the late 19th century; for example, it was not acceptable in many parts of Europe as late as the mid-19th century to promote a pawn to a queen if a player still had the original queen. Set design The appearance of the pieces has alternated between simple and ornate since chaturanga times. The simple design of pieces before 600 ce gradually led to figurative sets depicting animals, warriors, and noblemen. But Muslim sets of the 9th 12th centuries were often nonrepresentational and made of simple clay or carved stone following the Islamic prohibition of images of living creatures. The return to simpler, symbolic shatranj pieces is believed to have spurred the game s popularity by making sets easier<script src="http://eb.adbureau.net/jnserver/acc_random=8794327546/site=D ARWIN_C/area=ARTICLES/source=other/aamsz=300x250/topicid=10965 5/pos=bot/pageid=96022/quantSegs=D"></script> to make and by redirecting the players attention from the intricate pieces to the game itself. Stylized sets, often adorned with precious and semi-precious stones, returned to fashion as the game spread to Europe and Russia. Playing boards, which had monochromatic squares in the Muslim world, began to have alternating black and white, or red and white, squares by 1000 ce and were often made of fine wood or marble. Peter I (the Great) of Russia had special campaign boards made of soft leather that he carried

during military efforts. The king became the largest piece and acquired a crown and sometimes an elaborate throne and mace. The knight s close identification with the horse dates back to chaturanga. The pawn, as the lowest in power and social standing, has traditionally been the smallest and least representational of the pieces. The queen grew in size after 1475, when its powers expanded, and changed from a male counselor to the king s female consort. The bishop was known by different names fool in French and elephant in Russian, for example and was not universally recognized by a distinctive mitre until the 19th century. Depiction of the rook also varied considerably. In Russia it was usually represented as a sailing ship until the 20th century. Elsewhere it was a warrior in a chariot or a castle turret. The standard for modern sets was established about 1835 with a simple design by an Englishman, Nathaniel Cook. After it was patented in 1849, the design was endorsed by Howard Staunton, then the world s best player; because of Staunton s extensive promotion, it subsequently became known as the Staunton pattern. Only sets based on the Staunton design are allowed in international competition today. The world championship and FIDE The popularity of chess has for the past two centuries been closely tied to competition, usually in the form of two-player matches, for the title of world champion. The title was an unofficial one until 1886, but widespread spectator interest in the game began more than 50 years earlier. The first major international event was a series of six matches held in 1834 between the leading French and British players, LouisCharles de la Bourdonnais of Paris and Alexander McDonnell of London, which ended with Bourdonnais s victory. For the first time, a major chess event was reported extensively in newspapers and analyzed in books. Following Bourdonnais s death in 1840, he was succeeded by Staunton after another match that gained international attention, Staunton s defeat of Pierre-Charles Fournier de Saint-Amant of France in 1843. This match also helped introduce the idea of stakes competition, since Staunton won the 100 put up by supporters of the two players.

Staunton used his position as unofficial world champion to popularize the Staunton-pattern set, to promote a uniform set of rules, and to organize the first international tournament, held in London in 1851. Karl Ernst Adolf Anderssen, a German schoolteacher, was inspired by the Bourdonnais-McDonnell match to turn from problem composing to tournament competition, and he won the London tournament and with it recognition as unofficial champion. (See Game 4.) The London tournament, in turn, inspired American players to organize the first national championship, the First American Chess Congress, in New York City in 1857, which set off the first chess craze in the Western Hemisphere. The winner, Paul Morphy of New Orleans, was recognized as unofficial world champion after defeating Anderssen in 1858. The world championship became more formalized after Morphy retired and Anderssen was defeated by Wilhelm Steinitz of Prague in a match in 1866. Steinitz was the first to claim the authority to determine how a title match should be held. (See Game 6.) He set down a series of rules and financial conditions under which he would defend his status as the world s foremost player, and in 1886 he agreed to play Johann Zukertort of Austria in the first match specifically designated as being for the world championship. Steinitz reserved the right to determine whose challenge he would accept and when and how often he would defend his title. Steinitz s successor, Emanuel Lasker of Germany (see Games 7, 8, 9, and 10), proved a more demanding champion than Steinitz in arranging matches. He took long periods, from 1897 to 1907 and later from 1910 to 1921, without defending his title. After the leading national chess federations, the British and German, failed to arrange a match between Lasker and any of his leading challengers on the eve of World War I, the momentum for an independent international authority began to grow. The controversy over the championship was eased when Jos Ral Capablanca of Cuba defeated Lasker in 1921 and won the agreement, at a tournament in London in 1922, of the world s other leading players to a written set of rules for championship challenges. Under those rules, any player who met certain<script

src="http://eb.adbureau.net/jnserver/acc_random=1770561198/site= DARWIN_C/area=ARTICLES/source=other/aamsz=300x250/topicid=10 9655/pos=bot/pageid=44223/quantSegs=D"></script> financial conditions (in particular, guaranteeing a $10,000 stake) could challenge the World Champion. While the top players were trying to adhere to the London Rules, representatives of 15 countries met in Paris in 1924 to organize the first permanent international chess federation, known as FIDE, its French acronym for Fdration Internationale des checs. The London Rules worked smoothly in 1927 when Capablanca was dethroned by Alexander Alekhine (see Game 14), the first Russianborn champion, but then proved to be a financial obstacle in Capablanca s bid for a rematch. FIDE s attempts to intervene failed. Alekhine was widely criticized for manipulating the rules, and when he died in 1946 FIDE assumed the authority to organize world championship matches. From 1948, when FIDE organized a match tournament to fill the vacancy created by Alekhine s death, until 1975 the FIDE format worked without major problems. The international federation organized three-year cycles of regional and international competitions to determine the challengers for the World Champion and solicited bids for match sites. The champion no longer had a veto power over opponents and was required to defend the title every three years. FIDE also took over the Women s World Championship and biennial Olympiad team championships, which originated in the 1920s. In addition, the federation developed new championship titles, particularly for junior players in various age groups. It also created a system for recognizing top players by arithmetic rating and by titles based on tournament performance. The highest title, after World Champion, is International Grandmaster, of whom there are now more than 500 in the world. The easing and eventual end of the Cold War spurred international chess by reducing barriers. By the mid-1990s, close to 2,000 tournaments registered with FIDE were held each year more than 50 times the number during the 1950s. Amateur chess expanded sharply.

Membership in the U.S. Chess Federation jumped from 2,100 in 1957 to more than 70,000 in 1973. All World Champions and challengers from 1951 to 1969 were Soviet citizens, and all the championship matches were held in Moscow with small prizes and limited international publicity. The victory of Robert J. (Bobby) Fischer of the United States in 1972 was an abrupt change. (See Game 20.) Fischer s demands spurred an increase in the prize fund to $250,000 a sum greater than all previous title matches combined. After winning the highly publicized match, Fischer insisted on a greater say in match rules than had any previous champion in the FIDE era. In particular, he objected to a rule, used by FIDE since 1951, that limited championship matches to 24 games. FIDE dropped the rule, but Fischer demanded further concessions. In the end he refused to defend his title; in 1975 he became the first champion to lose it by default. Fischer s successor, Anatoly Karpov of the Soviet Union, reigned for 10 years but was dethroned in 1985 by a countryman and bitter rival, Garry Kasparov. (See Game 22.) Kasparov then clashed repeatedly with FIDE over the rules governing the championship. He reluctantly agreed to defend his title under the federation s rules three times during 1986 90, winning each time. However, when Nigel Short of England won the right to challenge Kasparov for the championship in 1993, he and Kasparov decided instead to play the match under the auspices of a new organization, the Professional Chess Association (PCA). (See Game 23.) Before Kasparov defeated Short in London in late 1993 in the first PCA championship, FIDE disqualified Kasparov and organized its own world championship match, won by Karpov. FIDE began holding annual knockout tournaments in 1999 to determine its championship. Alexander Khalifman of Russia won the first tournament, which was held in Las Vegas, Nevada. In 2000 the tournament venue was split between New Delhi, India, and Tehr n, Iran, and was won by Viswanathan Anand of India. Meanwhile, Kasparov lost a title match to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia in 2000. Following negotiations with FIDE, which recognized Kramnik as the classical world chess champion, he agreed to a unification match in 2006 with FIDE s challenger, the Bulgarian grandmaster Veselin

Topalov, who had won the 2005 FIDE World Championship Tournament. Kramnik won the match. As part of the unification contract, the winner agreed to risk the consolidated title in FIDE s 2007 World Championship Tournament. Anand won the tournament and successfully defended the title against Kramnik in a 12-game match in 2008

Women in chess Separation of the sexes in chess is a relatively recent phenomenon. Literature abounds with examples of men and women playing one another before 1800. (For example, Shakespeare s only chess scene depicts Miranda playing Ferdinand in the last act of The Tempest.) But women were often barred from the coffeehouses and taverns where chess clubs developed in the 19th century. Women players achieved distinction separately from men by the middle of the century. The first chess clubs specifically for women were organized in The<script src="http://eb.adbureau.net/jnserver/acc_random=1141125103/site=D ARWIN_C/area=ARTICLES/source=other/aamsz=300x250/topicid=10965 5/pos=bot/pageid=16205/quantSegs=D"></script> Netherlands in 1847. The first chess book written by a woman, The ABC of Chess, by A Lady (H.I. Cooke), appeared in England in 1860 and went into 10 editions. The first women s tournament was sponsored in 1884 by the Sussex Chess Association. Women also gained distinction in postal and problem chess during this period. An American woman, Ellen Gilbert, defeated a strong English amateur, George Gossip, twice in an international correspondence match in 1879 announcing checkmate in 21 moves in one game and in 35 moves in the other. Edith Winter-Wood composed more than 2,000 problems, 700 of which appeared in a book published in 1902. The first woman player to gain attention in over-the-board competition with men was Vera Menchik (1906 44) of Great Britain. She won the first Women s World Championship, a tournament organized by FIDE in 1927, and the next six women s championship tournaments, in 1930 39. Her good results against men in British events led to invitations to some of the strongest pre-World War II tournaments, including Carlsbad 1929

(tournaments are identified by venue and year) and Moscow 1935. Among the strong male masters who lost to her were the world champion Max Euwe, Samuel Reshevsky, Sultan Khan, Jacques Mieses, Edgar Colle, and Frederick Yates. She was also one of the first women chess professionals. (See Game 15.) Women s chess received a major boost when the Soviet Union endorsed separate women s tournaments as part of a general encouragement of the game. The 1924 women s championship of Leningrad was the first women s tournament sponsored by any government. Massive events, larger than anything open to either sex in the West, followed; nearly 5,000 women took part in the preliminary sections of the 1936 Soviet women s championship, for example. Improvements in playing strength ensued and led to Soviet domination of women s chess for more than 30 years. After Menchik s death, FIDE held a 16-player tournament in Moscow during the winter of 1949 50 to fill the vacancy. Soviet women took the top four places. The Women s World Championship has been decided by matches or elimination match tournaments organized by FIDE since 1953. After Menchik s death the next three champions were Ludmilla Rudenko of Ukraine and Elizaveta Bykova and Olga Rubtsova of Russia. But, with the victory of Nona Gaprindashvili in 1962, an era of supremacy by Georgian players began. Gaprindashvili held the title for 16 years and became the first woman to earn the title of International Grandmaster. (FIDE established separate titles of International Woman Master in 1950 and International Woman Grandmaster in 1977.) Gaprindashvili was succeeded by another Georgian, Maya Chiburdanidze, in 1978. Georgians also won the right to challenge the champions in 1975, 1981, and 1988.

Soviet domination of women s chess ended with the defeat of Chiburdanidze by Xie Jun, of China, in 1991 and the rise of the three Polgr sisters, Susan, Zsfia, and Judit. The Polgrs of Budapest were the most impressive women prodigies ever; each had achieved grandmaster-level performances by age 15. They also distinguished

themselves by generally avoiding women-only competitions, until Susan Polgar defeated Xie for the women s championship in 1996. In the 1990s a series of men-versus-women events were organized as the difference in playing strength narrowed. In 1995 a team of five senior male grandmasters, including the former world champions Boris Spassky and Vasily Smyslov, was beaten 26 1/2 to 23 1/2 in a match against five leading women. Among the women was Judit Polgr, ranked eighth in the world on the international rating lists issued in July and October 2005 by FIDE, the highest level any woman had ever achieved. Zhu Chen of China won the 2001 FIDE Women s World Championship Tournament. FIDE had difficulty funding further events in the series, so the next tournament did not take place until 2004. The 2004 tournament was won by Antoaneta Stefanova of Bulgaria. Back on a regular two-year cycle, the women s championship was won in 2006 by Xu Yuhua of China and in 2008 by Alexandra Kosteniuk of Russia. Women s world chess champions Championship reign name 1927-44 1950-53 1953-56 1956-58 1958-62 1962-78 1978-91 1991-96 1996-99 1999-2001 Menchik-Stevenson, Vera Francevna* Rudenko, Ludmilla Bykova, Elizaveta Rubtsova, Olga Bykova, Elizaveta Gaprindashvili, Nona Chiburdanidze, Maya Xie Jun Polgar, Susan** Xie Jun Nationality Russian Ukrainian Russian Russian Russian Georgian Georgian Chinese Hungarian Chinese

2001-2004 2004-2006 2006-2008 2008-

Zhu Chen Antoaneta Stefanova Xu Yuhua Alexandra Kosteniuk

Chinese Bulgarian Chinese Russian

Development of Theory There are three recognized phases in a chess game: the opening, where piece development and control of the centre predominate; the middlegame, where maneuvering in defense and attack against the opponent s king or weaknesses occurs; and the endgame, where, generally after several piece exchanges, pawn promotion becomes the dominant theme. Chess theory consists of opening knowledge, tactics (or combinations), positional analysis (particularly pawn structures), strategy. Philidor and the birth of chess theory Early chess players recognized that a typical game could be divided into three parts, each with its own character and priorities: the opening stage, when a player develops the pieces from their starting squares; a middlegame stage, in which plans are conceived and carried out; and an endgame stage, following several exchanges and captures, in which the player with<script src="http://eb.adbureau.net/jnserver/acc_random=7297904408/site=D ARWIN_C/area=ARTICLES/source=other/aamsz=300x250/topicid=10965 5/pos=bot/pageid=37007/quantSegs=D"></script> the superior chances tries to convert an advantage into victory. Books analyzing a few basic opening moves, elementary middlegame combinations, and simple elements of endgame technique appeared as early as the 15th century. About 1620 an Italian master, Gioacchino Greco, wrote an analysis of a series of composed games that illustrated two contrasting approaches to chess. Those games pit a material-

minded player, who attempts to win as many of the opponent s pieces as possible, against an opponent who sacrifices material in pursuit of checkmate and usually wins. Greco, regarded as the first chess professional, emphasized tactics. His games were filled with pretty combinations made possible by poor defensive play. They had considerable influence in popularizing chess and in showing that there were different theories about how it should be played. The first coordinated explanation of how chess games are won came in the 18th century from Franois-Andr Philidor of France. Philidor, a composer of music, was regarded as the world s best chess player for nearly 50 years. In 1749 Philidor wrote and published L Analyze des checs (Chess Analyzed), an enormously influential book that appeared in more than 100 editions. In Analyze Philidor used apparently fictitious games to illustrate his principles for conducting a strategic, rather than tactical, battle. His comments on certain 1 e4 e5 openings were copied for decades by other masters, and his analysis of king, rook, and bishop against king and rook was the first extensive examination of a particular endgame. But it was Philidor s middlegame advice that was his greatest legacy. He emphasized the role of planning: Once all a player s pieces are developed, that player should try to form an overall goal, such as kingside attack, that coordinates the forces. Philidor also placed a premium on anticipating enemy threats rather than merely concentrating on one s own attack. Greco and previous writers had explored the tactical interplay of two or three pieces. But Philidor believed that the significance of the pawns had been overlooked and drew particular attention to their weaknesses and strengths. His most famous comment that pawns are the very life of the game is often cited without his explanation of why they are important: because, he said, pawns alone form the basis for attack. Philidor believed that a mobile mass of pawns is the most important positional factor in the middlegame and that an attack will fail unless the pawns to sustain it are properly supported.He warned against allowing pawns to be isolated from one another, doubled on the same file, or made backward that is, unguarded by another pawn and incapable of being safely advanced. He linked the qualities of pawns to other pieces

and was the first to emphasize how a bishop could be bad or good depending on how restricted it was by a fixed pawn structure. He also advocated the exchange of an f-pawn for an enemy e-pawn because it would partially open the file for a castled rook at f1. While previous authors had shown how pawns or other pieces could be temporarily sacrificed in checkmating or material-gaining combinations, Philidor illustrated the purely positional sacrifice in which a player obtains compensation such as superior piece mobility or pawn structure. Morphy and the theory of attack From 1750 to 1769 a group of masters from Modena, Italy Ercole del Rio, Giambattista Lolli, and Domenico Ponziani criticized Philidor s ideas. They believed that he had exaggerated the importance of the pawns at the expense of the other pieces and had minimized the power of a direct attack on the enemy king. By analyzing the play of 16thcentury Italian masters, the Modena school showed that games could be won in fewer than 20 moves through speedy piece mobilization, compared with Philidor s slow-developing pawn marches. There followed a proliferation of speculative pawn sacrifices in the opening, called gambits, in order to achieve rapid mobilization and open lines for an attack. Checkmating attacks, often with startling sacrifices in concluding combinations, became the hallmark of many players of the 19th century. These leading masters were described as members of the Romantic school of chess. See for one of the most celebrated examples of Romanticism. The ideas of the Modena school were not fully appreciated until they appeared, in slightly different form, in the games of Paul Morphy, the first American recognized as the world s best player. Morphy s chess career lasted less than three years and consisted of fewer than 75 serious games. In 1858 59 he defeated all the leading European players, with the disappointing exception of Howard Staunton, who evaded all attempts to arrange a match. At the age of 22 Morphy retired from serious chess. Morphy remains the only great chess thinker who left no written legacy. Morphy s contemporaries knew as much about the openings as he did, and some of them could calculate combinations as well as he. But

Morphy understood how and when to attack<script src="http://eb.adbureau.net/jnserver/acc_random=9713479914/site=D ARWIN_C/area=ARTICLES/source=other/aamsz=300x250/topicid=10965 5/pos=bot/pageid=48999/quantSegs=D"></script> better than anyone else. This enabled him not only to win favourable positions but also to avoid loss in inferior positions. After he defeated Adolf Anderssen, the greatest of the Romantics, by a lopsided score of 7 2, a supporter asked Anderssen why he had not sacrificed his pieces brilliantly against the American, as he had against other masters. Morphy won t let me, Anderssen is reputed to have replied. Morphy appreciated that superior development getting pieces onto good squares in the first 10 to 15 moves was relatively unimportant in the semiclosed, blocked pawn structures that Philidor had embraced. But, as the centre or kingside became more open, an advantage in development increased in value. In Morphy s best-known games, pawns and knights played minor roles. Pawns were often sacrificed so that the queen, rooks, and bishops could join the attack as soon as possible. The first priority for Morphy was the initiative, the ability to force matters. Superior development in a position with few centre pawns conferred the initiative on one player. In the games of lesser players the initiative might pass back and forth as players err. But Morphy rarely failed to bring an initiative to fruition. Steinitz and the theory of equilibrium Morphy s eventual successor, Wilhelm Steinitz, reigned as world champion until 1894, when he was 58. The Prague-born Steinitz managed to retain his superiority for so long because he developed new principles of the middlegame, particularly in closed or semiclosed positions, that only his successor, Emanuel Lasker, and Lasker s contemporaries fully appreciated. Steinitz said his modern school was guided by two premises: first, that the natural outcome of a game is a draw because of the inherent balance between the forces of White and Black and, second, that checkmate is the ultimate but not the first objective of the game. Steinitz began his career as a tactical, combinational player in the Morphy style. But in his late thirties he developed insight into subtle positional characteristics that take precedence in positions in which the

centre is fully or partially blocked by immobile pawns. Steinitz tried to answer the mystery of why some attacks succeed, regardless of how skillful the defender, while others fail, regardless of how talented the attacker. A failed attack, he added, often results in defeat for the attacker, whose forces suddenly become poorly coordinated in the face of a counterattack. Steinitz concluded that in a typical position each side has certain small advantages which tend to balance one another. For example, a player may have weakened the opponent s pawns but at the expense of trading a bishop for a slightly less valuable knight. An attack is justified only when the balance has been upset, either by the player s mistakes or the opponent s good moves. Morphy s advantage in development was one way of upsetting the balance. But by the 1870s, after Morphy s games became familiar to all masters, it became harder and harder to obtain a lead in development against an unwilling opponent. Steinitz realized that the way to justify a decisive attack in the postMorphy era was to accumulate small, often subtle, advantages for example, having two bishops when one s opponent has two knights, having an entrenched knight at a fortified outpost, or having greater maneuvering space. In his games Steinitz showed how slow-evolving maneuvers in the opening, particularly with knights, paid dividends in the middlegame if the centre was closed. He originated the term hole to mean a vulnerable square that has lost its pawn protection and can be occupied favourably by an enemy piece. While a lead in development may be transient, other advantages, such as a superior pawn structure, could be nurtured into the endgame, Steinitz said. Structural weaknesses generally involve pawns that are difficult to defend or squares (especially in the centre or around the king) that enemy pieces can occupy without being dislodged by pawn attacks. The following common pawn weaknesses are disadvantageous in direct proportion to their exploitability, which tends to increase as pieces are exchanged. A pawn with no friendly pawns on adjoining files is called an isolated pawn; isolated pawns may confer middlegame compensation through control of important squares (if located in the centre) or by giving rooks adjoining open files along which to attack. A pawn on an open file whose advance is restrained by an enemy pawn on

an adjoining file and that is unguardable by any other pawn is termed a backward pawn. Two pawns that occupy the same file (through captures) are called doubled pawns. The small advantages could be converted at an appropriate moment to material by means of attack. He added that a player who does not attack when in a position advantageous enough to justify it will lose the advantage. Unlike the Romantics, who relentlessly aimed for the enemy king, Steinitz argued that the nature of the position dictated<script src="http://eb.adbureau.net/jnserver/acc_random=3959481902/site=D ARWIN_C/area=ARTICLES/source=other/aamsz=300x250/topicid=10965 5/pos=bot/pageid=57779/quantSegs=D"></script> whether to target the kingside or queenside. The win of a mere pawn was in the large majority of cases fatal among first-class masters. Some subtle advantages do not become significant until the endgame, Steinitz found. For example, after routine pawn captures and recaptures, a player is often left with three pawns each on the kingside and queenside, while the opponent has four on the kingside and two on the queenside. The kingside pawns are often held back near or on their original squares for king protection. But, advancing on the queenside where the player has a majority of the pawns, referred to as a queenside majority, can create a powerful passed pawn that may prove decisive in the late middlegame or endgame. On the other hand, one of Steinitz students, Harry Nelson Pillsbury, popularized the minority attack, in which the player with fewer queenside pawns advances them in certain positions in order to weaken his opponent s pawns. Steinitz was also the first master of defensive play. Even when playing the White pieces, he often invited his opponent to open the centre by exchanging pawns or to be the first to cross the fourth rank. He reasoned that such attacks must be premature if the equilibrium was in balance and so could be punished after patient defensive play. While Philidor was known for his writings and Morphy for his games, Steinitz left a legacy of both. In match play he consistently defeated the leading Romantics Adolf Anderssen, Joseph Blackburne, Johann Zukertort, and Mikhail Chigorin. He is regarded as the first player to take a scientific approach to chess.

Time elements & controls The Fischer clock Quick chess took a new turn in the 1990s with a variation on Staunton s single-move principle and Lasa s time-budget idea. Fischer, who had not played a public game since winning the world championship in 1972, patented a chess clock in 1988 that added an increment of time after a player completed a move and hit the button on top. For example, in a speed game, a player could begin with five minutes and receive an additional 10 or 15 seconds<script src="http://eb.adbureau.net/jnserver/acc_random=5953684654/site=D ARWIN_C/area=ARTICLES/source=other/aamsz=300x250/topicid=10965 5/pos=bot/pageid=32903/quantSegs=D"></script> after making each move. The Fischer clock gained international attention after the expatriate American briefly came out of retirement in 1992 to play a nonsanctioned world championship match with Boris Spassky in the cities of Belgrade and Sveti Stefan in Yugoslavia. The rules of the match stipulated that each player begin with 111 minutes on his clock and receive one minute for each move played. This meant that after 40 moves each player had been allotted 151 minutes, or one minute more than the 40-in-2 1/2-hours format used when Fischer won the championship title from Spassky in 1972. For the second control, the match rules gave each player an additional 40 minutes to play 20 moves but also added an extra minute for each move played. As chess promoters moved toward organizing tournaments with spectators in particular, television audiences in mind, the shorter time limits became a way of life for professional players. One of the most interesting annual tournaments, the Melody Amber held in Monaco since 1992, features top grandmasters playing a pair of games using the Fischer clock. In one of the games the players begin with four minutes and receive 10 seconds for each move played. In the second they play without sight of the board so-called blindfold chess beginning with four minutes and receiving 20 seconds for each move.

Chess and artificial intelligence Machines capable of playing chess have fascinated people since the latter half of the 18th century, when the Turk, the first of the pseudoautomatons, began a triumphal exhibition tour of Europe. Like its 19thcentury successor Ajeeb, the Turk was a cleverly constructed cabinet that concealed a human master. The mystery of the Turk was the subject of more than a dozen books and a widely discussed article written by Edgar Allan Poe in 1836. Several world-class players were employed to operate the pseudo-automatons, including Harry Nelson Pillsbury, who was Ajeeb during part of the 1890s, and Isidor Gunsberg and Jean Taubenhaus, who operated, by remote control, Mephisto, the last of the pseudo-automatons, before it was dismantled following World War I. Se Heuristics The ability of a machine to play chess well has taken on symbolic meaning since the first precomputer devices more than a century ago. In 1890 a Spanish scientist, Leonardo Torres y Quevado, introduced an electromagnetic device composed of wire, switch, and circuit that was capable of checkmating a human opponent in a simple endgame, king and rook versus king. The machine did not always play the best moves and sometimes took 50 moves to perform a task that an average human player could complete in fewer than 20. But it could recognize illegal moves and always delivered eventual checkmate. Torres y Quevado acknowledged that the apparatus had no practical purpose. As a scientific toy, however, it gained attention for his belief in the capability of machines to be programmed to follow certain rules. No significant progress in this area was made until the development of the electronic digital machine after World War II. About 1947 Alan Turing of the University of Manchester, Eng., developed the first simple program capable of<script src="http://eb.adbureau.net/jnserver/acc_random=2828292986/site=D ARWIN_C/area=ARTICLES/source=other/aamsz=300x250/topicid=10965 5/pos=bot/pageid=28665/quantSegs=D"></script> analyzing one ply (one side s move) ahead. Four years later a Manchester colleague, D.G. Prinz, wrote a program capable of solving mate-in-two-move problems but not actually playing chess.

A breakthrough came in 1948, when the research scientist Claude Shannon of Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, N.J., U.S., presented a paper that influenced all future programmers. Shannon, like Torres y Quevada and Turing, stressed that progress in developing a chess-playing program would have a wider application and could lead, he said, to machines that could translate from language to language or make strategic military decisions. Shannon appreciated that a computer conducting an entire game would have to make decisions using incomplete information because it could not examine all the positions leading to checkmate, which might lie 40 or 50 moves ahead. Therefore, it would have to select moves that were good, not merely legal, by evaluating future positions that were not checkmates. Shannon s paper set down criteria for evaluating each position a program would consider. This evaluation function is crucial because even a rudimentary program would have to determine the relative differences between thousands of different positions. In a typical position White may have 30 legal moves, and to each of those moves Black may have 30 possible replies. This means that a machine considering White s best move may have to examine 30 30, or 900, positions resulting from Black s reply, a two-ply search. A three-ply search an initial move by White, a Black reply, and a White response to that would mean 30 30 30, or 27,000, different final positions to be considered. (It has been estimated that humans examine only about 50 positions before choosing a move.) Turing s evaluation function was dominated by determining which side had more pieces in various future positions. But Shannon suggested that each position could be weighed using positional criteria, including the condition of pawns and their control of the centre squares, the mobility of the other pieces, and specific cases of well-placed pieces, such as a rook on an open (pawnless) file or on the seventh rank. Other criteria were used by later programmers to refine and improve the evaluation function. All criteria had to be quantified. For example, a human master can quickly evaluate the mobility of bishops or the relative safety of the king. Early programs performed the same evaluation by counting the number of legal bishop moves or the squares under control around a player s king.

Computer chess Computers began to compete against humans in the late 1960s. In February 1967 MacHack VI, a program written by Richard Greenblatt, an MIT undergraduate, drew one game and lost four in a U.S. Chess Federation tournament. Its results improved markedly, from a performance equivalent to a USCF rating of 1243 to reach 1640 by April 1967, about the average for a USCF member. The first American computer championship was held in New York City in 1970 and was won by Chess 3.0, a program devised by a team of Northwestern University researchers that dominated computer chess in the 1970s. Technical advances accelerated progress in computer chess during the 1970s and 80s. Sharp increases in computing power enabled computers to see much further. Computers of the 1960s could evaluate positions no more than two moves ahead, but authorities estimated that each additional half-move of search would increase a program s performance level by 250 rating points. This was borne out by a steady improvement by the best programs until Deep Thought played above the 2700 level in 1988. When Deep Blue, its successor, was introduced in 1996, it saw as far as six moves ahead. (Gary Kasparov said he normally looks only three to five moves ahead, adding that for humans more are not needed.) Also helping computer progress was the availability of microprocessors in the late 1970s. This allowed programmers unattached to universities to develop commercial microcomputers that by the 1990s were nearly as strong as programs running on mainframes. By the late 1980s the strongest machines were capable of beating more than 90 percent of the world s serious players. In 1988 a computer, HiTech, developed at Carnegie Mellon University, defeated a grandmaster, Arnold Denker, in a short match. In the same year another Carnegie Mellon program, Deep Thought, defeated a top-notch grandmaster, Bent Larsen, in a tournament game. HiTech used 64 computer chips, one for each square on the board, and was capable of considering up to 175,000 positions per second. FengHsiung Hsu, a Carnegie Mellon student, improved on HiTech with a custom-designed chip. The result, Chiptest, won the North American Computer Championship in 1987 and evolved into Deep Thought, a program powerful enough to consider 700,000 positions a second.

Although its evaluation skills were not as well developed as HiTech s and far below that of a human grandmaster Deep Thought was sponsored by International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) in<script src="http://eb.adbureau.net/jnserver/acc_random=5188063430/site=D ARWIN_C/area=ARTICLES/source=other/aamsz=300x250/topicid=10965 5/pos=bot/pageid=11111/quantSegs=D"></script> an effort to defeat the world s best player by the mid-1990s in a traditional time limit. At faster speeds even personal computers were able to defeat the world s best humans by 1994. In that year a Fritz 3 program, examining 100,000 positions per second, tied for first place with Kasparov, ahead of 16 other grandmasters, at a five-minute tournament in Munich, Ger. Later in the year Kasparov was eliminated from a game/25 tournament in London after losing a two-game match against Genius running on a Pentium personal computer. In 1991 Deep Thought s team said the program, renamed Deep Blue, would soon be playing at the equivalent of a 3000 rating (compared with Kasparov s 2800), but this proved excessively optimistic. The main improvement was in the computer running the chess program. IBM developed, and used chess to test, a sophisticated new multiprocessing system (later used at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Ga., U.S., to predict the weather) that employed 32 microprocessors, each with six programmable chips designed specifically for chess. Deep Thought, by comparison, had one microprocessor and no extra chips. The new hardware enabled Deep Blue to consider as many as 50 billion positions in three minutes, a rate that was about a thousand times faster than Deep Thought s. Deep Blue made its debut in a six-game match with PCA champion Kasparov in February 1996. The $500,000 prize fund and IBM s live game coverage at their World Wide Web site attracted worldwide media attention. The Kasparov Deep Blue match in Philadelphia was the first time a world champion had played a program at a slow (40 moves in two hours) time format. Deep Blue won the first game, but Kasparov modified his style and turned the later games into strategic, rather than tactical, battles in which evaluation was more important than

calculation. He won three and drew two of the remaining games to win the match 4 2. (See Game 25.) In a six-game rematch held May 3 11, 1997, in New York City, an upgraded Deep Blue was able to consider an average of 200 million positions per second, twice its previous speed. Its algorithm for considering positions was also improved with advice from human grandmasters. By adopting a new set of conservative openings, Kasparov forced Deep Blue out of much of its prematch preparation. After resigning the second game, in a position later found to be drawable, Kasparov said he never recovered psychologically. With the match tied at one win, one loss, and three draws, Deep Blue won the decisive final game in 19 moves. Computer extension of chess theory Computers have played a role in extending the knowledge of chess. In 1986 Kenneth Thompson of AT&T Bell Laboratories reported a series of discoveries in basic endgames. By working backward from positions of checkmate, Thompson was able to build up an enormous number of variations showing every possible way of reaching the final ones. This has been possible with only the most elementary endgames, with no more than five pieces on the board. Thompson s research proved that certain conclusions that had remained unchallenged in endgame books for decades were untrue. For example, with best play on both sides, a king and queen can defeat a king and two bishops in 92.1 percent of the initial starting positions; this endgame had been regarded as a hopeless drawn situation. Also, a king and two bishops can defeat a king and lone knight in 91.8 percent of situations despite human analysis that concluded the position was drawn. Thompson s research of some fivepiece endgames required considering more than 121 million positions. Because of their ability to store information, computers had become invaluable to professional players by the 1990s, particularly in the analysis of adjourned games. However, computers have severe limits. In the 1995 PCA championship, Kasparov won the 10th game with a heavily analyzed opening based on the sacrifice of a rook. According to his aides, the prepared idea was tested on a computer beforehand, and the

program evaluated the variation as being in the opponent s favour until it had reached the end of Kasparov s lengthy analysis. The availability of top-notch microcomputers poses a major problem for postal chess. A principal difference between over-the-board chess and all forms of correspondence chess is that in the latter players are permitted to analyze a position by moving the pieces and by consulting reference books. By the 1990s most serious postal players used a computer database containing thousands of games categorized by opening moves. However, if the use of computers is extended to finding the best moves in the middlegame or endgame, postal chess becomes computer chess. The International Correspondence Chess Federation said in 1993 that the existence of chess computers is a reality and for correspondence chess the use of chess computers cannot be controlled. Chess composition Chess compositions are created positions in which one side, usually White, moves first and<script src="http://eb.adbureau.net/jnserver/acc_random=8882592591/site=D ARWIN_C/area=ARTICLES/source=other/aamsz=300x250/topicid=10965 5/pos=bot/pageid=83973/quantSegs=D"></script> is required to perform a task. The reader is called upon to find the task s solution. There are three basic forms of composition depending on the type of task. In studies, White is asked to reach a desired result, either a clear winning or drawn position, in an indeterminate number of moves. In problems, White is asked to force checkmate in a specific number of moves. Black is required to put up the best defense in the solutions of both studies and problems. In the third category, heterodox problems and related retrograde analysis, the reader is asked to perform unusual tasks. In each case, criteria such as originality, difficulty, beauty, and the absence of extraneous pieces distinguish good compositions from great and poor ones. Also, the existence of a second solution, or cook, sharply reduces the quality of a composition. Under these and other criteria, composers of studies and problems have competed in organized tournaments since the middle of the 19th century. The world chess

federation, FIDE, awards the titles of International Master and International Grandmaster of Chess Composition based on having studies and problems published in the FIDE albums.

Studies about chess Composed studies are usually positions with a small number of pieces and may resemble an endgame from actual play. A position always is accompanied by a stipulation, either White to play and win or White to play and draw. There is no time limit on achieving a position that is objectively won or drawn. Such a won position is not necessarily one leading to immediate checkmate but one with a prohibitively large advantage of material for White. A drawn position may be one in which Black lacks enough material to win or in which White has created an impenetrable fortress for his pieces or has obtained some kind of positional advantage, such as the ability to give perpetual check, that prevents Black from winning. Solutions are often elaborate. Some compositions beginning with a bare minimum of pieces involve a solution of more than 20 moves. The first studies, called man b t and dating from Arabic and Persian manuscripts, were intended to instruct players on how to win endgames. Themes of instructional studies, such as the pursuit of more than one aim at a time, are often used in practical play to turn what otherwise would be a draw or loss into a win. Highly praised studies have been composed with a minimum of material, such as two kings and only two or three pawns.

Studies have also been based on arresting or unusual ideas, including underpromotion, stalemate, or sacrifices. Vladimir Korolkov, a celebrated Russian composer, published a study entitled Excelsior in 1958 in which White wins only by making six consecutive captures by a pawn. The solution was illustrated by verses from Longfellow s poem Excelsior.

Positions with practical application were known as early as the 9th century and were particularly popular in the 19th century. Many leading players were also accomplished study composers, including the world champions Max Euwe, Mikhail Botvinnik, and Vasily Smyslov, as well as Paul Keres and Jan Timman.

ANNEXTURE

Chess starting positon

Iranian chess set

World s first chess computer

Knight Templar playing chess, Librode los juegos,1283

Types of chess pieces

Glinski s hexagonal chess, a chess variant popular in the 1930s

Grand master Garry Kasparov,former World Chess Champion

Wo ld Ch ss Ch (l ft) nd

pions Jos

ul C p bl n

nu l L s

in 1925

Wilh l

St inti th

Nobl

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s German

first World Chess Champion

(B.C. 1320)

Andr Philidor

wo kin s & two queens from

the Lewis Chessmen at the British Museum

Vishwanathan anand

Brass chess set

An ient chess set

European queen ancient chess

Modern queen

Ashtapada board

Arabic chess set

Xian qi board

Senet board game

Russian chess set

Liubo board game

English chess set

Chaturanga

Map before 500 BCE-4-army chaturanaga was played

French chess set

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Web resources

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