Unit 1: Caribbean Culture: Formation and Approaches Overview In this unit we introduce you to the concept of culture as we prepare

you for the journey into Caribbean culture. We then turn our attention to the formation of the Caribbean. The part played by our history in shaping our culture necessitates a discussion on how the Caribbean was formed and the unit briefly discusses the neo-Indians who were the first inhabitants of the region. We also examine the European contact with the region in the fifteenth century and the periods of enslavement, plantation society and colonialism and the many ways in which they shaped the structure and culture of the region. Session 3 utilizes Caribbean social theories to explain the nature of the contemporary Caribbean. Structure Session 1: The Meaning of Culture Session 2: Formation of Caribbean Society Session 3: Approaches to Caribbean Society and Culture Learning Objectives After completing this unit you should be able to: 1. Define culture and explain its various manifestations 2. Explain the formation of the Caribbean from a historical perspective 3. Discuss the characteristics and relevance of Caribbean social theories to Caribbean culture Readings Beckford, G.L. (1972). Persistent poverty: Underdevelopment in plantation economies of the Third World. New York and London: Oxford University Press. Bolland, O. N. (Ed.). (2004). The birth of Caribbean civilization: A century of ideas about culture and identity, nation and society. Kingston and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers.

Devonish, Hubert. (1986). Language and Liberation: Creole Language and Politic in the Caribbean. London: Karia Press. During, Simon. (Ed.). 2004. The Cultural Studies Reader. New York: Routledge Herskovitz, M. (1990). The myth of the Negro past. Boston: Beacon Press.

Session 1.1: The meaning of culture Definition It is difficult to find any one definition of culture. Culture is manifested in much of the things we do, learn, practice, believe and experience. Geertz (1994, 214) refers to Kluckhohns definition of culture as follows: 1. The total way of life of a people 2. The social legacy the individual acquires from his or her group. 3. A way of thinking, feeling and believing 4. An abstract form of behaviour 5. A theory on the part of anthropologists about the way in which a group of people behave 6. A storehouse of pooled learning 7. A set of standardized orientations to recurrent problems 8. Learned behaviour 9. A mechanism for the normative regulation of behaviour 10. A set of techniques for adjusting both to the external environment and to other persons 11. A precipitate of history The social legacy refers to the actions, behaviour and culture of past generations, and how these have been inherited, manifested (and sometimes modified) by the current generation. The legacy of plantation society and indentureship has greatly influenced Caribbean culture. As a result, our culture may be described as a precipitate of history. This can be seen in various aspects of our culture: our family forms have historical influences; so do all other major social institutions (education, religion, polity) in Caribbean society.

Each of Kluckhohns definitions can be recognized in the Caribbean. When we speak of a Caribbean culture we are referring to the way of life of Caribbean people. Our way of thinking, feeling and believing is manifested in our behaviour. According to GaspardRichards et al (2005), the following characteristics of culture define it as a way of life: 1. It is shared. 2. It is learnt. 3. It is taken for granted. 4. It is symbolic. 5. It is variable over time and place. One classification identifies culture as being either material or non-material. Material culture includes the tangible areas of culture. Some example of these are artifacts, tools, weapons, musical instruments, buildings, works of art, books, and other visible things that are used in the daily construction of life. Non-material culture consists of the intangibles such as norms, values, belief systems, socialization, language and other things that influence our behaviour and lifestyle. There are linkages between both components of culture. Change in one component influences the other. As new technology that results in the development of new instruments and tools emerges, new norms, values, and behaviours are manifested by the group of people using these new inventions. Language is a very important aspect of the culture of a people. Members of a group communicate via a shared set of symbols that forms the language. The language used for communication is generally the product of a historical process. In the Caribbean, all the countries have an official language that reflects the last colonial power to occupy that particular state as well as a Creole language that reflects the syncretism of the various cultures within that space. Language also assists in the transmission of culture from one generation to the next. This is done mainly through the process of socialization which is

the means by which we become humans. It is a lifelong process by which we assimilate to become part of group. In the process of socialization the culture of a society is transmitted from one generation to the next or from older practitioners of the culture to the younger ones. The family is the first place where the child learns about the culture of a society by the norms and values that he/she is taught from the members of the household, especially parents. The acquisition of these cultural norms and values are not only done formally but also informally. The school system, church, primary and secondary groups as well as other social institutions and groups also contribute to the process of cultural formation. As you progress through this course and the readings associated with it, you will meet many concepts that will be new to you. While we will not discuss them all here, we will introduce you to the following ones. Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism These are terms used to describe how a group perceives and responds to an external culture. Ethnocentrism refers to the judging of an external culture by our own cultural standards. This leads to cultural bias, racism, ethnic strife and, in extreme cases, bigotry. Cultural relativism is the judging of another culture by its own cultural standards. The social order of our multi-cultural society is enhanced when we practice cultural relativism. High culture This is the culture of the elite in any society, as distinct from low culture, also known as popular culture. This cultural pattern will vary from society to society. The term implies the superiority of this culture over other cultures within the society. This superiority is socially constructed to separate the elite and their way of life from that of the majority of the population. For example, golf is perceived as high culture as it is played mainly by members of the upper class.

Popular Culture This refers to cultural patterns that are widespread among the majority of the population in a society. For example, most Caribbean countries have a Creole language that is spoken as part of the popular culture. Sub-Culture This refers to a culture within a culture. Generally, there is a dominant or popular culture within every society. However, other cultures may emerge within this dominant culture, for various reasons. A sub-culture has cultural patterns that set it apart from the rest of society. A sub-culture may become a dominant culture, supplanting the previously dominant one. The Maroons in Jamaica are an example of a sub-culture. The term sub-altern culture is also used in reference to the existence of a culture within a dominant culture and how the dominant class views and behaves towards that culture. Afro-Caribbean religions (such as Cumfa in Guyana) that emerged in the late nineteenth century were all seen as part of a sub-altern culture of the colonized people. The dominant class did not accept or acknowledge the existence of these religions. Consequently, some level of hostility was directed towards their practitioners. Counter-culture A counter culture is an emerging culture that is in opposition to the dominant culture. It does not subscribe to all the norms, values, and beliefs of the dominant culture. In some cases, a concerted effort is made to replace the dominant culture or to fight for equal acceptance. The Rastafarian way of life began as a counter-culture within Jamaican society. Their values, beliefs and behaviours were perceived as being different from that of mainstream society and in many instances, ran counter to the popularly held beliefs of the time. A counter-culture does not always remain counter to the dominant culture. Over time, it can gain popular acceptance, whether through cultural diffusion, acculturation or various other means.

Cultural Manifestations The Caribbean is a menagerie of various cultural patterns. The influences of plantation society, indentureship, colonialism and globalization have resulted in the variety and texture of Caribbean culture. In each Caribbean island we can identify various cultural elements: the various cultural groups that are perceived as exhibiting a sub-culture; the counter cultures points of departure and opposition to the mainstream culture; the food, tools, weapons and books that are identified as tangible material culture; the different belief systems, values, attitudes and behaviours that form part of the non-material culture of an island or of the region; all of these are manifested in all the islands of the region. The definition of culture and its manifestations given so far conveys an understanding of culture that resonates with the original definition given by Kluckhohn (in Geertz 1994). Defining culture as the way of life of a people suggests that culture emerges from individuals interactions with each other in communities and society. In this regard, cultural change is seen as natural, without the intimidation of outside hegemonic forces. However, the history of the Caribbean and its present development is not without external hegemonic influences that lead to cultural change. Whether these cultural changes came about by invention (creating new cultural elements), discovery (understanding or recognizing something already existing), diffusion (the spread of cultural traits from one society to another), the presence of hegemonic forces must be considered in the discussion if we are to fully understand the nature of cultural change. According to During (2004, p.4), hegemony is a term used to describe relations of domination which are not visible as such. It involves, not coercion, but consent on the part of the dominated (or subaltern). During (2004) further elaborated that the term is associated with Antonio Gramsci, an Italian Marxist of the 1920s and 1930s. During posits that for Gramsci, hegemonic forces constantly alter their content as social and cultural conditions change: they are improvised and negotiable, so that counterhegemonic strategies must also be constantly revised.

In the Caribbean counter-hegemonic strategies are manifested in aspects of life such as our music, language, sports and educational system. These cultural changes can be seen in festivals such as crop over in Barbados, carnival in Trinidad and the change from reggae to dancehall in Jamaica. As the hegemonic forces of colonialism, globalization and imperialism alter their content, the people of the region devise different cultural strategies for dealing with and counteracting them. Hence, this is one way in which cultural change is influenced in the Caribbean. Cultural studies is an emerging field that has taken on added significance in the latter part of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first century. The explosion of multiculturalism as a by-product of globalization has influenced the attention being paid to various areas of culture as well as an examination of the link between culture and identity. The focus of cultural studies is how groups with least power practically develop their own readings of, and uses for, cultural products in areas such as recreation, resistance or to express their own identity (During 6). A discussion of Caribbean culture will cover many of the areas that constitute the field of cultural studies, although the focus will be less on the theoretical aspect, and more on the Caribbean manifestations of cultural trajectories.

Activity 1.1 1. What is culture and why is important to society? 2. Culture both includes and excludes. Discuss this statement, using Caribbean examples. 3. Flying fish in Barbados, curry and chutney in Trinidad; why are these elements of importance to the culture of these islands?

Session 1.2: Formation of Caribbean Society The Physical Location of the Caribbean It is important to identify this area we refer to as the Caribbean. A proper definition of the Caribbean is never an easy exercise. Such definition would involve both a political as well as the normal geographic components. Nettleford (1993, p.1) describes the Caribbean as: . . . the Bahamas in the North to Trinidad and Tobago in the South, with the mainland territories of Guyana on the South American Continent and Belize in Central America thrown in for good measure. The journey takes the traveler through or over the Greater Antilles, the Leeward and Winward Islands now linked into the Organization of Easter Caribbean States (OECS), Barbados perching further east into the Atlantic and Trinidad off the coast of Venezuela. This collective represents the Caricom group minus Cuba. Nettleford continues, Other countries like Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela and the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, all washed by the Caribbean Sea, insist that they, too, are Caribbean. These different language groups of nations expose the type of colonizers that once controlled or are still in charge of the affairs of these countries. Nettleford (1993, p.1) further opines, There is, then, not only the Anglophone Caribbean comprising the former and still existing colonies of Great Britain (otherwise called the Commonwealth Caribbean instead of the West Indies), but also a Spanish speaking Caribbean including Cuba, Santo Domingo and Puerto Rico when it feels like identifying, a Francophone-Caribbean starting with Haiti armed with its ancestral liberation pedigree taking in Martinique, Guadeloupe, Guyane, St Martin all departments of metropolitan France, and a Dutch-speaking Caribbean covering the internally self-governing Netherland Antilles of Curacoa, Bonaire, St Martin, St Eustatius and Saba as well as Aruba, and the independent Suriname. This classification by Nettleford more or less sums up the length and width of the Caribbean.

Early cultural formation of the Caribbean The Caribbean is a unique space with a rich cultural history that dates back to the arrival of the paleo-Indians in the region in about 5000 B.C. This group had a very primitive civilization. These were followed by the meso-Indians around 500 B.C. and then the neoIndians around 300 B.C. (Campbell 2004). The people Columbus encountered here were the neo-Indians. They were indeed the last set of indigenous people in the region as within half a century after the arrival of the Europeans, the neo-Indian population was all but decimated. Various reasons for their demise have been gleaned from the account of the Dominican priest Bartholomew de Las Casas. Among the reasons given are their exposure to diseases, miscegenation, sheer cruelty, as they were hunted and killed as a sporting past time, the encomienda system, under which the Indians had to labour for the Spaniards in mines and on their provision grounds (Campbell 42). Although the demise of the Indians after the European encounter was swift and brutal, we have been able to learn about their culture and civilization and to identify their contribution to Caribbean culture. The neo-Indians had identifiable religious practices and culture. Historians have been able to identify their polytheistic nature and the various gods and their symbols that were worshipped. Using primary sources as well as recreating the history led to our modern understanding that their crops consisted mainly of potato, cassava, maize and tobacco. The tobacco was used for recreation as well as religious purposes. These crops still exist in the Caribbean. The style of jerking cooking food over an open pit of hot coals is a retention from the neo-Indian people. This method of cooking and preparing barbecues has become very popular in the Caribbean and has also been exported as part of Caribbean culture by people in the Caribbean Diaspora. European expansion in the Caribbean The arrival of the Spaniards in1492 in search of land and gold for the monarch, led other European countries into the Caribbean in search of similar wealth and fortunes. This

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period of our history showed the early importance of the Caribbean as an economic region. The cultural and language diversity of the Caribbean was also heavily influenced by this period. The expressions English speaking, Spanish speaking, and French speaking with reference to the islands of the Caribbean, all had their genesis in this period. Various European countries fought for ownership of the Caribbean. What was interesting in all of this, was the fact that the indigenous people of the region played no part and had no say in the arguments and fights, as to who should own the land they occupied and called home, as well as the wealth that these lands contained. The reasons given for European exploration of the Caribbean were bullionism, mercantilism, colonialism and religion. The first two reasons go hand in hand. The introduction of gold as a store of wealth influenced the search for it. A nations wealth was measured by the amount of gold and silver that it held. While silver faded in relative importance, gold still remains a very important economic means of storing wealth. When located and mined, these precious metals were shipped to Europe to enrich the respective monarchies and economies, with the original owners having very little to show for the wealth they once owned. The search for gold brought other countries, in addition to Spain and Portugal, into the Caribbean. Pope Alexander Borgia, in brokering the Treaty of Tordesillas, divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. This, of course, was not recognized by the other European nations who were also hungry for a piece of the pie. Consequently, they waged war against Spain and Portugal and against each other for the control of territories. Mercantilism still influences which countries dominate world trade and in the process, develop the power to dictate the terms of trade of other nations. Economic prosperity still resides in trade. Note as well that your strength is not measured by your ownership of the traded resources, but by your ability to acquire it cheaply from dominated sources. In comparing the mercantilists actions then and now, we can see that very little has changed for the Caribbean.

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Colonialism involves formal political control, psychological warfare by the colonizers, and a loss of sovereignty and identity by the colonized. Most Caribbean islands have been subjected to colonialism. The occupation and government by a single European country have contributed to the difficulty of forming a Caribbean identity. The presence of the Europeans, along with their hegemonic dominance in areas of language, religion, dress, norms and values, have influence the Creole culture that now exists in the Caribbean. The later introduction of African slaves and then Indian and Chinese indentured workers created the space for the cultural contestations that were to follow. The European languages and culture became the dominant way of life for the colonized, but not without resistance and mimicry. European colonialism had as one of its objectives the supplanting of any nonEuropean culture and the hegemonic imposition of its own. According to Freire (1996):
In cultural invasion it is essential that those who are invaded come to see their reality with the outlook of the invaders rather than their own; for the more they mimic the invaders, the more stable the position of the latter becomes The values of the latter become the pattern of the former (the colonizers). The more invasion is accentuated and those invaded are alienated from the spirit of their own culture and from themselves, the more the latter want to be like the invaders: to walk like them, dress like them, talk like them.

The cultural dominance attempted by the European powers in the Caribbean can be compared to the cultural invasion referred to by Freire. The presence of a prolonged period of colonialism in the Caribbean has affected our identity, language, dress, norms and values. The appropriation of the resources of the Caribbean by these early Europeans left them in a dominant position relative to the other groups that came into the region later. This dominance was manifested in all forms, resulting in the decimation of the indigenous people of the region, Atlantic chattel slavery and indentureship. The economic and military might of the Europeans were used to oppress the other groups as well as to ensure conformity with European ways of life.

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The strategic importance of the Caribbean made it a prime target for the European interlopers. Many European countries had/still have colonial power and dominance over Caribbean countries. Some of these are: Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago St Lucia Dominica Cuba Haiti Barbados Montserrat Martinique Puerto Rico Spain/ England Spain/ England France/ England France/ England Spain Spain/ France England England (British dependency) France (French dependency) Spain/ USA (A territory of the USA) Netherlands (Dutch dependencies)

Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao

The cultural diversity and cosmopolitan nature of the Caribbean was influenced by colonialism. The representation of all these European countries and the impact of their language and culture on the Caribbean, contributes to our polarization. In fact, we are grouped according to the dominant language group to which we belong. CARICOM countries are mainly English-speaking, except for Haiti and Suriname. The issue of religion as a reason for European exploration in the Caribbean in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is interesting. This was also one of the reasons given for the Atlantic slave trade. The dominance of Christianity in the region can be traced to this early period of European interloping. The dominant religion in Europe at the time of Columbus was Roman Catholicism. Protestantism eventually emerged in Europe and this resulted in the establishment of a number of Protestant denominations such as the 13

Baptists, Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians and many others. The constant influx of Europeans into the islands of the Caribbean during slavery and colonialism eventually resulted in the diversity of Protestant denominations as well as the spread of Catholicism. Slavery and its Contribution to Caribbean Civilization The introduction of African slaves to sugar plantations in the Caribbean has indelibly influenced the racial and ethnic compositions of the Caribbean. According to Shepherd (1999), the capture and enslavement of Africans was a large commercial venture with many people including Africans themselves and the various European powers becoming involved in the business of procuring captives to supply the large demands of the trade. Shepherd also observes that the Spanish and Portuguese were the first to begin the shipment of Africans for enslavement in the Caribbean and other parts of the Americas, and they were also the last to quit. The early European settlers in the Caribbean found the land to be fertile for agricultural production. They set about planting sugarcane, cocoa, banana and some citrus crops. Most of the islands grew sugarcane on independently owned sugar plantations. These plantations became total institutions, where the enslaved Africans were treated like servile beasts, lacking the socialization of family, kinship and tribe. Many of the institutions which influence Caribbean civilization and culture were affected by the systems of slavery and subsequently, indentureship. The system of slavery has influenced the system of stratification that has persisted in the region. All societies can be seen as being characterized by inequality. However, stratification is a special type of inequality. This arises when categories or groups are ranked one above the other in terms of their access to power, social prestige, or wealth and income. To fully understand the system of stratification existing in most islands of the Caribbean we need to look at how slave plantation societies were structured. There are many bases for stratification in the Caribbean. The region is still stratified by class, colour, race, ethnicity and gender. Although these are the main bases for 14

stratification others exist, such as occupation and political affiliation. The major bases of stratification owe their genesis to the plantation system of slavery. Slave societies were divided into three strata. The top stratum consisted of the white slave owners, overseers, lawyers, book-keepers, and their families. They were at the top of the hierarchy by virtue of colour and race. These two bases have socially-derived meanings. The issue of colour, which refers to the level of pigmentation in ones skin, was used by the Europeans as a basis for domination and enslavement of blacks. They used skin colour as a basis for declaring their superiority over other races and as part of the justification for slavery. The next stratum was the free coloureds. This stratification by colour was further complicated by the classification of slaves and free coloureds based on the degree of separation from white consanguenal relationship, that is, how much closer to white they were. (Consanguenal refers to relationship by blood (CLR James 1963)) This stratification by colour is still manifested in Caribbean society today. The whites still remain at the top in most Caribbean countries and are owners of the means of production, which also places them at the top of the class stratification. The mulattoes or brownings still remain at the next level of the stratification ladder. Their presence in Caribbean society adds to further colour stratification and other social behaviours such as bleaching (This is where individuals use various chemicals to bleach their skin in an effort to achieve a lighter complexion). This issue of stratification by colour affects other social institutions such as the family and occupation. Some individuals still use colour as a major determinant in the selection of a marriage partner. The lowest stratum consisted of the slaves who were further stratified into house slaves and field slaves. The slaves who served in the masters house were socially closer to the whites since they had to prepare their food, wash their clothes, look after their children and in some instances, provide sexual favours for the white plantation owners, book-keepers etc. This places them in a better position socially than the field slaves. This separation into house and field slave is still manifested in

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the occupational segregation present in most Caribbean societies. Taken in its simplest form, the household helper or the butler still sees him/herself as better off than the gardener, although both are employed to the same household and sometimes earn equal pay. The field slaves are further segregated into different gangs based on gender, age, and physical ability. The issue of gender stratification is very much manifested in Caribbean organizations. Sexual division of labour and its effects on both sexes has been studied by a number of Caribbean theorists such as Dorian Powell, Dennis Brown, Keith Hart and others. Sexual division of labour has resulted in higher levels of unemployment among women and less upward social mobility through certain professions. Jobs are segregated along gender lines, with certain jobs being seen as either masculine or feminine. The issue of stratification in Caribbean society still reflects the product of the plantation society. Social mobility is still influenced by ones colour, race, gender, class and ethnicity. The acquisition of education will allow some social mobility, but will not be the only determinant of upward movement in Caribbean society. Intra-generational and inter-generational mobility has shown some shifts in favour of blacks, but the process is still affected by ones race, colour and gender. The introduction of labour schemes in the British West Indies after emancipation resulted in the demographic diversity that now exists in the Caribbean. The diverse contributions of slavery and the plantation system to Caribbean culture can be seen in many different ways in the various islands of the Caribbean. The emergence of a Caribbean identity is affected by the system of slavery as well as the protracted period of colonialism that followed. The displacement of blacks from Africa and the subsequent dehumanizing system of slavery have affected how blacks view and identify themselves. The introduction of indentured workers from Asia further complicates any attempt at the formation of a uniform identity. The indentured workers added cultural as well as ethnic diversity to the region. These can

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be seen in the food (e.g. roti, chutney and curry were brought into the region by the East Indians), celebrations/festivals (carnival manifests both Indian and African aesthetics), dress (the influence of European style of dress is still evident in our corporate suits worn to work), music (the rhythms and beats of the Caribbean have distinctive African as well as Indian sounds). At the end of slavery and indentureship, what was clear was how cosmopolitan the region had become, consisting of diverse groups of people whose cultural manifestations would be reflected in the culture of the region forever. Each group that came to the region left footprints that added to the diversity of the region. Each group has its own unique cultural representation and texture, woven into the fabric of Caribbean civilization. Carnival, crop-over, calypso music, reggae and dancehall music, West Indies cricket, and Creole languages, are some of the most noticeable signifiers of the syncretism that makes the region unique. Session 1.3: Approaches to Caribbean Society and Culture Many different theories that seek to explain the social dynamics of the Caribbean have been espoused by various Caribbean writers. To fully understand the cultural nature of the Caribbean and the many different factors that form a Caribbean culture, one must explore the theoretical discourse that seeks to link our past cultural trajectories with the contemporary Caribbean. The various social theories seek to explain the workings of the Caribbean from different perspectives. Each theory utilizes a historical sensibility to provide that bridge of relevance that will give it currency. The culture of the Caribbean includes issues of power and politics, language and liberation, colonialism and imperialism, pluralism and polarization. Any discussion on culture will also incorporate issues of race, class, colour, ethnicity and creolization. Since our way of life is reflective of the culture that exists in the Caribbean we need to understand each strand of logic and the semiotic signifiers that represent parts of Caribbean life.

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Caribbean theorizing involves different theorists postulating about how Caribbean society functions and the various factors that influence it. The theorists examined are all Caribbean persons who present from within, explanations about some aspect of Caribbean society. Their perspectives enable us to understand various cultural, demographic, racial and political factors that shape the region. Their theories still hold currency within contemporary Caribbean society. These theories Plantation Society, Plural Society, and Creole society all provide a foundation on which to build a Caribbean theoretical discourse. The undergraduate student sometimes misses the importance of using these theories to understand the dynamics of Caribbean society when they engage in discussions on issues such as: the CSME, Caribbean civilization, the Caribbean business environment, Caribbean economic problems, gender, and Caribbean history. The theories provide an understanding of why the Caribbean is so structured and the various institutions and systems that contribute to the maintenance of the type of social, economic and political systems that dominate the region. The plantation society was used as a starting point for part of the discussion on Caribbean stratification. The structure of these plantation societies provides the bases for historically looking at the issues that shape Caribbean society. The characteristics of these so-called plantation societies provided a blueprint for the shaping of our contemporary Caribbean society. Drawing on all the plantation society theorists, from R.T. Smith, to Horowitz, George Beckford, Orlando Patterson, and Best and Levitt, we get a very good understanding of the dynamics that influence our behaviour and that of social groups and institutions in the region. They provided the bases from which to understand and provide answers to the following questions: a) Why is the Caribbean so culturally plural? b) Why did the system of stratification emerge in the region and why is it so rigid?

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c) Why do the systems of government in the region operate on behalf of the planter class and why have they resulted in the type of political structuring of local government and community? d) Why do we trade so little with each other and so much with the developed countries? e) Why are our economies not as diversified as those of the metropole? f) Why is there a brittle social order? The answers to all of the above questions are related to the culture of the Caribbean. Although some of the topics seem far from affecting the culture of the region, they are not monolithic concepts. The beauty of the plantation society theory is not only its historical sensibility in linking past to present, but also the conflation of many different aspects of Caribbean society. The plantation society of the historical past provided a meeting place for the miscegenation that gave birth to the cosmopolitan Caribbean. They also provided a structural framework of behaviours and beliefs that gave insights into our ancestral heritage and their influence on the construction of our daily reality. In a sense, our contemporary society is seen as an epiphenomenon of the historical plantation society. The structure of our economies with a heavy dependence on a mono crop/sector for existence has a direct relationship to how the plantations were structured to produce just one product using exploited labour with the profit accruing to one class. Every other product needed for the hinterland was imported from the motherland or metropole, even if it could be produced locally. The political system that operated on the plantations prevented one plantation island from communicating or trading with another. This was done to ensure the proper working of the imperialist system of trade that fosters a system of dependency othering, and inferiority/superiority. It also served to make indubitable Marxs phrase that, the dominant ideology of any society is the ideology of the dominant class. The attempt at dominance by the planter class is manifested in the area of economics/trade, education, politics and ethnocentrically through culture. 19

Plural society theory helps us to understand and explain the social and ethnic tensions existing in societies such as Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana. M.G. Smith (1974: 75), in defining the plural society, noted, there is a plural society, with different sections of the community living side by side, but separately, within the same political unit. He quoted J.S. Furnivals description of Burmese society to illustrate his definition of the concept of plural society.
In Burma, as in Java, probably the first thing that strikes the visitor is the medley of people European, Chinese, Indian and native. It is in the strictest sense a medley, for they mix but do not combine. Each group holds by its own religion, its own culture and language, its own ideas and ways. As individuals they meet but only in the market place in buying and selling.

This description was copied by Smith in reference to Caribbean society. The similarities are more clearly visible in Trinidad and Tobago and in Guyana. Why do representative bureaucracies exist in these countries? Why do various groups and social institution manifest structural pluralism? The application to other Caribbean islands such as Jamaica, St Lucia, St Vincent and Montserrat is still relevant although somewhat enigmatic for the unenlightened. Our plurality is manifested in many institutions in the region, such as marriage, religion, government, aesthetics and culture. The Creole Society theory provides plausible explanations about the emergence of the Caribbean person as a Creole being, manifesting the syncretic product of the various groups in the region. The prevalence of Creole languages and their contribution to the forging of a Caribbean identity is also partially explained through Creole Society theory. This theory was made popular by E. Kamau Brathwaite.

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Learning Activities 1.0 Explore the meanings of the word paleo and meso in reference to the early Indians that occupied the Caribbean. 2.0 Prepare a two-page response to show how the stratification that existed on the plantation is manifested in your country.
3.0

Which Caribbean theory, Plantation, Plural or Creole best explains the social environment of your country? Based on your reading of Hubert Devonishs article in the reader, should Caribbean countries teach their creole languages in schools?

4.0

References Beckford, G.L. (1972). Persistent poverty: Underdevelopment in plantation economies of the Third World. New York and London: Oxford University Press. Bolland, O.N. (Ed.). (2004). The birth of Caribbean civilization: A century of ideas about culture and identity, nation and society. Kingston and Miami: Ian Randle Publishers. Campbell, John. (2004). Caribbean Civilization: Course Material. Bridgetown: UWIDEC. Devonish, Hubert. (1986). Language and Liberation: Creole Language and Politic in the Caribbean. London: Karia Press. During, Simon. (Ed.). 2004. The Cultural Studies Reader. New York: Routledge Freire, Paulo. (1996). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. London: Penguin Books. Geertz, C. (1994). Thick description: Towards an interpretive theory of culture. In M. Martin & L. McIntyre (Eds.), Readings in the philosophy of social science (pp.213-231). Cambridge, MA: M I T Press. 21

Haralambos, M and Holborn, M. 1995. Sociology Themes and Perspectives. London: Harper Collins. Herskovitz, M. (1990). The myth of the Negro past. Boston: Beacon Press. Hess, et al. (1996). Sociology. London: Allyn Bacon. James, C.L. R. (1989). Blacks Jacobins: Toussaint LOuverture and the San Domingo Revolution. New York: Vintage Books. Shepherd, V. (1999). The trade in, and sources of, African captives. In Caribbean Civilization. Compiled by Vishnudat Singh. St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago: Department of History, UWI. Smith, M. G., (1974). The plural society in the British West Indies. Los Angeles: University of California Press.

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