Cfans Asset 131281
Cfans Asset 131281
Cfans Asset 131281
Biological Treatment Processes............................................................................................ 5-34 Nutrients ................................................................................................................................ 5-40 Monitoring Wastewater Characteristics ............................................................................. 5-56
References ..............................................................................................................................................5-57
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Sewage
Denition
Sewage is waste produced by toilets, bathing, laundry, or culinary operations or the oor drains associated with these sources, and includes household cleaners, medications, and other constituents in sewage restricted to amounts normally used for domestic purposes (MN Rules Chapter 7080.1100, Subp. 73). Sewage does not include clear water such as swimming pool water, roof drainage, water softener recharge water, or water used to irrigate lawns or gardens. There are several types or categories of sewage that have been nationally dened by the Consortium of Institutes for Decentralized Wastewater Treatment (CIDWT, 2009): 1. Blackwater: portion of the wastewater stream that originates from toilet xtures, dishwashers and food preparation sinks. 2. Graywater: water captured from non-food preparation sinks, showers, baths, spa baths, clothes washing machines, and laundry tubs. Graywater is dened in MN Rules Chapter 7080.1100, Subp. 37 as sewage that does not contain toilet wastes. A Graywater system is one that receives, treats, and disperses only graywater or other similar system as designated by the commissioner (MN Rules Chapter 7080.1100, Subp. 38). Toilet wastes from the residence or other establishment have to be treated in some other system, or the residence has to have a privy. To prevent hooking up a ush toilet onto a graywater system, the plumbing of the system must have two-inch diameter pipe, rather than four-inch. Even the oor drains have to use two-inch pipe. The exception is for a graywater system being installed for an existing building. There is no need to re-plumb the entire structure. Graywater systems cannot accept garbage disposal waste. Graywater must be fully treated and is further discussed in Section 7. 3. Yellow water: an isolated waste stream consisting of urine collected from specic xtures and not contaminated by feces or diluted by graywater sources; see also urine separating device.
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The amount and type of water discharged to an onsite sewage treatment system is one of the factors used in sizing that system. Other factors that inuence sizing include soil properties such as texture, structure, and percolation rate. Designing a wastewater treatment system based upon average daily ow would imply that the system is operating beyond its design capacity 50 percent of the time. For this reason, treatment systems are typically designed to produce the required efuent quality when treating the maximum daily ow. This accounts for the natural variability in the amount and strength of wastewater entering a SSTS as shown in Figure 5.1. FIGURE 5.1 Peak Wastewater Flows from a Single-Family Home The amount of wastewater entering the treatment system is the hydraulic loading rate. In sizing for the hydraulic loading rate, the volume of water owing through the treatment process is the design parameter under consideration. For the concept of mass loading rate, the idea of the mass or weight of a particular contaminant owing through the system over some time is considered. The organic loading rate, the number of pounds or kilograms of BOD per day, and the solids loading rate, the number of pounds or kilograms of TSS per day, are common mass loading rates.
Water use varies widely among individuals, depending on such factors as background, age and economic status. For example, an individual who was raised in a household without running water will probably be very conservative in water use even when running water is available. Teenagers are typically high water users. The use of hot tubs or water-circulating devices for therapeutic services greatly increases water use. A number of studies have been made throughout the country on water use habits and rates. In studies made during the 1970s, average water use per person, nationwide, was about 45 gallons per day. A 1999 study found a national water-use rate of about 60 gallons per person per day with a variation of plus or minus 40 gallons per day (Mayer et al. 1999). Domestic sewage is generated by a dwelling, a toilet facility at an establishment open to the public, rental units such as motels and resort cabins, shower and toilet facilities for schools or campgrounds, or anywhere typical domestic wastewater is created.
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with humans or laundry to create contamination that needs to be treated or removed. Water treatment discharge is dened by CIDWT as the by-product from a water treatment device, such as regeneration water from an ion-exchange unit, reject water from a reverse-osmosis unit, or the backwash from an iron lter and does not need to be directed to a SSTS. Water softeners reduce the number of or remove calcium and magnesium ions, which are the principal causes of hardness in water. Cation exchange resin method is most commonly used for residential and commercial water treatment. Water softener and iron lter recharge water adds a large volume of water to the system typically 30 to 80 gallons per cycle. This is water that does not require treating. A growing concern with water softener recharge water is that it may cause an increase in the amount of solid material that remains suspended in the liquid layer (efuent) in the septic tank and ends up in the drain eld trenches or a mound. These solids may shorten the life of the soil treatment system, increasing the chance of draineld or mound failure. Water softener discharge has conicting results in research studies, but it does appear that scum layers are often absent in tanks where the water softener recharge water enters the septic tank. Iron lters are similar to water softeners in that the efuent is not sewage, but the discharge does have different characteristics. The two choices for iron removal are ion exchange (water softener) and oxidation ltration. Water softener is applied to water where the iron concretions are in the 2-5 ppm range. If the iron concentrations are higher (> 5 ppm) or the natural pH is high (> 8) then applying an oxidation ltration system may be more effective. These systems physically lter the iron and then are back-ushed, removing the iron as a solid. These systems will need to be discharged into a settling component before being discharged to the soil to remove the solids that would plug the soil surface. Reverse osmosis is a separation process that uses pressure to force water through a membrane that retains the solute on one side and allows the pure solvent to pass to the other side. More specically, it is the process of forcing a liquid from a region of high solute concentration through a membrane to a region of low solute concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure. This is the reverse of the normal osmosis process, which is the natural movement of solvent from an area of low solute concentration, through a membrane, to an area of high solute concentration when no external pressure is applied. The membrane here is semi-permeable, meaning it allows the passage of liquid but not of solute or particles. The membranes used for reverse osmosis have a dense barrier layer in the polymer matrix where most separation occurs. In most cases, the membrane is designed to allow only water to pass through this dense layer while preventing the passage of solutes (such as salt ions). This process requires that a high pressure be exerted on the high concentration side of the membrane, usually 217 bar (30250 psi) for fresh and brackish water, and 4070 bar (6001000 psi) for seawater, which has around 24 bar (350 psi) natural osmotic pressure which must be overcome. Reverse osmosis units sold for residential purposes offer water ltration at the cost of large quantities of waste water. For every ve gallons of output, a typical residential reverse osmosis lter will send around ten to 20 gallons of water down the drain (although many people capture it and use it for watering plants and lawns). In some states this water is used for irrigation. High-efciency furnaces operate at a high efciency and therefore save on energy use. One of the results of the heating process is that condensation occurs in the unit. When
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this condensation builds up, water slowly trickles out of the unit and into the plumbing that is often connected to an onsite system. This water can cause freezing problems in the onsite system because of the slow, steady ow. In addition, this water is clean and therefore does not need to be treated. When the furnace is in operation, this water typically trickles out of the unit at a volume of ve to ten gallons on a cold day. In high-efciency furnaces, the recharge water from water softeners and iron lters has the potential to cause problems with onsite sewage treatment systems.
Industrial wastewater
Industrial wastewater is the water or liquid-carried waste from an industrial process resulting from industry, manufacture, trade, automotive repair, vehicle wash, business or medical, activity that may contain toxic or hazardous constituents. Garage oor drain liquid wastes from garages serving single and multi-family homes can consist of the following: Precipitation draining from vehicles and liquids from vehicle washing Q Spills from materials stored or used in the garage such as: Thinners, solvents, paints, pesticides, cleaners, etc. Q Liquids from vehicle repair such as: gasoline, used oil, antifreeze, other Therefore, there is a potential for hazardous waste and other damaging waste entering the oor drain system.
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Always check with local units of government for specic requirements. The following list is provided in preferential order of how to handle liquid wastes from private garages: Preference #1: Do not install oor drains in new constructions of private garages; instead, slope the oor to the doors. For existing garages, seal the drain to prevent further discharge. Preference #2: If a oor drain is desired, the oor drain may discharge to the homeowners lawn surface if approved by the administrative authority (MN R. Chapter 4715.1300, subp. 6). The discharge area must be visible, and cannot drain or convey runoff directly to storm drains or ditches. The good housekeeping practices described below must be followed. Preference #3: If a oor drain is desired and the home is connected to the municipal sanitary sewer, connect oor drain to the homes building sewer for sanitary wastes. Connection must be in compliance with the Plumbing Code (MN Rules Chapter 4715.1300). The hookup should comply with the local sewer use ordinance, and may be subject to local approval. The good housekeeping practices described below must be followed. DO NOT: direct the oor drain waste to a street, ditch or water body (MN Rules Chapter 7050.0210, sub 2), Q connect to building sewer of homes served by individual sewage treatment systems (ISTS) (MN Rules Chapter 7080.0065), Q allow the oor drain to deadhead into the soil (MN Rules Chapter 4715.1300).
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Good Housekeeping:
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Care should be taken that hazardous or other damaging waste does not come in
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contact with the garage oor. Any hazardous or other damaging waste reaching the garage oor must be absorbed and disposed of at a household hazardous waste facility. No hazardous or other damaging waste should be discharged to daylight via a oor drain or sloped oor, or to a oor drain connected to sanitary sewer (MN Rule Chapter 7060, subp 2). All used oil must be recycled (MN Statute 115A.916). Q Homeowners have the duty to avoid and mitigate pollution from any of the preferred disposal options (MN Statutes 115.061). Any non-hazardous/non-damaging liquid waste discharged to daylight via a oor drain or sloped oor must not create a nuisance condition or contaminate storm water runoff (MN Rule Chapter 7050.0210). Q If a oor drain remains in the garage, it is recommended that a permanent sign or plate be placed on or within view of the drain stating, WARNING - Water Only! Floor drain leads to our water supplies.
Other Establishments
Domestic sewage is also generated by Other Establishments. Under Chapter 7081, an other establishment is any public or private structure, other than a dwelling, that generates sewage and discharges it to an MSTS (7081.0020, Subp. 6). Other establishments may have large ows and/or high-strength waste, so Chapter 7081 has special regulations for them. These systems are also regulated by the EPA Class V Rules and must complete an inventory form (see Section 13: Forms). Non-domestic waste is generated by many sources, such as restaurants, laundromats, barber shops, car washes and other light industrial establishments. Waste other than sewage is only allowed to be discharged into a SSTS if the waste is suitable to be discharged to groundwater. If waste strength parameters exceed the values identied in MN Rules Chapter 7081.0130, Subp. 2, the system should include pretreatment. A range of systems can be designed for Other Establishments. a. Type I if domestic levels of wastewater can be achieved with septic tanks alone the system is classied as at Type I system. b. Type II or III - if site or soil conditions are limiting. c. Type IV if the system uses a registered product (Treatment Level C) to reduce waste strength the system is considered to be a Type IV system. d. Type V if the system uses a non-registered product to reduce the waste strength the system is consider to be a Type V system. Some other establishments include the following:
Apartment buildings
Rental situations have been known to have overuse of the system. The renter may not understand the impacts of their usage habits on the system and may have little concern about over using water. Multiple families can also impact the loading to the system. Low-ow xtures and appliances along with education can assist in the management of the system.
Day cares
Day cares are always going to have higher ows associated with their use. The other concern here will the cleaners that are used and the type of food that is available. In-home
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daycares will have higher ows than are typical for the number of bedrooms in the house due to the amount of people that are in the home and the amount of time they are there. The kitchen or waste strength will be similar to a normal home. The use of cleaners must be watched in these systems. Excessive cleaning, which is common in day cares, can lead to the killing of the bacteria and lower efciency in the treatment tanks.
Commercial kitchen
A commercial kitchen is a food preparation center that prepares multiple meals or food products and typically generates high-strength wastewater. The food service wastewater from these facilities is non-toxic, non-hazardous wastewater and is similar in composition to domestic wastewater, but which may occasionally have one or more of its constituents exceed typical domestic ranges. It includes all the sewage wastes from commercial food preparation, food processing or food production sources. Restaurants and bars almost always have high-strength waste that makes sewage treatment difcult. For this reason, a number of best management practices can be taken to facilitate treatment: Limit food particles and alcohol going down the drain. Q Limit the use of chemicals going down the drain: chemicals can kill the treatment systems good bacteria. Q Limit use of degreasers, even in cleaning supplies. Q A grease interceptor, a watertight device designed to intercept, congeal and retain or remove fats, oils, and grease (FOGs) from food-service wastewaters; may be located inside (grease separator) or outside (grease tank or grease trap) of a facility that generates commercial food service wastewater. Q Isolate kitchen waste from other sewage production Q Design tanks for a minimum of four to seven times the daily ow. Q Be aware that high water temperatures (140F) do not allow grease to solidify, adding to treatment concerns. Q More tanks in series can help cool efuent Q Be aware that septic tanks alone usually will not get the job done.
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When available the Designer or Service Provider should test the efuent from the last septic tank or pump tank to determine BOD/TSS/FOG levels. Design considerations include: 1. Provide and maintain internal grease interceptor. 2. Place clean out outside structure in the lines. Schedule regular line cleaning to avoid emergency services. 3. Keep the rst outside tank close to the establishment (i.e. a short building sewer) to keep the sewage from cooling and grease solidifying in the building sewer. 4. If fat and grease are excessive, more and smaller tanks are better for cooling as there is more surface area contact with the soil. However an individual tank in series must still not be less than 25% of the total liquid capacity (MN Rules Chapter 7080.1940 B). 5. Tanks must be sized on retention time to promote adequate cooling, oatation and settling. Typical retention time for domestic wastes is 3 to 4 days. (daily ow x 3, or daily ow x 4). More retention time is likely needed for high strength wastes. The
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frequency of solids removal should also be considered when determining tank size. 6. If fat and grease are excessive, more capacity above the liquid level and higher bafes may be advisable. Efuent lters should (must for MSTS) be used on the nal tank in series. 7. For high strength waste situations, it is recommended that the orice size for pressure distribution system be no smaller than 1/4 and the distal head should be no less than 5 feet. Cleanouts must be provided (MN Rules Chapter 7080.2050 sub. 4J). More frequent doses are preferable (min of 4 doses/day is required by rule), as long as the dose volume equals or exceeds four distribution pipe volumes plus the volume of the supply pipe. 8. The size of the absorption area should be sized on the greater of the maximum hydraulic load or the maximum organic load. See Table 5.1 below and calculations to determine organic loading. It may be advisable to oversize the absorption area by 50% and divide the system into 3 zones for dosing and resting cycles if secondary treatment is not employed (a must for MSTS MN Rules Chapter 7081.0270, Subp. 5 B 3). TABLE 5.1 Maximum Waste Strength Loading RatesBottom Area Only
Soil Loading Rate (gpd/ft2)
1.2 0.78 0.68 0.6 0.52 0.5 0.45 0.42
Pounds of BOD5/ft2/day
0.0017 0.0011 0.0009 0.0009 0.0008 0.0007 0.0006 0.0006
Pounds of TSS/ft2/day
0.0006 0.0004 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0002 0.0002
Pounds of FOG/ft2/day
0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
Based on organic loading to a Type I system with design ow and bottom area loading with concentrations of BOD5 of 170 mg/L, TSS of 60 mg/L. and FOG of 25 mg/L.
To calculate: 1. BOD Loading _________ x (8.34 1,000,000) x _________ = ___________ BOD conc. Hydraulic Waste strength from treatment loading rate loading rate device (mg/L) (gal/ft2/day) (lbs/ft2/day) 2. TSS Loading _________ x (8.34 1,000,000) x __________ = ___________ TSS conc. Hydraulic Waste strength from treatment loading rate loading rate device (mg/L) (gal/ft2/day) (lbs/ft2/day) 3. Oil and Grease Loading _________ x (8.34 1,000,000) x ___________ = _____________ O & G conc. Hydraulic Waste strength from treatment loading rate loading rate device (mg/L) (gal/ft2/day) (lbs/ft2/day)
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Campgrounds
At campgrounds, it is likely that users unfamiliar with onsite treatment systems will be adding waste to the systems. Peak ows are often very high; for this reason, consider extra tank capacity, commercial-size efuent lters, and the use of timers. Pretreatment may also be needed to get the levels of the efuent down to domestic levels. Privies Q Pit Privies must have three feet of separation below the point where sewage enters soil Q Vault Privies must meet all requirements of holding tanks 3 Q Minimum size = 25 ft Q More information on Privies is detailed in Section 7 RV Dump Stations Q At RV dump stations, there is the potential for odor-control chemicals (OCC) that may be harmful to the system, including: Q Formaldehyde (OCC): the organic strength is so high that the resulting mixture in a holding tank is fteen to twenty times stronger. Q Quats (OCC) are not biodegradable and deodorize by killing the odor-causing microorganisms. Q Enzyme-based products employ natural organic chemicals. Because they are less effective, they are not used much. Consider operating the dump station as a holding tank if OCC are in the waste stream. Pretreating the RV waste or slowly time-dosing the RV waste to the rest of the treatment system is another option. Dump stations which should be designed with excessive tank capacity. UMN recommends a 3 or 4 day retention time for holding tank sizing based on the maximum number of trailers using the facility per day (40 gallons per day)
Laundromats
The treatment of wastewater from laundromats is often compromised by their high use of soap, chemicals, and water. Steps can be taken to mitigate these factors, including: Use liquid soaps only; some cheap powders have excessive llers Q Sell only liquid soaps which do not have a bleach additive Q Consider doubling tank capacity Q Use of low water use washing machines Q Use of lint lters in facility Q Use of a commercial-size efuent lter on septic tank Q Increase outlet bafe size to 50-60% of tank depth
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Ofce Buildings
Flow varies greatly from one ofce building site to the next. In general, there is the potential for high-strength waste due to low graywater content. There is also the potential that users will be unfamiliar with onsite treatment systems. System designers should be aware of any cooking facilities that may be present in the building, and should consider a commercial-size efuent lter when there is the potential for high-strength waste.
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Medical Facilities
There is the potential for users unfamiliar with onsites. There is also the potential for harmful chemicals to enter the system, including left-over medicine and cleaning chemicals. Leftover medications should not be ushed down the toilet and janitorial staff should be educated about the appropriate use of cleaning chemicals to ensure a sanitary environment while minimizing product use. Sharps/red bag waste must not go into system. Consider commercial-size efuent lters. The well setback for is increased to 150 for systems serving this type of waste.
Automotive Garages
No oor drains where vehicle maintenance is being performed should drain to a SSTS. Instead, these drains should go to a holding tank. Flammable waste traps are a good idea in case of spills or misuse. Hazardous waste can not be allowed to enter the system. If a thick layer of oil/grease forms on the on top of the tank, laboratory analysis should be conducted to determine what the layer is composed of and should be checked for hazardous waste. If there is no hazardous waste, the wastewater may be thinly land applied or brought to a permitted waste treatment facility.
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When a single onsite system is designed to treat an average design ow greater than 10,000 gallons per day, the owner or owners must apply for a state disposal system (SDS) permit from the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. A professional engineer (PE) must be involved in the design of any SSTS that requires a SDS permit. According to MN Rules Chapter 7081.0040, Subp. 1: a. All MSTS must be designed and operated according to this chapter, except as modied through an ordinance in compliance with chapter 7082 and Minnesota Statutes, section 115.55. All MSTS must be designed, installed, inspected, pumped, and operated by a qualied employee under part 7083.1010 or a licensed business under part 7083.0710. All MSTS must conform to applicable state statutes and rules. b. The owner or owners of a single SSTS or a group of SSTS under common ownership must obtain an SDS permit from the agency according to chapter 7001 when all or part of proposed or existing soil dispersal components are within one-half mile of each other and the combined ow from all proposed and existing SSTS is greater than 10,000 gallons per day. For proposed SSTS, the ow must be determined according to item D. For existing SSTS, the ow is determined by the greater of: (1) the average maximum seven-day measured ow; or (2) the ow determined according to item D. c. An SDS permit is required for any subsurface sewage treatment system or group of subsurface sewage treatment systems that the commissioner determines has the potential or an increased potential to cause adverse public health or environmental impacts if not regulated under a state permit. Conditions for these permits include systems in environmentally sensitive areas, unsubstantiated or unexpected ow volumes, and systems requiring exceptional operation, monitoring, and management. d. Flow amounts to calculate whether an SDS permit is required must be determined according to part 7081.0110. The highest calculated value of the various methods in Table I under part 7081.0130, subpart 1, must be used to make this determination, with no reduction allowed. An SDS permit is not required if a factor of safety is added to the design ow that results in a design ow that is in excess of the SDS permit threshold.
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Figure 5.2 charts the ow entering a system over the course of a week and graphically identies many of the above terms. FIGURE 5.2 Flow Rates Vary Signicantly
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of the ISTS can be reasonably anticipated, the system must be designed to accommodate these factors. The estimated design ow for any dwelling must provide for at least two bedrooms. For multiple or multifamily dwellings, the design ow consists of the sum of the design ows for each individual unit. A bedroom is dened in 7080.1100, Subp. 9, is an area that is: a. a room designed or used for sleeping; or b. a room or area of a dwelling that has a minimum oor area of 70 square feet with access gained from the living area or living area hallway. Architectural features that affect the use as a bedroom under this item may be considered in making the bedroom determination. The estimated sewage ows presented in Table 5.1 are based on the number of bedrooms in a residence. Because the individuals who occupy a residence use the water, the number of bedrooms is considered a good index of the potential water use. For a Class I residence, the estimated water use is equal to 150 gallons per day (gpd) per bedroom. This assumes occupancy of two people per bedroom, each using 75 gpd. This is a conservative estimate for many residences, although it may be low for large and high-value residences. The notes in Table 5.2 suggest a classication for the various types of residences according to home size and number of water-using appliances. Dwelling does not include a single-family or multifamily residence that serves both as a domicile and a place of business. If the business increases the volume of sewage above what is normal for a dwelling, a designer should add the additional ow from the business to the values in Table 5.2. If the liquid waste generated from business operations no longer qualies as domestic sewage, additional design considerations must accommodate the waste type and strength. TABLE 5.2 Estimated Sewage Flows in Gallons per Day (from MN Rules Chapter 7080.1860 Table IV)
Number of Bedrooms 2 or less 3 4 5 6 Class I
300 450 600 750 900
Class II
225 300 375 450 525
Class III
180 218 256 294 332
Class IV
* * * * *
* Flows for Classication IV dwellings are 60 percent of the values as determined for Classication I, II, or III systems. For more than six bedrooms, the design ow is determined by the following formulas: Classication I: Classication I dwellings are those with more than 800 square feet per bedroom, when the dwellings total nished oor area is divided by the number of bedrooms, or where more than two of the following water-use appliances are installed or anticipated: clothes washing machine, dishwasher, water conditioning unit, bathtub greater than 40 gallons, garbage disposal, or selfcleaning humidier in furnace. The design ow for Classication I dwellings is determined by multiplying 150 gallons by the number of bedrooms. Classication II: Classication II dwellings are those with 500 to 800 square feet per bedroom, when the dwellings total nished oor area is divided by the number of bedrooms, and where no more than two of the water-use appliances listed in Classication I are installed or anticipated. The design ow for Classication II dwellings is determined by adding one to the number of bedrooms and multiplying this result by 75 gallons. Classication III: Classication III dwellings are those with less than 500 square feet per bedroom, when the dwellings total nished oor area is divided by the number of bedrooms, and where no more than two of the water-use appliances listed in Classication I are installed or anticipated. The design ow for Classication III dwellings is determined by adding one to the number of bedrooms, multiplying this result by 38 gallons, then adding 66 gallons. Classication IV: Classication IV dwellings are dwellings designed under part 7080.2240.
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The determination of what constitutes a bedroom may seem to be an easy process; however in some cases, it has proved to be a difcult task. It should be clearly understood that the denition of a bedroom in 7080.1100, Subp. 9 is intended to be used only to estimate sewage ow from the dwelling. It must not be used to determine the adequacy or safety of a room for sleeping purposes. Please refer to the International Residential Code (http:// www.iccsafe.org), the Minnesota State Building code (http://www.doli.state.mn.us/ccld/ Codes.asp), or other pertinent building codes for those requirements. The denition of bedroom was crafted to be as specic as possible to address a majority of the ow determination situations that will be encountered. However, there may be unique situations in which this denition may need to be interpreted. Excerpts from the MPCAs fact sheet, Bedroom Denition for Determining SSTS Size are offered below to provide guidance to designers and inspectors in making these unique determinations. The main complication in crafting a denition of a bedroom is the differences between older and newer dwellings. Older dwellings were not built to a code, while newer dwellings are constructed under very detailed codes. Therefore, rooms used as bedrooms can be markedly different from older to newer dwellings. If Chapter 7080 were to be used as a bedroom denition based on a current building code, it would wrongly exclude rooms as commonly used as bedrooms in older dwellings. A survey was taken of local SSTS administrators to aid in crafting the bedroom denition. The survey results focused on two main issues - current use and architectural issues.
Current Use
MN Rules Chapter 7080 is clear that if a room or area (even if it does not meet the size or access requirements) is currently being used as a sleeping room, it is counted as a bedroom. This includes an area used for sleeping which may be unsafe. Again, this bedroom determination is to estimate ow, not to determine the safety of the room for sleeping. Exceptions can be made if the occupant who is using the room for sleeping is temporary. Examples would be: an adult child with family who has temporarily moved-in during construction of their new dwelling, and Q occasional guest(s) who sleep on a sofa-sleeper in a common living area.
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Other useful sources for determining if a room is a bedroom include: Q The current or most recent real estate listing of the number of bedrooms Q The number of bedrooms listed with the local Assessors ofce Q Rooms labeled as bedrooms on the house plans Q Rooms with smoke detector Q All rooms on a second level that are not bathrooms
Architectural Issues
These are features common to designated bedrooms or rooms used as sleeping areas: Q Rooms or areas with legal egress Q Rooms with a closet Q Rooms which are adjacent to a three-quarter bathroom
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Rooms such as dens, sewing rooms, exercise rooms and home theaters should also be given serious consideration as a bedroom as they have the potential to be easily converted. Architectural features that are obstacles to the use of a room as a bedroom include: Q Rooms that are obviously a kitchen, bathroom, living room, dining room, laundry room, storage room (without windows) or family room Q Rooms and areas with low ceilings Q Rooms with arched doorways that lack a door Q Rooms and areas with half walls Q Rooms and areas with no privacy Q Rooms and areas without egress to the outside Q Rooms and areas with no source of light and ventilation to the outside Q Rooms and areas that are used as a passage to other rooms, stairs, or bathrooms unless this is the only sleeping area in the dwelling Q Open lofts A minimum ceiling height is seven feet for basements and seven feet, six inches for upper oors; for attic areas having downward-tapering ceilings a minimum height of ve feet is allowed. Areas less than ve feet in height are not included in the 70 sq. ft. minimum oor area calculation.
Financial considerations
Typically, the increase in cost of adding an additional bedroom to a system design is not exorbitant. A larger system size adds longevity and often recaptures the additional cost over the life of the system.
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Bedroom?
Yes Yes No Yes No No Yes No
Supporting reasoning
Meets minimum size requirements and has no precluding architectural features Currently being used as a bedroom Plumbing, sinks, and washer/dryer are obstacles to use as a bedroom Currently being used as a bedroom Open is a an obstacle to use as a bedroom Not being used as a bedroom, and Open is an obstacle to use as a bedroom Meets Rule requirements of size and architectural features Lack of egress is an obstacle to use as a bedroom
Use the Design Summary Worksheet in the Forms Section with every design.
Class II
A study on water use from the 1970s indicated that, on average, there was one more occupant in a house than the number of bedrooms. Using this information, the MPCA developed a reduced ow estimate for SSTS sizing if the dwellings contain 500 to 800 square feet per bedroom, when the dwellings total nished oor area is divided by the number of bedrooms, and where no more than two of the water-use appliances listed in Classication I are installed or anticipated. The design ow for Classication II dwellings is determined by adding one to the number of bedrooms and multiplying this result by 75 gallons.
Class III
Classication III dwellings are those with less than 500 square feet per bedroom, when the dwellings total nished oor area is divided by the number of bedrooms, and where no more than two of the water-use appliances listed in Classication I are installed or anticipated. The design ow for Classication III dwellings is determined by adding one to the number of bedrooms, multiplying this result by 38 gallons, then adding 66 gallons. These ow estimates are extremely conservative compared to more recent water use research (Mayer, 1999).
Class IV
A Class IV residence has no ush toilet, so the value for Class I, II, or III is reduced by 40 percent: ow x .6. If a dwelling has a graywater system, it is a Class IV residence, and average daily ow is es-
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timated as 60 percent of a similar house as shown in Table 5.2. Efuent from a graywater tank has to enter a soil treatment system for nal treatment. It cannot be discharged to the surface. Proper sizing of the soil absorption system is based on Class IV ows and the appropriate soil hydraulic loading rate. See Section 7 for the discussion of the products available for the removal of the ush toilets from the source.
Water Meters
Septic systems are becoming more expensive both to install and to repair, so one goal is to design them to treat the actual amount of ow rather than an estimated amount, which may be high or low. Another goal is to get optimum use over the longest possible time from existing systems. In order to achieve these goals, it is helpful to know actual ow rates, which the water meter provides. While it is often necessary to use the values in Table 5.2 to estimate sewage ows, more accurate data should be obtained if possible. For example, if a chain restaurant is to be located beyond the reach of municipal sewer, then data should be obtained from the parent company on water use rates of comparable facilities. A water meter can help ensure successful septic system operation. To get keep track of the amount of water entering the septic system, include a water meter in the design of the system, or add one to an existing system. All systems with pump and MSTS (MN Rules Chapter 7081.0230 D) must have a water meter installed, or they must have some other means of measuring ow - such as a running time clock or event counter on a pump. Water meters come in many different shapes and sizes. Most water meters are designed to deal with clean water, which means that they may not function properly if they are used to measure the ow of sewage. For example, many water meters have small paddles or wheels that move to measure ow. These moving parts can be easily plugged by solids in sewage. One way to avoid this problem is to measure the ow of clean water before it is used in the house. These meters should measure the water used inside the house, but not the water used outside for watering lawns and gardens, lling swimming pools, or washing cars, since this water does not enter the septic system. A lter to catch small particles should be installed to protect the water meter. Placing the meter after the water softener is common. If its difcult to install a water meter so that it does not include the water to be used outdoors, try to estimate outside use, or use only data from December to March, when there is typically no outdoor use of water.
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Installation
Water meters measure ow in either gallons per minute, gallons per hour, or cubic feet per second. Before doing any calculations using data from the meter, check to be sure of the units of measurement. Designs for septic systems typically use gallons per day. If the meter measures gallons per minute, multiply by 1,440 minutes per day. If it measures gallons per hour, multiply by 24 to get the gallons per day. If it measures cubic feet per second, multiply by 646,272 to convert to gallons per day. (See Table 5.4) TABLE 5.4 Water Meter Conversions
Meter Reading
28 gallons per minute (gpm) 28 cubic feet (ft ) 0.5 cubic feet per second (ft3/s)
3
Conversion Calculation
28 gpm x 1440
3
Converted Values
40,320 gpd
The water meter should be installed by a plumber to make sure it is put in properly. Although it is installed directly into the water system, it will not affect water pressure.
Another type of clean water meter often found in houses is an ondemand water softener. These water softeners measure ow and 28 ft x 7.48 209 gallons recycle at certain set ow amounts. This system may also be used 323,126 gpd 28 ft3/s x 646,272 to calculate water ow. These calculations are not as straightforward as simply reading a meter and multiplying by a factor of 24 or 1,440, but this is a valid method of measuring clean water ow.
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For example, assume you know that a tank contains 10 gallons per inch of water depth, and the depth of wastewater is three feet. (For information on determining the volume per unit depth of a tank, see Section 7). A pump is run for two minutes, and now the wastewater is measured as two feet deep. 12 x 10 gallons = 120 gallons have been pumped in two minutes, so the rate = 120 gallons / 2 minutes = 60 gallons per minute. Now nd out how many minutes the pump runs in the course of a day. If the same pump ran for a total of ten minutes, then during that day it pumped 10 x 60 or 600 gallons. This is a quick way to use a pump and a clock to calculate how much water is being used. Once you know the pumps rate, check it regularly (annually at a minimum). The rate may slow to the point where it is not evenly distributing wastewater to the soil treatment system, or it may be failing. It is good to know before the pump stops working that there is a problem. However it is measured, rate of ow is critical data that will allow the best design and operation of the septic system. Flow estimation is a great design tool. It allows for a safety factor and peace of mind. Measured ow is used both to design systems and to verify performance. By using both ow gures appropriately, you give the system the best chance of good long-term performance.
1. Dwellings
The design ow for MSTS serving existing dwellings is determined by the following calculation in conjunction with part 7080.1850: the total ow from the ten highest ow dwellings + (total ow from the remaining dwellings * 0.45) (7081.0120, Subp 2). For new housing developments to be served by a common SSTS, the developer must determine and restrict the total number of bedrooms for the development. Proposed dwellings are determined to be Classication I dwellings for ow determination purposes unless different classications are approved by the local unit of government. The determined classication system must be used in conjunction with the ow calculation method in subpart 1. If the ultimate development of phased or segmented growth meets or exceeds the thresholds in part 7081.0040, subpart 1, item B, the initial system or systems and all subsequent systems require a state disposal system permit (7081.0120, Subp 2). These methods are allowed due to less variability in ows and typically the number of residents averages out and the peaks ows are lower. If construction of additional dwellings or bedrooms, installation of additional waterusing devices, or other factors likely to increase the ow volumes can be reasonably anticipated, the MSTS must be designed to accommodate the additional capacity as determined by the local unit of government (7081.0120, Subp 3).
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Number of Residences
210 90 25 1188 153
3 2 1c
Based on indoor water use monitoring and not wastewater ow monitoring b Liters per person per day in parentheses c Based on two weeks of continuous monitoring in each of two seasons at each home (3) From US EPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual, EPA/625/R-00/008, US EPA Ofce of Water, 2002
In addition to the daily ow variation, seasonal variations may also occur. Typically, wastewater treatment processes are sized to treat the maximum daily ow rather than simply having the capacity to treat the average daily ow. The maximum daily ow is the maximum ow that occurs over the course of a single day, perhaps 450 gallons per day for a typical 3-bedroom home. The average daily ow is the average of the ows that occur during single days over the course of some period of time perhaps years. This may be 160 gallons per day.
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2. Other Establishments
According to MN Rules Chapter 7081.0130 design ows for other establishments are determined by methods A (ow estimates as shown in Table 5.6) or B (using measured ow from a seven-day period in which the establishment is at maximum capacity or use). TABLE 5.6 Estimated Design Sewage Flow from Other Establishments
Dwelling units (also see outdoor recreation)
Hotel or luxury hotel Motel Rooming house Daycare (no meals) Daycare (with meals) Dormitory Labor camp Labor camp, semipermanent
Unit
guest square foot guest square foot resident add for each nonresident meal child child person person employee
Commercial/Industrial
Retail store
Unit
square foot customer toilet employee square foot parking space employee/8-hour shift square foot square foot practitioner patient employee/8-hour shift employee/8-hour shift with showers machine load square foot chair station nonfood vendor/space limited food vendor/space with food vendor/space
Shopping center
Ofce
Medical ofce*
Industrial building*
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TABLE 5.6 Estimated Design Sewage Flow from Other Establishments (contd)
Eating and drinking establishments Unit
meal without alcoholic drinks meal with alcoholic drinks seat (open 16 hours or less) seat (open more than 16 hours) seat (open 16 hours or less, single service articles) seat (open more than 16 hours, single service articles) customer car space square foot meal square foot meal customer customer customer seat
Restaurant (short order) Restaurant (drive-in) Restaurant (carry out, including caterers) Institutional meals Food outlet Dining hall Coffee shop Cafeteria Bar or lounge (no meals)
Entertainment establishments
Drive-in theater Theater/auditorium Bowling alley Country club Fairground and other similar gatherings Stadium Dance hall Health club/gym
Unit
car stall seat alley member (no meals) member (with meals and showers) member (resident) visitor seat person member
Unit
person with hook-up site with hook-up site without hook-up, with central bath site to be served by dump station mobile home person person person person person customer guest visitor
Permanent mobile home Camp, day without meals Camp, day with meals Camp, day and night with meals Resort/lodge hotel Cabin, resort Retail resort store Park or swimming pool Visitor center
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TABLE 5.6 Estimated Design Sewage Flow from Other Establishments (contd)
Transportation
Gas station/convenience store
Unit
customer customer service bay toilet square foot square foot passenger square foot restroom
Service station*
Car wash* (does not include car wash water) Airport, bus station, rail depot
Institutional
Hospital* Mental health hospital* Prison or jail Nursing home, other adult congregate living Other public institution School (no gym, no cafeteria, and no showers) School (with cafeteria, no gym and no showers) School (with cafeteria, gym, and showers) School (boarding) Church Assembly hall
Unit
bed bed inmate resident person student student student student seat add for each meal prepared seat
Miscellaneous
Public lavatory Public shower
Unit
user shower taken
* Waste other than sewage is only allowed to be discharged into the system if the waste is suitable to be discharged to groundwater.
Unless otherwise noted in Table 5.6, the ow values do not include ows generated by employees. A ow value of 15 gallons per employee per eight-hour shift must be added to the ow amount. Design ow determination for establishments not listed in Table 5.6 shall be determined by the best available information and approved by the local unit of government (7081.0130 Subp 1 A). For these establishments the waste concentration of the efuent needs to be considered if concentrations of biochemical oxygen demands, total suspended solids, and oil and grease from the sewage are expected to be higher than 170 mg/L (or 125 mg/L CBOD5), 60 mg/L, or 25 mg/L respectively. An estimated or measured average concentration must be determined and be acceptable to the local unit of government. System design must account for concentrations of these constituents so as not to cause internal system malfunction, such as, but not limited to, clogging of pipes, orices, treatment devices, or media (7081.0130, Subp. 2).
Measured Flow
From 7081.0130, Subp. 1(B) the measured design ow of sewage for MSTS serving other establishments is determined by averaging the measured daily ows for a consecutive seven-day period in which the establishment is at maximum capacity or use.
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To calculate the measured design ow, you will need two sets of data: 1. daily ow data, and 2. capacity of the establishment for each day. A minimum of 90 days of ow during the busiest time of the year is the minimum recommended amount of data, but one full year of data is recommended (the more data you have, the greater the condence you will have). The worksheet Measured Flow: Other Establishments in the Forms section of this manual provides a location to calculate these values. Daily ow should be in gallons per day (gpd). Some water meters give cumulative readings (so that one day the meter may measure 400 gallons, the next day 850 gallons, and the next day 1,200 gallons). If this is the case, make sure to convert the gallons into a per-day unit. In this example, 400 gallons are discharged on day 1; 850 - 450 = 400 gallons for day 2; and 1200 - 850 = 350 gallons for day 3. Make sure you are using the correct units when you use the information to design a system (see Table 5.4). Capacity of the other establishment should be in the form of percentage full or percentage use. For example, a typical campground may estimate that 60 percent of its campground sites are in use. Remember that percentage is converted to a decimal format by dividing by 100. (60% 100 = 0.60) Organize the data by day number, date, ow, and capacity, with additional columns for measured maximum design ow and measured average design ow. The measured maximum design ow is calculated assuming the facility is at 100 percent capacity; therefore, the daily ows need to be converted to design ows by using the percentage capacity on that day. Calculate the measured design ow by dividing the percent capacity into the daily ow rate. Lets say for day 1 the measured ow is calculated as 2,000 0.60 = 3,333 gpd. Calculate the measured maximum design ow for each day at 100 percent capacity for each day. Measured design ow is calculated assuming the facility is at 100 percent capacity; therefore, the converted ows are used. To calculate measured average design ow, average the seven highest consecutive ows at 100 percent capacity. Calculate the average from days 1-7, then days 2-8, then days 3-9, etc. Select the highest value.
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c. Compare calculated ow to measured ow data. Based on best professional judgment on consultation with facility owner regarding current and future use provide documentation and LGU enter the appropriate value into number 2. 3. Add in I & I under number 3. According to MN Rules Chapter 7081.0140, the design ow must also include 200 gallons of inltration and inow per inch of collection pipe diameter per mile per day with a minimum pipe diameter of two inches to be used for the calculation. Flow values are allowed to be further increased if the system employs treatment devices that are exposed to atmospheric conditions that will inltrate precipitation. Flow estimates as calculated in this chapter shall not be relied upon for the design of collection systems. 4. Refer to code and design guidance and consult with LGU as to required design ow rate for various components in the system include grease traps, septic tanks, surge tanks, pretreatment unit and soil treatment area. 5. It is recommended that the operating permit have a mitigation trigger at 70% of design ow.
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TABLE 5.7 Unsaturated Flow During Soil Treatment of Septic Tank Efuent
parameter
BOD5 (mg/L) TSS (mg/L) fecal coliform (MPN/100ml) viruses (PFU/ml) Nitrogen (mg/L) total NH4+ NO3total phosphorus (mg/L)
raw waste
270-400 300-400 1,000,000100,000,000 unknown 100-150 60-120 <1 10-40
The waste strength of sewage and efuent as it passes through a treatment system can indicate the performance of a septic system. Understanding how these components enter the waste stream and are removed through the treatment process is critical for system designers and service providers. This section will describe these wastewater components.
Waste Strength
Residential strength efuent is dened as septic tank efuent or other treatment device with a BOD5 less than or equal to 170 mg/L; TSS less than or equal to 60 mg/L; and fats, oils, and grease less than or equal to 25 mg/L (7081.0130, Subp 2). High-strength wastewater is dened as: 1. inuent having BOD5 greater than 300 mg/L; and/or TSS greater than 200 mg/L; and/or fats, oils, and grease greater than 50 mg/L entering a pretreatment component (as dened by NSF Standard 40 testing protocol); 2. efuent from a septic tank or other pretreatment component that has BOD5 greater than 170 mg/L; and/or TSS greater than 60 mg/L; and/or fats, oils, and grease greater than 25 mg/L and is applied to an inltrative surface.
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Biochemical Oxygen Demands (BOD5), Dissolved Oxygen, and Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) is the most widely used parameter applied to wastewater. BOD5 is a measure of the dissolved oxygen required by microorganisms to oxidize or decompose the organic matter in wastewater. A typical BOD5 value for septic tank efuent is 150 milligrams per liter. For a Type I system, the BOD5 limit is 170 milligrams per liter. When the dissolved oxygen (DO) contained in septic tank efuent is measured, it is usually very low, typically one milligram per liter. While DO in water can be as high as 12 milligrams per liter, the microorganisms in the septic tank normally use up any available oxygen to break down organic matter. Total suspended solids (TSS) is a measure of the solids that remain in the wastewater after settling has occurred in the tank. A typical TSS value is 60 milligrams per liter. BOD and total suspended solids together measure the strength of the wastewater. They can serve as an indicator of system performance. Table 5.8 identies estimated BOD for other establishments. The data is taken from a CIDWT Publication entitled, Analyzing Wastewater Treatment Systems Serving Residential and Commercial Facilities for High Strength and Hydraulic Loading, 2008. You can calculate the estimated concentration of BOD5 by using the following equation: Concentration (mg/L) = # lbs BOD5 Q(gpd) 8.35 X 1,000,000 TABLE 5.8 Estimate of Waste Strengths from Other Establishments
Type of Facility
Airports Per passenger Per employee Apartment houses multiple family Boarding houses Bowling alley (no kitchen) Camps Construction (Semi-permanent) Day (no meals) Luxury Resort - night & day/limited plumbing Church (no kitchen) Country club Dwelling single family Employee/personnel addition Factory No showers With showers Hospital Hotel Mobile home park Motel per bed space Per room w/ bath, toilet & kitchen wastes
BOD (lbs/unit/day)
0.02 0.05 0.175/unit 0.14/person 0.15/lane 0.140/person 0.031/person 0.208/person 0.140/person 0.02/seat 0.208/member 0.17/person 0.04/employee 0.073/employee 0.083/employee 0.518/bed 0.125 per room/ two person 0.140/person 0.083/bed 0.14/person
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Types of BOD
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
BOD or Biochemical Oxygen Demand is the quantity of dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms during the microbial and chemical oxidation of the constituents contained in a wastewater sample during an incubation period at a given temperature. The biochemical oxygen demand represents the oxygen utilized during the oxidation of both carbon and nitrogenous compounds.
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means to describe the amount of organic carbon present in the water that can be broken down with microbial processes.
High BOD5 levels are caused by high organic loading to the system. In a residential system, the number of people in the house could be greater than that for which the system was designed and originally constructed. In this situation it is also possible that the concentration might not be elevated, but the overall organic mass loading could be signicantly higher. An elevated BOD5 concentration could also be inuenced by the activities that are happening at the source. In homes or restaurants, the presence of a garbage disposal, the types of foods prepared and methods to prepare them can increase the BOD5 levels. In a home, a large portion of BOD5 is produced from toilet water. Toilet water also produces a large part of the natural microorganisms. A high BOD5 (> 170 mg/L) can cause the growth of excessive biomass that can clog and shorten the lifespan of the soil treatment area. High BOD5 in the efuent moving to the downstream components of the treatment train could be also be caused by a broken inlet or outlet bafe in the septic tank, infrequent tank maintenance, or reduced biological activity in the septic tank. BOD5 levels are roughly cut in half in a properly operating septic tank (Magdorf, 1974). Bafes manage the ow of sewage to facilitate settling and anaerobic decomposition. BOD5 reduction is limited if bafes are not operational. Appropriately removing accumulated scum and sludge from the tank also facilitates the proper operation of a septic tank. Chemicals used by the source may play a large role in inhibiting the reduction of the BOD5, therefore causing a high efuent BOD5 concentration. Onsite wastewater treatment systems use naturally existing microorganisms to reduce the contaminants and treat wastewater. During treatment, the microorganisms feed on constituents in the wastewater, reducing their concentration and resulting in cleaner wastewater. Harsh chemicals, such as bleach, detergents, cleaners, and disinfectants, can kill these microorganisms and reduce their ability to breakdown contaminants such as BOD5. Low BOD5 from a home may be due to a low occupancy or a low number of meals prepared at home. A low BOD5 concentration may also be created through dilution from higher than normal hydraulic ows into the wastewater treatment system. This dilution
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effect could be due to the extra use of appliances, such as laundry machines, Jacuzzis, or long showers. Leaking xtures can also add extra water. If clear water sources such as water treatment systems or condensate drains are plumbed into the system, the increase in carriage water volume will dilute the constituents in the wastewater and decrease the concentration of food supply. Commercial systems may have a low BOD5 if a low percentage of the wastewater comes from the bathroom and the rest comes from sources with low BOD5 contributions with signicant carriage water volume. In typical wastewater treatment trains, your senses may assist in estimating relative BOD5 concentrations. You can recognize BOD5 levels that are not average by the clarity of the water. Clear water is an indication of a low BOD5 level. The cloudier the wastewater is, the higher the organic loading. This assumes suspended clays are not part of the waste stream. If the wastewater odor is sour and rancid or if it smells like a detergent or a cleaner, this may be a sign that chemicals are present that can inhibit biological treatment, resulting in a high BOD5.
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is measured by performing a solids analysis but can also be estimated by a turbidity test. Turbidity is the physical clarity of the water and is an indicator of the presence of suspended matter in wastewater. A quick and dirty TSS test can be determined with an Imhoff Cone. A visual test will determine if TSS levels are high or low when a sample of wastewater is placed in a cone against a light background.
Although low TSS is not a problem for the system, it could indicate that something else is wrong with the system. Low TSS could be due to: Fewer users on the system than considered in the original design Q Higher ows from low TSS sources Q Clear water inows
Q
Sources of FOG
Fat found in onsite wastewater treatment systems is animal fat, oil is from vegetable and cooking oils, and grease is from petroleum based soaps. FOG are generally treated in onsite wastewater treatment systems by separating them from the wastewater stream. At high temperatures FOG are in a liquid state, but as the temperature cools, the fats component will solidify (Table 5.9). FOG can be trapped in pretreatment components, such as septic tanks and grease traps, where they typically oat to the top of tanks. They are less dense and lighter than water. It is important to try to contain FOG early in the system, because they can accumulate inside pipes and lead to clogging of downstream components. FOG also contribute to BOD5 and TSS concentrations. FOG in excessive amounts interfere with aerobic biological processes and lead to decreased treatment efciency. The expected levels of FOG concentration must be considered during wastewater treatment design.
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Derived From
Animal fat Vegetable and cooking oils Petroleum based products: soaps, hair conditioners, tanning oils, oil/grease on hands/clothes, bath oils, etc.
Comments2
Non-toxic to the system Non-toxic to the system Residual material on appliances; solid material attached to pans/equipment; may potentially be toxic to microbes commonly present in the wastewater treatment system.
1 2
Room temperature assumes 80F. Warning: the use of a degreaser will move all of these components through the wastewater system
FOG in domestic wastewater will generally originate in the kitchen or bathroom. Kitchen FOG usually come from disposing animal- or vegetable-based food scraps and liquids down the sink. Households using garbage disposals will have 30-40 percent more FOG than households not using garbage disposals. Bath oils, sun tan lotions, hair conditioners, and moisturizing creams are bathroom sources of FOG that enter the wastewater stream. An increased use in cooking oils, lotions, and hair conditioners will directly increase the FOG concentration in the wastewater. Low FOG, although it is not considered a problem, could be the result of not using the kitchen or of higher than normal ows entering the system. Low FOG can also be attributed to the use of bar soap instead of liquid soaps.
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TABLE 5.10 Cooking fat and oil physical properties (adapted from CIA, 1996)
Substance Corn Oil Olive Oil Vegetable Oil Canola Oil Soy-bean Oil Sunower Oil Cottonseed Oil Shortening Lard (Fat) Melting Point (F) 12 32 n/a 14 3.2 2 55 115 86 Density (g/mL) @ 59-68 (F) 0.923 0.918 0.910 0.92 0.92 0.919 0.926 n/a 0.919
The ability of the oil to separate is inuenced not only by temperature, but also by how the oil was generated and used. Free oil will rise to the wastewater surface and be easily separated when the mixture is allowed to become quiescent. Emulsied oil has been broken up into very small droplets and occurs either by mechanical or chemical action. An example of mechanical emulsication is when extremely hot water from a dishwasher is mixed with the oil. Given time and a decrease in temperature, this oil can be separated. Chemical emulsication occurs when detergents or cleaners produce a mix of oil and water. Degreasing compounds can generate dissolved oils, in which discrete oil particles are no longer present. Chemically emulsied oil will take a longer time to separate, increasing the risk of carrying it to downstream components unless long quiescent periods are available to allow separation. Grease Grease is petroleum-based and can be toxic to a system. Because grease is petroleumbased, it cannot be broken down, but it can be separated. Grease comes from lotions, hair products, and soaps. Typically, there will be a higher percentage of grease in the FOG from residential systems when compared to most commercial systems. Grease can build up over time, coating components and inhibiting treatment of other constituents in the wastewater.
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d. Either with estimates or measurements determine if the design must account for high strength wastewater. e. Calculate the projected loading to the downstream components in lbs of BOD5 per day.
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These parameters are used as indicators for the presence of other constituents in the wastewater. If one of these parameters is not in the expected range, then it can be assumed that the wastewater is not being properly treated, because the microbes cannot function properly. All of these parameters can be evaluated in the eld. If one of them is out of the expected range, lab tests evaluating other constituents and system performance should be run.
Free oxygen (O2) is needed for aerobic treatment to take place, and aerobic bacteria need oxygen to grow and live. Aerobic organisms respire dissolved oxygen contained in the water. Anaerobic bacteria grow and live in the absence of free oxygen. Facultative organisms have the ability to respire free oxygen when it is available and shut down the respiration process when dissolved oxygen is lacking. Table 5.11 gives the desired ranges of DO in wastewater. Anaerobic bacteria are signicantly slower at oxidation and smaller in size than aerobic bacteria (Figure 5.3), but they are much more resilient to environmental changes. Aerobic microorganisms are more sensitive to wastewater parameters (such as DO, pH and temperature), but in optimal conditions, they digest organic matter and pathogens more rapidly than do anaerobic organisms.
Anaerobe
0 0.5 0-0.3
Facultative
0 5 0-1
Aerobe
0.5 5 1-3
The septic tank is typically considered an anaerobic treatment component, although there can be aerobic zones. For the most part, septic tank microbes assimilate the waste constituents in the absence of a respiration process and are commonly referred to as anaerobic microbes. Facultative microbes utilize free oxygen or assimilate waste without respiration. During assimilation of waste, the bonds holding the oxygen are broken and allow the
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compounds to react with other components (i.e., SO4- H2S). Therefore, septic tanks can have both anaerobic and facultative bacteria treating the wastewater. The anaerobic bacteria do not thrive in environments with free oxygen. Water entering the septic tank has dissolved free oxygen which must be removed by the oxygen requirements of the wastewater so the anaerobic bacteria can survive. As the system matures, the anaerobic bacteria become more efcient. The oxygen demand in the system rapidly removes free oxygen entering with the inuent and maintains the anaerobic environment. The greater removal rates of BOD and TSS are achieved under this fully anaerobic environment. If the water source has low DO, then the amount of DO entering the onsite wastewater treatment system will be low. Low DO in the wastewater could also be caused by a high organic load. In aerobic treatment processes, high concentrations of BOD5, FOG, and nutrients will exhaust the oxygen in the wastewater. This is because the microbes present in the system require more oxygen to break down the increase in food. High DO can be attributed to the water source and/or dilution due to leaking xtures or inltration. Also, if there is a signicant amount of dead microbes in the system due to a chemical upset, a high DO may result. The microbes are not robust and are not depleting the oxygen supply. Although high or low DO is not a contaminant, it can be used as an indicator. Low DO is expected in the septic tank, but should be greater than 1.0 mg/L in the aeration component. Be cautious when sampling for DO not to add oxygen. In addition, the sampling method may be faulty and give inaccurate readings.
pH
pH is a term used to describe the relative amount of acidity or basicity in the wastewater. Low pH values indicate a high concentration of hydrogen ions (acids) in solution, and high pH values indicate a low concentration of hydrogen ions (basic). The pH value can range from 1 to 14 with a value of 7 being neutral. The ideal pH in wastewater will typically be around the neutral range (Table 5.12). High pH (basic conditions) can be caused by certain laundry detergents, cleaning agents, chemicals, and high alkalinity source water. Photo developing labs and laundromats are common sources of wastewater that cause high pH. As the pH rises, the microbial population changes to organisms less efcient in the breakdown of wastewater. Low pH (acidic conditions) can be inuenced by cooking habits, low alkalinity in the water supply or acid-based cleaners. If there is an above normal use of dairy products, coffee, excessive baking, or home canning, lower pH levels in the wastewater TABLE 5.12 Ideal range for pH stream are likely. Just like high pH levels, low pH levels will only allow in wastewater certain microbes to survive, adversely inuencing wastewater treatment. Ideal Range in Wastewater The microbes at low or high pH are not as efcient as the microbes that can Low pH < 6.5 survive at an average pH level.
Ideal High pH >7.2
The pH level can be easily identied by the odor of the system. Low pH has a very acidic smell that absorbs readily into clothing and is hard to remove. High pH often smells like the chemical or cleaner that was used at the wastewater source that is causing the high pH. Over a relatively short period of time, our olfactory sensors become accustomed to an odor. As a result, the odor test can only be used at the very start of a testing or inspection before our senses get used to the odor.
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Temperature
Septic tank efuent on average is approximately 20 degrees (F) warmer than the ambient ground temperature. Microbial activity doubles in population every time the temperature increases by 18F (10C) until the optimum temperature is reached. As the microbial activity doubles, the biodegradation of constituents increases. This means that oxygen uptake is more rapid at warmer temperatures, requiring air to be supplied at a higher rate. The waste degrades more quickly at warmer temperatures, so it need not be held in the treatment system as long when it is warm. The converse is also true: in the winter, oxygen uptake is low and air need not be supplied as fast. However, the waste takes longer to degrade, and would thus need to stay in the treatment system longer during cold months. The practical implication of this is that aerators are designed using summer temperatures and detention tanks are designed using winter temperatures. If the temperature is too high, it will damage or kill the microbes that are providing treatment. The opposite effect occurs: as temperature decreases, so does microbial activity. It has been found that microbes used in wastewater treatment become dormant at 39.2F (4C). The ideal range for aerobic microbes decomposing the waste is between 77 and 95F (Table 5.13). Just as the microbial population varies under certain pH and DO ranges, there are specic microbes that can thrive at a particular temperature ranges (Table 5.14). TABLE 5.13 Ideal temperature range in wastewater
Ideal Range in Wastewater
Low temperature High temperature 77 F 95 F Psychrophilic Mesophilic Thermophilic
Low temperature levels can be caused by cold water entering a leaky tank or leaky plumbing, the climate, or by laundry that is washed in cold water. If the temperature is too low, the biological activity in the system will slow or stop altogether. High temperatures in a system can be caused by long hot showers, excessive laundering using hot water, dishwashers, or leaky hot water faucets. Temperatures that are over 100 F can dissolve greases and oils held within a tank. In ideal temperatures, FOG would oat to the top of the tank and separate from the wastewater stream. With high temperatures, eventually these dissolved greases and oils will end up in downstream components and clog them. Temperatures in excess of 122 F can cause aerobic digestion and nitrication processes to cease. These higher temperatures in the treatment unit are unlikely for domestic wastes but may be possible in commercial units that use a lot of hot water such as commercial kitchens.
Alkalinity
Alkalinity refers to a wastewaters ability, or inability, to neutralize acids. The alkalinity in wastewater helps to buffer changes in pH caused by the addition of acids and is essential for the nitrication process (see page 47). Alkalinity typically occurs naturally in the source water.
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Pathogens
The most critical component, in terms of what must be removed from wastewater, is pathogens. Pathogens are organisms that cause disease; they include viruses, protozoa, parasites, and bacteria. Examples in wastewater include Salmonella, Vibrio cholera, Entamoeba histolytica, and Cryptosporidium although almost all disease organisms could be present in wastewater. Viruses are organism too small to be seen by light microscopy. They are an obligate parasite dependent on a host cell for its metabolic and reproductive needs. Pathogens may be found in wastewater generated anywhere in the house. Any human contact with water results in the potential to add pathogens to the environment. Because of their role in spreading disease, pathogens in wastewater make wastewater treatment a public health issue.
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Category A treatment products for residential strength sewage Q Category B treatment products for commercial or high-strength sewage
Q
TABLE 5.15 Treatment Component Performance Levels and Method of Distribution by Texture Group1
Vertical Separation (inches)
12 to 173
18 to 353
36+3
1
2 3
The treatment component performance levels correspond with those established for treatment components under the product testing requirements in Table III in part 7083.4030. With less than 50 percent rock fragments. Additional vertical separation distance is required as determined in part 7080.2150, subpart 3, item C, subitem (1), unit (b).
Parameters
TSS (mg/L) 15 15 30 30 60 --b
15 15 25 25 125* ---
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Products that meet Treatment Level B standards have been tested to reduce organic matter to 25 mg/L CBOD5, total suspended solids to 30 mg/L TSS, and fecal coliform bacteria to 10,000 cfu/100 mL. Higher quality efuents produced using products that meet Treatment Levels A and B can be dispersed into suitable soils with reduced vertical separation and increased loading rates, depending upon soil characteristics. Soil dispersal requirements using treatment products that meet Treatment Levels A and B are specied in Minnesota Rules Chapter 7080.2150, Table IX. For a residential treatment product (Category A) listed under Treatment Level A, the product would also meet treatment standards for Treatment Level B and Treatment Level C.
Nutrient Listing
Table 5.16 also identies those products registered for use in Minnesota that have been shown to reduce nitrogen and/or phosphorus. In order to be listed for nitrogen and phosphorus removal, independent third party testing has been completed and shown to meet a total nitrogen of <20 mg/L and a total phosphorus of <5 mg/L.
Nutrients
Nutrients are elements or compounds essential as raw material for growth and development of an organism; nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are primary nutrients. Two nutrients are of concern in wastewater treatment: phosphorus and nitrogen. These nutrients have different chemical characteristics: phosphorus tends to bind to soil particles, while nitrogen is more mobile in the soil.
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With MSTS, Phosphorus must also be considered. According to MN Rules 7081.0070, Subp 4 (E) discharge from the system can not exceed a groundwater discharge of phosphorus to a surface water that exceeds the phosphorus standard to the receiving water. During the Preliminary Evaluation the Designer must consider whether the ordinary high water level of public waters will be within 500 feet of the proposed soil treatment and dispersal area and if so, a preliminary assessment of phosphorus impacts to the surface water must be performed. SSTS may have additional nutrient compliance criteria when their design ow exceeds 2,500 gpd. From MN Rules Chapter 7080.1550, Subp. 5 -the compliance criteria for systems with a ow of greater than 2,500 gallons per day - systems designed under part 7080.2150, subpart 4, item A or B, must demonstrate that the additional nutrient reduction component required under those items is in place and functioning.
Nitrogen
Portions of the following nitrogen section were taken directly from the following reference: Oakley, S. 2005. Onsite Nitrogen Removal Text. in (M.A. Gross and N.E. Deal, eds.) University Curriculum Development for Decentralized Wastewater Management. National Decentralized Water Resources Capacity Development Project. University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR. Full text and Figures available Online at: http:// www.onsiteconsortium.org/les/nitrogen.htm Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for the growth of plants and microorganisms. Nitrogen (N) is an essential chemical element and nutrient for all life forms. N constitutes 78 percent of the atmosphere by volume and is present in surface water and groundwater as ammonia (NH3), nitrite (NO2-), nitrate (NO3-), and organic nitrogen. Total nitrogen is the measure of the complete nitrogen content in wastewater including nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4+), and organic nitrogen, expressed as mg/L of N; all these forms of nitrogen, as well as nitrogen gas (N2), can be converted from one form to another biochemically and are components of the nitrogen cycle.
Q
NH3 is the non-ionized form of reduced nitrogen. Q NH is the ionized form of reduced nitrogen usable by plants. 4 Q NO is the stable oxidized form of nitrogen usable by plants and usually not 3 degraded in groundwater; nitrifying bacteria can convert nitrite (NO2-) to nitrate (NO3-) in the nitrogen cycle. Q TKN is total Kjeldahl nitrogen, which is the measure of the total concentration of organic nitrogen, ammonia, and ammonium nitrogen. Q NO is the unstable oxidized form of nitrogen. 2 Q Organic N is the nitrogen bound in plant and animal matter, primarily amino acids and proteins; the amount of organic nitrogen can be obtained by separately measuring the ammonia nitrogen and subtracting that value from the total Kjeldahl nitrogen. As nitrogen moves through the treatment system, it changes from ammonia to nitrate. While it is possible for nitrate to change into nitrogen gas in some systems, standard trench and bed systems do not facilitate this change, so the nitrate may move into groundwater. A typical level of nitrogen in septic tank efuent is 40 milligrams per liter.
+
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In drinking water, which is often from groundwater, high levels of nitrogen can be toxic to infants, causing methemaglobinemia, blue baby syndrome. Ammonia in surface waters can be toxic to sh. Advanced pretreatment may be required to minimize the release of nitrogen to the environment. The principal forms of nitrogen of concern in onsite wastewater treatment and soilgroundwater interactions are Organic-N, NH3/NH4+, N2, NO2-, and NO3-(Rittman & McCarty, 2001; Sawyer et al., 1994; US EPA, 1993). Because these forms still represent four possible oxidation states that can change in the environment, it is customary to express the various forms of nitrogen in terms of nitrogen rather than the specic chemical compound: Organic-N, NH3-N, NH4+-N, N2-N, NO2--N, and NO3--N. Thus, for example, 10 mg/L of NO3--N is equivalent to 45 mg/L of NO3- ion.
1. Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen xation is the conversion of nitrogen gas into nitrogen compounds that can be assimilated by plants. Biological xation is the most common, but xation can also occur by lightning and through industrial processes: Biological: N2 Organic-N Lightning: N2 NO3Industrial: N2 NO3-; NH3/ NH4+
2. Ammonication
Ammonication is the biochemical degradation of organic-N into NH3 or NH4+ by heterotrophic bacteria under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Organic-N + Microorganisms NH3/ NH4+ Some organic-N cannot be degraded and becomes part of the humus in soils.
3. Synthesis
Synthesis is the biochemical mechanism in which NH4+-N or NO3--N is converted into plant protein (Organic-N): NH4+ + CO2 + green plants + sunlight Organic-N NO3- + CO2 + green plants + sunlight Organic-N Nitrogen xation is also a unique form of synthesis that can only be performed by nitrogen-xing bacteria and algae (WEF, 1998):
N-Fixing Bacteria/Algae
N2 Organic-N
4. Nitrication
Nitrication is the biological oxidation of NH4+ to NO3- through a two-step autotrophic process by the bacteria Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter (Rittman and McCarty, 2001; Sawyer, et al., 1994):
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Nitrosomonas
Step 2: NO2- + 1/2O2 NO3The two-step reactions are usually very rapid and hence it is rare to nd nitrite levels higher than 1.0 mg/L in water (Sawyer, et al., 1994). The nitrate formed by nitrication is, in the nitrogen cycle, used by plants as a nitrogen source (synthesis) or reduced to N2 gas through the process of denitrication. Nitrate can, however, contaminate groundwater if it is not used for synthesis or reduced through denitrication as shown in Figure 1.
5. Denitrication
NO3- can be reduced, under anoxic conditions, to N2 gas through heterotrophic biological denitrication as shown in the following unbalanced equation (US EPA, 1993):
Heterotrophic Bacteria
NO3- + Organic Matter N2 + CO2 + OH- + H2O The above equation is identical to the equation for the biological oxidation of organic matter with the exception that NO3- is used as an electron acceptor instead of O2:
Heterotrophic Bacteria
O2 + Organic Matter CO2 + OH- + H2O A large variety of heterotrophic bacteria can use nitrate in lieu of oxygen for the degradation of organic matter under anoxic conditions. If O2 is present, however, the bacteria will preferentially select it instead of NO3- (US EPA, 1993). Thus it is very important that anoxic conditions exist in order that NO3- will be used as the electron acceptor. A carbon source is required as the electron donor in the above equation for denitrication to occur. Autotrophic denitrication is also possible with either elemental sulfur or hydrogen gas used as the electron donor by autotrophic bacteria as shown in the following unbalanced equation (Rittman and McCarty, 2001): NO3- + CO2 + Inorganic Electron Donor N2 + Oxidized Electron Donor
(Elemental Sulfur or H2 gas)
Methemoglobinemia
High nitrate levels in drinking water supplies can cause methemoglobinemia in infants, especially those less than six months old (Bouchard, et al., 1992). After ingestion, nitrate is reduced to nitrite in the gut of the infant. The absorbed nitrite reacts with hemoglobin in the blood, forming methemoglobin. Methemoglobin, unlike hemoglobin, cannot carry oxygen. As more of the blood hemoglobin is converted to methemoglobin, the oxygencarrying capacity of the blood is signicantly reduced. Oxygen starvation of the blood can result in a bluish discoloration of the body, which is called blue-baby syndrome or
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methemoglobinemia. To prevent methemoglobinemia, the maximum contaminant level of nitrate in drinking water has been set at 10 mg/L as NO3--N by the US EPA (Bouchard, et al., 1992).
Carcinogenesis
High nitrate levels in drinking water could potentially have carcinogenic effects through the formation of nitrosamines. Nitrates in the human body can be converted to nitrites and then to nitrosamines, several forms of which have been classied as potential human carcinogens (Bouchard, et al., 1992). While several scientic studies have shown a positive correlation between some types of cancers and nitrate intake in animals, a cause-effect relationship for risk of cancer has not yet been demonstrated conclusively.
Birth Defects
Epidemiological studies in Canada and South Australia have shown a statistically signicant increase in congenital malformations associated with nitrate-rich well water (Bouchard, et al., 1992). These studies, however, are considered to be too limited in scope to deduce a causal association between birth defects and nitrate ingestion. Experimental animal studies have not shown signicant effects from elevated nitrate ingestion.
Eutrophication
Phosphorus is oftentimes the limiting nutrient for the growth of algae and aquatic plants in surface waters. Thus, any phosphorus can cause the stimulation of growth, resulting in algal blooms or overgrowth of aquatic plants, which can have serious consequences for the receiving water such as odors, accumulation of unsightly biomass, dissolved oxygen depletion due to biomass decay, and loss of sh and shellsh. In some cases, nitrogen is the limiting nutrient and excess nitrogen is the cause for excessive plant growth.
Biological Nitrication
As mentioned above, nitrication is a two-step autotrophic process (nitriers use CO2 instead of organic carbon as their carbon source for cell synthesis) for the conversion of NH4+
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to NO3--N. During this energy yielding reaction some of the NH4+ is synthesized into cell tissue giving the following overall oxidation and synthesis reaction (US EPA, 1993): 1.00NH4+ + 1.89O2 + 0.08CO 0.98NO3- + 0.016C5H7O2N + 0.95H2O + 1.98H+ The above equation poses several key design constraints on nitrication systems. For each mole of NH4+ oxidized, 1.89 moles of oxygen are required and 1.98 moles of hydrogen ions will be produced. Or, in mass terms, 4.32 mg of O2 are required for each mg of NH4+-N oxidized, with the subsequent loss of 7.1 mg of alkalinity as CaCO3 in the wastewater, and the synthesis of 0.1 mg of new bacterial cells. Stated yet another way, the oxidation of, for example, 20 mg/L of NH4+-N would require the consumption of 86.4 mg/L of dissolved oxygen, the destruction of 141.4 mg/L of alkalinity as CaCO3, and the production of 2.6 mg/L of nitrifying organisms (US EPA, 1993). Nitrication can thus exert a very high nitrogenous biochemical oxygen demand (NBOD) in addition to the carbonaceous BOD (CBOD) as shown in Figure 3-3. MN Rules Chapter 7080.1100, Subp. 12 denes CBOD5 as the measure of the amount of oxygen required by bacteria while stabilizing, digesting, or treating the organic matter under aerobic conditions over a ve-day incubation period while in the presence of a chemical inhibitor to block nitrication. CBOD is commonly expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L). Using the above equation, a septic tank efuent of 40 mg/L NH4+-N would have a NBOD of about 184 mg/L in addition to the CBOD. This factor must be included in the design of nitrication systems to be sure there is sufcient dissolved oxygen (DO) within the system for nitrication to occur. To process 40 mg/L of NH4+,you must add 184 mg/L of DO. Nitrication can also cause a signicant drop in pH if there is not adequate buffering capacity (alkalinity) in the wastewater.
Process Microbiology
Nitrifying organisms exhibit growth rates that are much lower than those for heterotrophic bacteria. As a result, the rate of nitrication is controlled rst by concurrent heterotrophic oxidation of CBOD; as long as there is a high organic (CBOD) loading to the system, the heterotrophic bacteria will dominate. Nitrication systems must thus be designed to allow sufcient detention time within the system for nitrifying bacteria to grow. Heterotrophic organisms can also play a key role in limiting oxygen transfer to nitrifying bacteria, especially in attached-growth systems (Rittman and McCarty, 2001; US EPA, 1993). After competition with heterotrophs, the rate of nitrication will be limited by the concentration of available NH4+-N in the system. Temperature, pH, and chemical inhibitors can also play a key role as discussed below. At low BOD5/TKN ratios (0.5 to 3) the population of nitrifying bacteria is high and nitrication should not be inuenced by heterotrophic oxidation of CBOD (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991); this type of nitrication process is termed separate-stage nitrication. At higher BOD5/TKN ratios, the fraction of nitrifying organisms in the system is much lower due to heterotrophic competition from oxidation of CBOD; this process is termed single-stage nitrication. Separate-stage nitrication is highly desirable from the standpoint of process control and operation. Many onsite systems presently used or proposed for nitrogen removal, however, because of the interest in reducing size and system footprint, employ single-stage nitrication; examples include aerobic treatment units with short hydraulic detention times and sand lters or media lters that are heavily loaded organically. Single-stage systems may require more rigorous process control to ensure adequate nitrication rates.
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Attached-Growth Systems
For attached-growth systems, which include both submerged and nonsubmerged processes (Crites and Tchobanoglous, 1998), DO levels must be maintained at levels that are at least 2.7 times greater than the NH4+-N concentrations in order to prevent oxygen transfer through the biolm from limiting nitrication rates (US EPA, 1993). This is usually overcome in practice by using lower organic surface loadings than what would be normally applied for CBOD removal to allow for growth of nitrifying organisms; otherwise the heterotrophic organisms will dominate the bacterial lm within the attached-growth media. For trickling lters, for example, the organic loading rate for nitrication is only about 1/5 to 1/8 of the CBOD loading for CBOD removal (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; US EPA, 1993). Recirculation of efuent through the attached growth media, and use of special media, such as trickling lter plastic media with high specic surface areas, is also used to lower organic surface loadings and to promote high oxygen transfer rates. Table 5.17 shows design organic loading rates for various attached-growth systems to achieve nitrication. Unfortunately, organic loading rates for onsite attached-growth systems are not well dened even for CBOD removal, let alone nitrication (Crites and Tchobanoglous, 1998). The more commonly used hydraulic loading rates as cited in the literature show mixed results for nitrication. This is no doubt due, at least in part, to varying organic loading rates that were not taken into consideration since the CBOD5 of septic tank efuent can vary greatly, ranging from less than 100 to 480 mg/L (Ayres Associates, 1993).
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TABLE 5.17 Design Loading Rates for Attached Growth Systems to Achieve >85% Nitrication
Process
Trickling Filters1 Rock Media Plastic Media Sand Filters Single-Pass Recirculating Textile Filters Single-Pass Multi-Pass3
(Partial Nitrication)
1
The values for trickling lters given for both hydraulic and organic loadings are the ranges for low rate and high rate lters. Rock lters were assumed to have a depth of 8 ft. and plastic lters a depth of 10 ft. The numbers in parentheses for organic loadings are the values for CBOD removal only without nitrication. 2 These systems have not traditionally been designed using organic loading rates to achieve nitrication. High strength wastes thus could affect nitrication performance. 3 At this organic loading rate only 59-76% nitrication was achieved (Leverenz, et al., 2001). Adapted from Converse (1999); Crites and Tchobanaglous (1998); Leverenz, et al. (2001); Metcalf & Eddy (1991); and US EPA (1993).
Temperature Effects
Temperature has a signicant effect on nitrication that must be taken into consideration for design (US EPA, 1993). In general, colder temperatures require longer cell residence times in suspended-growth systems and lower hydraulic loading rates in attached-growth systems due to slower growth rates of nitrifying bacteria.
Effect of Inhibitors
Nitrifying bacteria are much more sensitive than heterotrophic bacteria and are susceptible to a wide range of organic and inorganic inhibitors as shown in Table 5.18. As has occurred in centralized wastewater treatment (US TABLE 5.18 Examples of Nitrication Inhibitors EPA, 1993), there is a need to establish a methodolInorganic Compounds Organic Compounds ogy for onsite wastewater systems for assessing the Acetone Sodium azide Zinc potential for, and occurrence of, nitrication inhibiCarbon Disulde Hydrazine Free Cyanide tion. The introduction of chemicals shown in Table Chloroform Sodium cyanate Perchlorate 5.18 can destroy the nitrifying bacterial populations. Ethanol Potassium chromate Copper If these systems are not continuously monitored, the Phenol Cadmium Mercury effects of these chemicals will go unnoticed. Ethylenediamine Arsenic Chromium
Nickel Silver Cobalt Thiocyanate Sodium cyanide Fluoride Lead Free ammonia Free nitrous acid Hexamethylene diamine Aniline Monoethanolamine
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Since heterotrophic bacteria are much more resilient than nitrifying bacteria, and because many of the inhibitory compounds are biodegradable organics, inhibitory effects can oftentimes be controlled by designing separate-stage nitrication systems (US EPA, 1993). In separate-stage systems the CBOD is rst removed along with any biodegradable inhibitory compounds; the nitrifying organisms, which are in effect protected in the second stage, are then used to nitrify the low--CBOD, high-NH4+-N efuent (Figure 5). Example: Calculation of alkalinity and oxygen requirements for nitrication Determine the alkalinity requirements for complete nitrication for a septic tank efuent that has a CBOD of 150 mg/L and an Organic-N and NH4+-N concentration of 40 mg/L. What would the NBOD of this wastewater be? Solution 1. Write a balanced equation for the nitrication reaction and include mass relationships.
Autotrophic
18 GMW
32 GMW
14 mg as N 60.48 mg 1 mg as N 4.32 mg
GMW = gram molecular weight Milliequivalent mass of CaCO3 = 50 mg/meq 0.14 meq as H+ in terms of equivalent CaCO3 = 0.14 meq (50 mg CaCO3/meq) = 7.1 mg as CaCO3 mg as CaCO3 2. Determine alkalinity requirements. Alkalinity required = 40 mg/L Total-N (7.1 mg/L CaCO3/mg N) = 284 mg/L as CaCO3 3. Determine the NBOD. NBOD = 40 mg/L total-N (4.32 mg O2/ mg N) = 173 mg/L Comment: The alkalinity requirements here exceed the 200 mg/L as CaCO3 that has been reported to be a typical alkalinity concentration in strong, untreated domestic wastewater (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991). Alkalinity does increase as a result of water use, and the incremental range for septic tank efuent has been reported from 60-120 mg/L as CaCO3 (Crites and Tchobanoglous, 1998). In areas with low-alkalinity source waters, however, nitrication could be limited. Note that the NBOD exceeds the CBOD of the septic tank efuent, which underscores the oxygen requirements for nitrication.
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be to use attached-growth processes with relatively low organic loadings (compared to CBOD removal only) and deep, well-aerated media (such as a 2 ft. deep SPSF). This type of system would approach a separate-stage nitrication with its advantages while maintaining the cost and simplicity of a single-stage system. In this design the heterotrophic bacteria would grow in the upper levels and remove CBOD and inhibitory compounds; nitrifying bacteria would grow in the lower levels and would be protected both from shock loadings and temperature extremes. A single pass sand lter, which is well known for its nitrication reliability, is an example of this design. TABLE 5.19 Onsite Technologies for > 85% Nitrication
Process
Suspended growth: aerobic units Attached Growth: Single-Pass Sand Filters (SPSF) Recirculating Sand Filters (RSF) Single-Pass Textile Filters Multi-Pass Textile Filters
Effectiveness
Insufcient design and performance data Need more design data for organic loadings for nitrication Need more design data for organic loadings for nitrication Limited data to date. Probably similar to SPSF Limited data to date. Probably similar to RSF
Onsite status
Operation and maintenance unknown Fair to good performance in cold climates Poorer performance in cold climates than SPSFs Need design data for organic loadings for nitrication Need design data for organic loadings for nitrication and performance in cold climates
Biological Dentrication
Denitrication is a biological process that uses NO3- as the electron acceptor (hence nitrication must precede denitrication) instead of O2 to oxidize organic matter (heterotrophic denitrication) or inorganic matter such as sulfur or hydrogen (autotrophic denitrication) under anoxic conditions (Rittmann and McCarty, 2001). In the process NO3- is reduced to N2 gas. Because the principal biochemical pathway is a modication of aerobic pathways (i.e., NO3- is used as the electron acceptor instead of O2), the denitrication process is said to occur under anoxic conditions as opposed to anaerobic conditions (where obligate anaerobic organisms would be present). Denitrifying bacteria, whether heterotrophic or autotrophic, are facultative aerobes and can shift between oxygen respiration and nitrate respiration. For heterotrophic denitrication, the carbon source can come from the original wastewater, bacterial cell material, or an external source such as methanol or acetate. For autotrophic denitrication, which is common in water treatment but not wastewater treatment, the electron donor can come from elemental sulfur or hydrogen gas (Rittmann and McCarty, 2001).
Heterotrophic Dentrication
Wastewater as Carbon Source The following unbalanced equation illustrates the process when wastewater or bacterial cell material is used as the carbon source (US EPA, 1993): Heterotrophic aCOHNS + bNO3- cN2 + dCO2 + eC5H7O2N + f OH- + gH2O + end products As is shown in the following example, the reduction of 1 mg of NO3- is equivalent to 2.86 mg of O2. Thus, for example, a wastewater with an ultimate BOD (BODL) of 200 mg/L could potentially reduce almost 70 mg/L of NO3--N if the wastewater were used as
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the carbon source (US EPA, 1993). This does not happen in practice, however, because a portion of the organic carbon in the wastewater must be used for cell synthesis and not nitrate reduction. Example: Calculation of stoichiometric equations for nitrate REDUCTION USING THE WASTEWATER AS THE CARBON SOURCE. Determine the theoretical amount of NO3--N that could be removed if septic tank efuent, which has a BOD5 of 120 mg/L, is used as the carbon source. What quantity could be removed if the raw wastewater inuent to the septic tank, with a BOD5 of 220 mg/L, were used as the carbon source? Solution 1. Write the half-reactions for oxygen and nitrate as electron acceptors (Rittmann and McCarty, 2001). Oxygen: 0.25O2 + H+ + e- 0.5 H2O 32 GMW 8 g [0.25(32) = 8] 8 mg Nitrate: 0.2NO3- + 1.2H+ + e- 0.1N2 + 0.6H2O 62 GMW 14 GMW as N 2.8 g [0.2(14) = 2.8] 2.8 mg 2. Determine the stoichiometric equivalency of oxygen and nitrate. For the acceptance of one electron, the above equations show that 8 mg of O2 is equivalent to 2.8 mg of NO3- -N, or that 1.0 mg of NO3- -N is equivalent to 2.86 mg of O2. 8 mg O2/e- equiv. = 2.86 mg O2/ mg NO3- -N 2.8 mg NO3 -N/e equiv. 3. Determine the BODL of the wastewater. The stoichiometric equations must be based on the ultimate BOD (BODL) rather then the more commonly used BOD5. The BOD5 of wastewater can range between 68% to 94% of the BODL, depending on the value of the BOD reaction rate constant, k (Sawyer, et al., 1994). It will be assumed here that k (base e) is 0.23 d-1 at 20 C, a typical value for domestic wastewater (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991). Septic Tank Efuent: BODL = BOD5 = 120__ = 120 = 176 mg/L -kt (1 e ) (1 e-0.23(5)) 0.68 Septic Tank Inuent: BODL = BOD5 = 220___ = 220 = 323 mg/L (1 e-kt) (1 e-0.23(5)) 0.68
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4. Determine the quantity of NO3- -N that could theoretically be reduced. Septic Tank Efuent: NO3--N Reduction = Septic Tank Inuent: NO3--N Reduction = 323 mg O2 demand/L = 113 mg/L 2.86 mg O2/ mg NO3- -N 176 mg O2 demand/L = 61.5 mg/L 2.86 mg O2/ mg NO3- -N
Comment: In practice the equivalency of 2.86 mg O2/ mg NO3--N is not achievable because a portion of the electron donor (i.e., the wastewater) must be used to provide carbon for cell synthesis; thus more electron donor will be needed to reduce a given amount of NO3--N than is predicted by the half-reactions alone. For complex organic matter such as wastewater, the stoichiometric equivalency can range from 3.46-5.07 mg BODL/mg NO3- -N, with 4.0 mg BODL/ mg NO3- -N used as a rule of thumb (Rittmann and McCarty, 2001). In terms of BOD5, this amounts to 2.72 mg BOD5/ mg NO3- -N for k (base e) = 0.23 d-1.
Example: Recalculation of stoichiometric equations for nitrate reduction using the wastewater as the carbon source
Recalculate the amount of NO3--N that could be removed in Example 5 using the rule of thumb stoichiometric equivalency. Solution 1. Express the stoichiometric equivalency in terms of the commonly used BOD5. BOD5 = 0.68BODL for k = 0.23 d-1 (base e) 4.0 mg BODL = 0.68(4.0) = 2.72 mg BOD5 mg NO3- -N mg NO3- -N 2. Determine the quantity of NO3- -N that could theoretically be reduced. Septic Tank Efuent: NO3--N Reduction = 120 mg BOD5/L ____ = 44 mg/L 2.72 mg BOD5/ mg NO3- -N
Septic Tank Inuent: NO3--N Reduction = 220 mg BOD5/L ____ = 81 mg/L 2.72 mg BOD5/ mg NO3- -N
Comment: To achieve the maximum nitrate reduction potential, the wastewater should be used at the point of highest CBOD. This may not occur if septic tank efuent, for example, or a recirculation tank from a packed bed lter system, is used as the point of application of the carbon source. Imperfect mixing of the wastewater carbon source with the nitried efuent, and the absence of anoxic conditions, can also cause a reduction in denitrication.
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Acetate:
Heterotrophic
acetate
Bacteria
bacterial cells
There are few examples in the literature of an external carbon source being used for onsite denitrication. Although methanol has been studied extensively in centralized wastewater treatment plants, it is probably not a good choice for onsite systems because of its toxicity and potential for contaminating groundwater supplies. Gold, et al., (1989) reported on the use of both methanol and ethanol as an external carbon source in a recirculating sand lter system with an anoxic rock lter for denitrication. They noted that although the total nitrogen removal rate was as high as 80%, the use of the chemicals required operation and maintenance of the carbon source supply system, including an on-site storage facility, a metering pump mechanism, and supplying a diluted carbon source solution. They concluded that the external carbon source could probably best be handled by a wastewater management district or a private O & M contractor (Gold, et al., 1989).
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Required concentration of CH3OH = 2.47 mg (40 mg/L NO3- -N) = 98.8 mg/L 5 100 mg/L mg NO3- -N
3. Determine the methanol requirement. CH3OH requirement = (100 mg/L)(150 gpd)(3.78 L/gal)(1 g/1000 mg) = 56.7 g/day 10% Solution:
56.7 g/day = 709 mL/day = 21.3 L/month = 5.6 gallons/month 5 one 55 gallon drum/10 mos. 0.08 g/mL
4. Determine the BODL of methanol. CH3OH + 1.5O2 CO2 + 2H2O 32 GMW 32 mg 1 mg 32 GMW 48 mg 1.5 mg
5. Determine the ratio of BODL/NO3- -N reduced. 150 mg/L BODL = 3.75 mg BODL/mg NO3- -N reduced. 40 mg/L NO3- -N Comment. This example shows that the required BODL of methanol is higher than that predicted by half-reactions alone (2.86 mg BODL/mg NO3--N) because a portion of the methanol was used for cell synthesis as can be seen in the balanced equation. Note that 3.57 mg of alkalinity as CaCO3 was produced per mg of NO3--N reduced. Thus approximately half of the alkalinity lost during nitrication can be recovered through denitrication with methanol or wastewater as the carbon source.
Example: Design of dentrication system using acetic acid as the carbon source
Determine the acetic acid requirements for an onsite denitrication system using a recirculating sand lter. Assume the acetic acid could be used in the form of vinegar (5% solution). The following conditions from Example 6 apply: 1. Household ow rate = 192 gpd 2. The concentration of NO3- -N to be removed is 40 mg/L 3. Characteristics of acetic acid: 99.5% Solution = 1.05 g CH3COOH/mL 5.0% Solution = 0.05 g CH3COOH/mL
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Solution 1. Write the balanced equation for denitrication and include mass relationships (Rittmann and McCarty, 2001).
Heterotrophic
2. Determine the required concentration of acetic acid. Required concentration of CH3COOH = 3.73 mg (40 mg/L NO3- -N) = 149 mg/L mg NO3- -N 3. Determine the acetic acid requirement. CH3COOH requirement = (149 mg/L)(150 gpd)(3.78 L/gal)(1 g/1000 mg) = 84.5 g/day 5% Solution:
84.5 g/day = 1690 mL/day = 50.7 L/month = 13.4 gallons/month 5 one 55 gallon drum/4 mos. 0.05 g/mL
4. Determine the BODL of acetic acid. CH3COOH + 2O2 2CO2 + 2H2O 60 GMW 60 mg 1 mg 32 GMW 64 mg 1.07 mg
1 mg of CH3COOH 1.07 mg BODL 149 mg/L CH3COOH 159 mg/L BODL 5. Determine the ratio of BODL/NO3- -N reduced. Portions of the preceding nitrogen section were taken directly from the following reference: Oakley, S. 2005. Onsite Nitrogen Removal Text. in (M.A. Gross and N.E. Deal, eds.) University Curriculum Development for Decentralized Wastewater Management. National Decentralized Water Resources Capacity Development Project. University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR. Full text and Figures available Online at: http:// www.onsiteconsortium.org/les/nitrogen.htm 159 mg/L BODL = 3.97 mg BODL/mg NO3- -N reduced. 40 mg/L NO3- -N Comment: In this example, unlike methanol or wastewater, acetic acid adds acid to the system, which is neutralized by the production of alkalinity through denitrication (0.87 meq of H+ from acetic acid would be neutralized by the 0.87 meq of HCO3- produced by denitrication). Thus there would not be a 50% recovery of the alkalinity lost through nitrication if acetic acid were used as the carbon source (Rittmann and McCarty, 2001).
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Phosphorus
In temperate regions, such as Minnesota, phosphorus (P) is the nutrient primarily responsible for accelerating eutrophication of freshwaters, because phosphorus is usually in limited supply relative to plant demand. Wastewater contains phosphorus from feces and detergents. Phosphorus in wastewater can be categorized as orthophosphate, condensed phosphates, or organic phosphorus (Crites and Tchobanoglous 1998): 1. Orthophosphate (o-phosphate) includes H3PO4, H2PO4-, HPO42-, and PO43-. In waters with a pH close to 7, H2PO4- and HPO42- are the predominant orthophosphate forms. 2. Condensed phosphates include various polyphosphate forms such as pyrophosphate (P2O74-) and P3O105-. Derived primarily from laundry detergents and other cleansers, condensed phosphates convert slowly to orthophosphate. 3. Organic phosphorus includes phosphorus incorporated with organic compounds, such as sugars, phospholipids, and nucleotides. Approximately 50% of phosphorus in raw wastewater is orthophosphate, 40% polyphosphates, and 10% organic phosphorus. Estimated phosphorus loads from household sources average 1.0 to 1.3 kg/capita/year (Jenkins and Hermanowicz, 1991), broken down as follows:
Q Q Q
Human waste: 0.6 kg/capita/year Laundry detergents (with no phosphorus limitation): 0.3 kg/capita/year Other household detergents and cleaners: 0.1 kg/capita/year
Total phosphorus (TP) is the sum of all forms of phosphorus in efuent. Each of these forms is expressed in terms of milligrams per liter (mg/L). A typical value for phosphorus in septic tank efuent is seven - ten mg/L. A small amount (~10%) of phosphorus removal will occur in a septic tank due to settling. Phosphorus can be naturally treated and removed in soils with the right conditions for removal. Different types of soils remove more phosphorus then others. Removal of phosphorus in soil absorption areas is dependent upon adsorption and precipitation reactions. Precipitation occurs as the phosphorus reacts with calcium, aluminum, magnesium, or iron in the soil. Adsorption is the association of phosphate with the surfaces of a particle. Studies show that phosphate adsorption takes place via formation of a bond between phosphate and a specic site on the adsorbing solid phase (Sposito, 1989). Precipitation involves the formation of a three-dimensional solid phase arrangement of molecules from the solution phase (Doner and Grossl, 2002). This is different than adsorption, which involves the formation of a two-dimensional structure (i.e., PO43- on the surface of a mineral rather than within the mineral itself). The distinction between these two processes is important because surface adsorption is usually limited by a xed availability of sorption sites in a particular soil that eventually will be used up if sewage loading occurs over long periods. Precipitation reactions are potentially sustainable provided that there is sustainable supply of aluminum, iron and/or calcium to complete the reaction.
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Many techniques can be used to monitor an onsite wastewater treatment systems performance. Monitoring is the action of verifying performance for a regulatory authority or a manufacturer (e.g., qualitative monitoring as part of service visit). It varies from something as simple as checking for sewage on the soil surface, to complicated laboratory analysis. Costs vary from lab to lab. Be sure to contact the lab prior to dropping off samples. There are several types of samples that can be obtained from a system: Composite Combination of individual samples collected from the same point at different times; samples may be of equal volume or may be proportional to the ow at time of sampling. Grab Discrete sample collected at a particular time and location. Integrated Combination of grab samples collected at a similar time but at different locations.
Certied Labs
When choosing a lab to perform analysis of wastewater characteristics, a certied lab is always the best choice, because these labs use standard procedures. The Minnesota Department of Health maintains a list of labs across Minnesota that are certied. This can be found on their website at https://apps.health.state.mn.us/eldo/public/accreditedlabs/labsearch.seam. If you do not have access to the internet call (800) 383-9808 and a hard copy of the list can be sent to you.
Sampling
There are many locations where samples can be taken. It is best if the sample locations are determined when the system is being designed, and then built in. Efuent chambers, pump tanks and sampling ports are suggested locations at which to obtain samples. A sampling port is a part or device at a particular location in a component that allows a sample to be collected for analysis. Chapter 7081.0240 (E) requires that MSTS must be designed with sufcient access and ports to monitor the system as applicable. Some obvious locations where the wastewater characteristics are of interest are: Q As it leaves the home Q As it leaves the tank Q At the systems end-of-pipe Q In groundwater (lysimeter, sampling wells) Q In soil (dry gram soil/microgram fecal) Piezometers can be used to determine the amount of separation but are not to be used to sample groundwater. Lysimeters or soil access ports can be used to determine the amount of fecal coliform bacteria under system.
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References
Adolfson Associates, Inc., Burnett Consolidated On-Site Demonstration Project, Final Report, Tacoma-Pierce County Health Department, Washington, 1999. Ayres Associates, Florida Keys Onsite Wastewater Nutrient Reduction Systems Demonstration Project, Final Report, Submitted to Florida Department of Health, Onsite Sewage Program, March, 1998. Ayres Associates, Onsite Sewage Disposal System Research in Florida, Report Prepared for Environmental Health Program, Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services, State of Florida, March 1993. Bohrer, R. M. and Converse, J. C., Soil Treatment Performance and Cold Weather Operation of Drip Distribution Systems, Proceedings of the Ninth National Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems, ASAE, Fort Worth, Texas, pp. 561583, 2001. Bouchard, D. C., et al., Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater: Sources and Potential Health Effects, Journal of AWWA, Vol. 84, no, 9, pp.85-90, 1992. Brooks, M., Alternative On-Site Wastewater Treatment Systems, Department of Civil and Agricultural Engineering, Montana State University, June, 1996. California Regional Water Quality Control Board, Evaluation of Alternative Onsite Treatment Systems for the Removal of Nitrogen from Wastewater, Central Coast Region, November 25, 1997. CIDWT Decentralized Wastewater Glossary. Available online at: http://www.onsiteconsortium.org/les/Glossary.pdf (veried 4/29/2009) Converse, M. M., A Field Evaluation of Single Pass Sand lters in a Northern Climate, Masters Thesis, Agricultural Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1999. County of Butte, Chico Urban Area Nitrate Compliance Plan, Program Report and Proposed Implementation Plan, Butte County Administrative Ofce, Oroville, California, March, 1998. County of Suffolk, Standards for Construction of Modied Sewage Disposal Systems, Department of Health Services, Division of Environmental Quality, Farmingville, New York, March 8, 1989. Carducci, A., Tozzi, E., Rubulotta, E., Casini, B., Cantiani, L., Rovini, E., Muscillo, M. and Pacini, R. (2000). Assessing Airborne Biological Hazard from Urban Wastewater Treatment. Wat. Res. 34, 4, 1173-1178. Centers for Disease Control. (2005). Hepatitis A Fact Sheet. Retrieved August 11, 2008 from http://hawaii.gov/health/healthy-lifestyles/std-aids/pdfs/hepatitis/hepa-factsheet-CDC. pdf. The Center to Protect Workers Rights. (2004). Biological Hazards in Sewage and Wastewater Treatment Plants. Retrieved August 9, 2008 from http://www.cpwr.com/ pdfs/pubs/hazard_alerts/hazsludge.pdf. Crites, R., and Tchobanoglous, G., Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1998. Doner, H.E. and P.R. Grossl (2002). Carbonates and Evaporites, in Dixon, J.B. and D.G. Schulze, eds., Soil Mineralogy with Environmental Applications, Soil Science Society of America, Inc., Madison, WI, p. 207.
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Douwes, J., Mannetje, A., Heederik, D. (2001). Work-related Symptoms in Sewage Treatment Workers. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med., 8, 39-45. Department of Environmental Quality, Nondegradation of Water Quality, Administrative Rules of Montana, Water Quality Division, December 1995. EPCOR. Okotoks Wastewater Treatment Plant. Retrieved August 9, 2008 from http:// www.epcor.ca/Communities/Alberta/Operations/Water+Treatment+Plants/Okotoks/ wtp.htm. Frequently Asked Questions & Answers about Wastewater and Biosolids Worker Health & Safety. Retrieved August 9, 2008 from http://www.biosolids.org/docs/17880.PDF. Geerts, S. M., et al., Performance of Pre-engineered Modular Peat Filters for the Treatment of Domestic Wastewater at the Northeast Regional Correction Center, NRRI Technical Report TR-01/35, Natural Resources Research Institute, University of Minnesota Duluth, November 2001. Gold, A. J. and Sims, J. T., Research Needs in Decentralized Wastewater Treatment and Management: A Risk-Based Approach to Nutrient Contamination, National Research Needs Conference Proceedings: Risk-Based Decision Making for Onsite Wastewater Treatment, EPRI, US EPA, National Decentralized Water Resources Capacity Development Project 2001.1001446, Palo Alto, CA, 2000. Gold, A., et al., Wastewater Renovation in Buried and Recirculating Sand Filters, J. Environmental Quality, Vol. 21, pp.720-725, 1992. Gold, A., et al., Nitrogen Removal Systems for On-Site Wastewater Treatment, Proceedings of the 6th Northwest On-Site Wastewater Treatment Short Course, University of Washington, Seattle, September, 1989. Graydon, J., et al., Onsite Biological Nitrogen Removal Using Recirculating Trickling Filters, In R. E. Hinchee et al., Eds., Bioremediation of Inorganics, pp. 133-139, Batelle Press, Columbus, Ohio, 1995. Hallberg, G. R., Nitrate in Groundwater in the United States, in Nitrogen Management and Groundwater Protection, (Edited by R. F. Follett) Elsevier Sci. Publ., Amsterdam, 1989. Hantzsche, N. and Finnemore, E., Predicting Ground-Water Nitrate-Nitrogen Impacts, Groundwater, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 490-499, 1992. Health and Safety Executive. (2004). Working with sewage: The health hazards. Retrieved August 9, 2008 from http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg197.pdf. Health and Safety Executive. (2004). Working with sewage: The health hazards A guide for employers. Retrieved August 9, 2008 from http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg198. Jenkins, D., Hermanowicz, S.W. (1991). Principles of Chemical Phosphorus Removal. Khuder, Sadik A., Arthur, Tammy, Bisesi, Michael S. and Schaub, Eric A. (1998). Prevalence of Infectious Diseases and Associated Symptoms in Wastewater Treatment Workers. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 33, 571-577. Laak, R., Wastewater Engineering Design for Unsewered Areas, 2nd Edition, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1986. Laitinen, S., Kangas, J., Kotimaa, M., Liesivuori, J., Martikainen, Pertti J., Nevalainen, A., Sarantila, R., and Husman, Kaj. (1994). Workers Exposure to Airborne Bacteria and Endotoxins at Industrial Wastewater Treatment Plants. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc., 55, 11, 1055-1060.
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Leverenz, H., et al., Evaluation of High-Porosity Medium in Intermittently Dosed, MultiPass Packed Bed Filters for the Treatment of Wastewater, Small Flows Quarterly, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 28-35, 2001. Loomis, G., Department of Natural Resources Science, University of Rhode Island, personal communication, 2002. Loomis, G. et al., Performance Evaluation of Innovative Treatment Technologies Used to Remediate Failed Septic Systems, Proceedings of the Ninth National Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems, ASAE, Fort Worth, Texas, pp. 52-61, 2001. Loudon, T., et al., Cold Climate Performance of Recirculating Sand Filters, Proceedings of the Fourth National Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems, ASAE, pp. 333-342, 1985. Magdorf, F.R., D.R. Keeney, J. Bouma, W.A. Ziebell. 1974. Columns representing mound type disposal systems for septic tank ef uent: II. nutrient transformations and bacterial populations. Journal of Environmental Quality. 3(3) p .228-234. Mayer, PW, DeOreo, WB, et al. Residential End Uses of Water. American Water Works Association. 1999. Maloney, J. C., Principal Public Health Engineer, County of Suffolk, Department of Health Services, Farmingville, New York, personal communication, March 7, 1995. Metcalf & Eddy, Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse, 3rd. Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991. Miller, Patricia. Inspections of Onsite Systems Health and Safety. Small Flows Quarterly, 2, 1, 33-36. 2001. Nolte and Associates, Literature Review of Recirculating and Intermittent Sand Filter Operation and Performance, Prepared for the California Regional Water Quality Control Board, Central Valley Region, Redding, California, June, 1992. Nowak, P., R. Shepard and F. Madison, Farmers and Manure Management: A Critical Analysis, In J. L. Hateld and B. A. Stewart, Eds., Waste Utilization: Effective Use of Manure as a Soil Resource, Ann Arbor Press, 1997. Oakley, S. 2005. Onsite Nitrogen Removal Text. in (M.A. Gross and N.E. Deal, eds.) University Curriculum Development for Decentralized Wastewater Management. National Decentralized Water Resources Capacity Development Project. University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR. Oakley, S., et al., Recirculating Trickling Filter Systems for Onsite Nitrogen Removal: Final Report to Butte County, CSUC Environmental Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, California State University, Chico, California, May, 1996. Oakley, S., et al., Septic Tank and Recirculating Gravel Filter Efuent Treatment and Disposal with Subsurface Absorption Trenches, Final Report for the Town of Paradise, National Demonstration Project for Small Communities, CSUC Environmental Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, California State University, Chico, California, September, 1998. Oakley, S., et al., Monitoring Nitrogen and Viruses in the Vadose Zone with Suction Lysimeters, Proceedings of the 10th Northwest On-Site Wastewater Treatment Short Course, University of Washington, Seattle, pp. 211-231, September 20-21, 1999. Olson, K.; Gustafson, D., Liukonnen, B. and Cook, V. (2005). Septic System Owners Guide. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota Extension Service.
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Pascual, L., Perez-Luz, S., Yanez, M. Adela., Santamara, A., Gibert, K., Salgot, M., Apraiz, D. and Catalan, V. (2003). Bioaerosol emission from wastewater treatment plants. Aerobiologia, 19, 261-270. Piluk, R. J. and Peters, E. C., Small Recirculating Sand Filters for Individual Homes, Proceedings 7th International Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems, ASAE, Atlanta, 1994. Power, J. F. and Schepers, J. S., Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater in North America, Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment, Elsevier Sci. Publ., Amsterdam, 1989. Prazmo, Z., Krysinska-Traczyk, E., Skorska, C., Sitkowska, J., Cholewa, G. and Dutkiewicz, J. (2003). Exposure to Bioaerosols in a Municipal Sewage Treatment Plant. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med., 10, 241-248. Rittmann, B. E. and McCarty, P. L., Environmental Biotechnology: Principles and Applications, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2001. Robertson, W. D., and Cherry, J. A., In Situ Denitrication of Septic-System Nitrate Using Reactive Porous Media Barriers: Field Trials, Groundwater, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 99-111, 1995. Ronayne, M. P., et al., Final Report: Oregon On-Site Experimental Systems Program, State of Oregon, Department of Environmental Quality, December 1982. Sandy, A. T., et al., Enhanced Nitrogen Removal Using a Modied Recirculating Sand Filter, Proceedings of the Fifth National Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems, ASAE, Chicago, pp. 161-170, 1988. Sawyer, C., et al., Chemistry for Environmental Engineering, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994. Sposito, G. (1989). The Chemistry of Soils. Oxford University Press. Suffolk County, New York, Standards for Approval of Plans and Construction for Sewage Disposal Systems, Appendix A, Standards for Construction of Modied Sewage Disposal Systems, Department of Health Services, Division of Environmental Quality, March 8, 1989. US EPA, Manual: Nitrogen Control, EPA/625/R-93/010, Ofce of Water, Washington, D.C., September, 1993. US EPA, Design Manual: Onsite Wastewater Treatment and Disposal Systems, EPA 625/1-80-012, Ofce of Water Program Operations, Washington, D.C., October 1980. State of Victoria Department of Education and Early Childhood Development. (2007). Plumbing module: Biological hazards. Retrieved August 9, 2008 from http://www.education.vic.gov.au/safe@work/modules/plumbing/05_biological.asp. Water Environment Federation, Biological and Chemical Systems for Nutrient Removal, Special Publication, Alexandria, Virginia, 1998. Water Environment Federation, Natural Systems for Wastewater Treatment, 2nd Edition, Manual of Practice FD-16, Alexandria, Virginia, 2001. Whitmeyer, R. W., et al., Overview of Individual Onsite Nitrogen Removal Systems, Proceedings of the Sixth National Symposium of Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, ASAE Publication 10-91, pp. 143-154, 1991. Zimmerman, Bill and Maurer, Hillary. (2007). Mounds and At-Grades the Easy Way. Earthview Environmental LLC. Retrieved August 14, 2008 from http://www.earthviewenvironmental.com/at_grade_mound_constr.pdf
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Appendix 1
Biological Hazards in Wastewater: FAQs for Septic System Professionals
Bufford A. Ang; Sara Heger Christopherson; John M. Shutske Q: What microorganisms are present in wastewater that can be hazardous to health? A: Microorganisms that cause disease are known as pathogens. A variety of pathogens are present in wastewater, including (The Center to Protect Workers Rights, 2004): Bacteria, such as E. coli, Shigella, Salmonella, Vibrio cholerae, and Leptospira. Bacteria are small, single-celled life-forms that can reproduce quickly. These bacteria can cause diarrhea, fever, cramps, vomiting, headache, weakness, or loss of appetite. Q Parasites. These use other organisms such as humans for food or a place to live and reproduce. One type of parasite is the protozoa. These are single-celled, microscopic organisms that live primarily in water. Some protozoans that cause disease include Giardia lambia, Cryptosporidum parvum and Amoeba. Another type of parasite includes helminths, which are worms. Roundworms, for example, can cause ascariasis. A lot of roundworms in your stomach will make you cough, and cause breathing difculties, abdominal pain, and intestinal blockage. Q Viruses are small particles that infect cells in other organisms. A virus cannot reproduce on its own, but requires other living cells to replicate. Viruses such as Norwalk-like viruses and hepatitis A are passed through feces of infected people. Hepatitis A is the most common virus present in wastewater.
Q
Q: What are signs of hepatitis A? A: One obvious sign of the hepatitis A virus (HAV) is jaundice - yellowing of the skin or whites of the eyes. Other signs include tiredness, abdominal pain, nausea, and diarrhea. About 15% of people infected with HAV will have prolonged or relapsing symptoms over a 6-9 month period (Centers for Disease Control, 2005). Q: What health risks are present in wastewater? A: All wastewater will contain fecal coliforms. These bacteria are present in the intestines of all warm-blooded animals, including humans. Although they are important in digestion (and also help with some treatment of wastewater in septic tanks), they may cause varying degrees of illness if introduced to someone through any of the pathways listed later in this paper. Pathogens like Giardia, Cryptosporidia, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, etc., will be present only if those using the wastewater treatment system are infected. However, since it is unlikely you will ever know the health conditions of those using a particular system, always assume that health risks exist. Exposure to wastewater may result in a number of illnesses, some of which include (Health & Safety Executive, 2004): Gastroenteritis (cramping stomach pains, diarrhea, and vomiting), caused by E. coli and other bacteria; protozoans such as Giardia and Cryptosporidia; and some viruses Q Cholera (extreme diarrhea and dehydration), caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae
Q
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Leptospirosis (u-like symptoms, accompanied by a persistent and severe headache), caused by the bacteria Leptospira. Leptospirosis may result in damage to liver, kidneys and blood, and may be fatal Q Infectious hepatitis (jaundice and fever) due to the virus Hepatitis A. It causes liver inammation Q Legionellosis (lung inammation with fever, dry cough, and aching muscles and joints) caused by a bacteria Q Skin and eye infections
Q
Q: How can workers come in contact with pathogens? A: There are four main routes that explain how pathogens can enter the body. These include (Health & Safety Executive, 2004): Oral Ingestion via hand-to-mouth contact during eating, drinking, and smoking; and by wiping your face with contaminated hands or gloves. Ingestion is the major route of infection. Q Dermal Skin contact from wastewater splashes. Having cuts, scratches, and wounds raises the risk of infection. Q Eyes Pathogens can enter the body through the eye. Q Lungs Inhaling airborne microbes carried by dust, mist, or fumes.
Q
Q. What are likely points of microbial contamination? A. The following are common sites contaminated with pathogens: Air in the vicinity of wastewater can lead to respiratory exposure. Q Tools, vehicle door handles, radio knobs, and gear shifters result in dermal exposure. Q Lunch, cigarettes, gum, etc. can lead to ingestion of pathogens.
Q
Q: Where are pathogens found in wastewater treatment systems? A: Pathogens are present in wastewater, and can be found anywhere and on anything that is in contact with wastewater. This means they will be found in the septic tank, distribution pipes, and efuent treatment components such as a draineld, mound, recirculating sand lter, etc. Highest populations are present in the septic tank, and are reduced as wastewater receives treatment while traveling through the system (see image below). In properly designed, installed, and maintained systems, research has shown there are no pathogens found in wastewater once it has traveled through soil three feet below the bottom of the draineld (Zimmerman and Maurer, 2007). Please see table on the following page.
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TABLE A-1 Numbers of pathogens found in wastewater at various stages of treatment in an onsite system (Zimmerman and Maurer, 2007)
Microorganism
Fecal coliforms (MPN/100 ml) Viruses (CFU/ml)
Raw wastewater
1,000,000 100,000,000 unknown
1 ft below trench
0 - 100 0 - 1000
3 ft below trench
0 0
In wastewater treatment plants, pathogens have been found in the following components and processes: Pre-treatment Q Thickening, dewatering, primary and secondary sludge treatment Q Primary clariers and settlers Q Aeration (biological oxidation) tank Q Sludge processing unit Q Belt press machines (belt press area) Q Sludge collection hoppers Q Sludge dewatering area Q Incoming water tunnels Q Inow chambers Q Aerated basins with sprinkler systems Q Trickling lters Q Grit collection Q Biolter tower interior Q Servicing and cleaning equipment Q Washing stations
Q
Q: What can septic system workers and wastewater treatment plant employees do to protect themselves from pathogens? A: Since pathogens are naturally found in wastewater, they CANNOT be removed. The risk of contracting a disease decreases if you practice good personal hygiene and use personal protective equipment on the job. Some pointers to keep in mind and to practice are: Make sure you understand the risks these microbes pose to your health, and ways that you can pick up infections. Q Always have a rst aid kit handy. Clean and disinfect all exposed wounds, and cover with a sterile waterproof dressing. Q Report any injuries suffered at the work site to your supervisor right away. Q Use waterless hand cleaners, anti-bacterial soaps, and anti-bacterial handwipes on the job. Q DO NOT eat or drink in a wastewater handling area. Q Do not touch your nose, mouth, eyes, or ears with your hands unless you have just washed your hands.
Q
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Wash your hands well with soap and clean hot water before you eat or smoke, periodically throughout the day, and at the end of your workday. Assume anything coming in contact with wastewater is contaminated! Q Clean any part of you that comes in contact with wastewater or sludge immediately. Q Keep your ngernails short and clean them frequently. Q Wear waterproof gloves when cleaning pumps or screens, or when handling wastewater, sludge, or grit. Whenever possible, wear heavy-duty gloves (double glove) and boots that are waterproof and puncture resistant (The Center to Protect Workers Rights, 2004). Q Wear a surgical-type mask, goggle, face shield, or visor if there is a chance that you will be splashed with wastewater. Q Wear rubber boots or those that can be disinfected if you should step in wastewater. Q Report any damaged equipment right away for replacement or repair. Q Handle sharp items with extra care to prevent accidental injuries. Q Clean contaminated equipment/tools on site with a bleach solution (Miller, 2001) (1 tablespoon of bleach to 1 gallon of water). Bleach loses its effectiveness after exposure to sunlight or dirt, so keep a fresh supply handy. Q Shower and change your work clothes before leaving work for the day. Do not take contaminated clothing home for washing. Use two different lockers to separate your work and street clothes. If you must launder your clothing at home, launder your work clothing separately from family clothing. Q Wash work clothing in hot water with chlorine bleach. Q Discuss your occupation with your health care providers so they know what potential exposures you have due to your work. Q Be sure your vaccine shots are up-to-date, especially for tetanus and diphtheria. Vaccination against hepatitis A is highly recommended. Q Consult your healthcare provider for any u-like symptoms, such as fever or severe headache, or any skin infections. Seek medical help if chest symptoms consistent with asthma appear.
Q
Q: So, do professionals really need to worry about airborne droplets and dust that carry pathogens (bioaerosols)? A: Yes! In 2003, Prazmo and her colleagues studied Polish sewer workers who were exposed to droplet aerosols containing infectious biological agents. These aerosols impaired the immune system and had the potential to produce allergies in susceptible individuals. Prazmo and her colleagues listed the infectious agents present, which included viruses (polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, rotaviruses, adenoviruses, Norwalk virus), and bacteria (Leptospira, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Campylobacter jejuni, Yersinia enterocolitica, Legionella pneumophila, Helicobacter pylori, Listeria monocytogenes, Mycobacterium xenopi). Another risk that they cited was microbial allergens and endotoxins. They stated that endotoxins, produced by bacteria, can cause respiratory and intestinal inammation, diarrhea, fatigue, and nose irritation among sewer workers.
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Q: When, what type, and how should a professional wear a respirator? A: A respirator should be worn whenever you might come in contact with airborne pathogens, such as spray from a treatment device, or a humid atmosphere. The N-95 Respirator is recommended by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Fit of respirator is always important to make sure that there is a tight seal between the face and mask. A leak would result in the inhalation of contaminated air. Facial hair is discouraged, since this can interfere with proper respirator t. To make sure respirators are tted, worn, and used properly, a respiratory protection program for the facility is highly recommended. Q: Just what is the level of risk for an ordinary individual to get exposed to pathogens in wastewater? A. The answer is It depends. The risk for an ordinary individual getting exposed to pathogens depends upon how well the septic system was designed, installed, and maintained. If there is wastewater draining to or surfacing in the yard, there is greater risk than if the system is working properly. If the septic system was installed in an area with high groundwater levels, and/or close to a drinking water well, the risk is higher. If a homeowner maintains his/her own system and cleans the efuent screen, the risk is higher for that person than if a professional is hired. However, if that homeowner follows safety precautions, the risk will be reduced. All in all, if a system is designed considering the strength and volume of wastewater, the soil and site specics; installed using best management practices; and maintained properly, risk to an ordinary individual is minimal.