Chap12 PDF

CHAPTER 12
FOAM PROCESSING
INTRODUCTION
During the past 4050 years, foamed polymers have found increasing importance in the world marketplace due to the unique characteristics and properties they provide when compared to solid plastics. While most thermosets and thermoplastics can be made in a foamed or cellular structure under certain conditions, the materials known as polyurethanes have become predominant for many applications in this field. Through the proper selection of the starting materials, foamed polyurethanes can range in characteristics from extremely soft, resilient cushioning products to very tough and rigid structural members. As varied as the products are, so too are the machines and processes used to produce them. This chapter gives an overview of the many types of equipment and production processes that are used for specific products. Certain other systems, such as polyureas, are also processed with the same equipment as polyurethanes. The word polyurethane is somewhat misleading since, unlike most plastics, the final product is not made by polymerizing a monomer. Instead, the products contain a number of polyurethane groups in a complex structure that is controlled by the choice of starting materials and the production conditions. Commercial products are manufactured by the reactions of two liquids: isocyanate (NCO) compounds and polyol (polyoxyalkalene) components, in the presence of catalysts and processing aids. Basic isocyanate chemistry has been available for more than 100 years, but it was not used commercially until the mid-1930s. Nearly simultaneously, the DuPont Co. in the United States and I.G. Farben in Germany began their developments. DuPont directed its efforts toward films and adhesives, while I.G. Farben concentrated on products to circumvent nylon patents. Dr. Otto Bayer of Bayer AG (part of I.G. Farben at the time) is considered to be the father of the urethane industry, and work in the Bayer labs led to commercial polyurethane products as well as to the machinery used to make them. During World War II, German polyurethane developments centered on products to replace scarce materials. The major products were rigid foams and cast elastomers. Following the war, the technology was exploited by the United States, and rapid advances were made in the development of products and processes. Commercially important cushioning products were achieved by the end of the 1950s. While polyurethanes serve a worldwide market, the development centers in both chemistry and machinery have remained in Western Europe and the United States. CHAPTER CONTENTS:
INTRODUCTION 12-1 BASIC CHEMISTRY 12-1
FOAM PRODUCTION METHODS 12-2 FOAM EQUIPMENT FOAM MACHINES
12-3
12-16
CONVEYING SYSTEMS 12-21 FOAM MOLDS
12-23
RIGID FOAM LAMINATE BOARD LINES 12-26 FOAM FABRICATION 12-28 CARPET UNDERLAY
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BASIC CHEMISTRY
The basic chemistry of flexible polyurethane foams is not difficult to grasp. It is the reaction of an alcohol or OH group with an isocyanate or NCO group. The alcohol is normally polyfunctional, ranging from 28 OH groups, which are referred to as polyols. As the number of OH groups increases, the foam structure becomes more rigid. Polyols are classified as polyether or polyester, based on the starter (initiator) materials used in their manufacture. The initiator is reacted with propylene oxide, ethylene oxide, or a combination of the two. The choice of which initiator and oxide to use depends on the foam characteristics desired. A variety of polyols are available to tailor the foam characteristics. The usual isocyanates for foam are toluene diisocyanate (TDI) and diphenylmethane diisocyanate (MDI). Various forms are available, again tailored to specific applications. The foaming operation is complex because three basic reactions are occurring concurrently and at different rates. These reactions are chain extension, gas formation, and cross-linking.
FOAM TYPES 12-33 FILLER USAGE
12-33
CHAIN EXTENSION
The primary reaction is that of the isocyanate group of the alcohol to give a urethane linkage: H O (1) | || R1 N = C = O + R OH R1 NCOR +HEAT Isocyanate Alcohol Urethane The urethane further reacts with additional isocyanate to yield an allophanate: H O O (2) | || || R1N=CO+R1NCORROCNR1 | O = C N R1 | H Isocyanate Urethane Allophanate The primary catalysts used for this reaction are organotin compounds; however, in very reactive systems, no catalyst may be required.
TROUBLESHOOTING FOR CONVENTIONAL SLAB STOCK FOAM 12-34
The Contributor of this chapter is: Robert L. McBrayer, Consultant, Foamcon. The Reviewer of this chapter is: Oscar Grace, Technical Manager (retired), BASF Corporation.
12-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
BASIC CHEMISTRY
GAS FORMATION
Gas formation involves the reaction of the isocyanate with water to form an aromatic amine compound plus carbon dioxide in a twostep reaction. This carbon dioxide causes the cell formation and foaming. Until recently, the use of water in formulations for rigid foam other than in minor quantities was a major differentiating factor between flexible and rigid foams. A class of flexible foams known as integral skin foams was also formulated without water. Rigid and flexible integral skin foams were produced by adding auxiliary blowing agents to the reacting mixture. Initially, the primary blowing agents were chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), specifically CFC-11 and CFC-12. CFC-11, or methylene chloride, was also used in flexible foams to manufacture lower-density and/or softer foams than were obtainable with water blowing alone. With the discovery that chlorinated compounds, such as CFCs and methylene chloride, destroyed the earths ozone layer, alternative materials were developed. These include completely chlorine-free hydrofluorocarbon compounds (HFCs), cyclopentane, and acetone. The alternatives have required modifications in processing equipment so they are used safely and efficiently. New formulation techniques also allow production of both rigid and flexible integral skin foams with water as the only blowing agent. H O | || R1 N = C = O + H OH R1 N C OH Isocyanate Water Unstable carbamic acid H O H O | || | || R1 N C OH R1 N H + C = O Amine Carbon dioxide (3) The catalysts for this reaction are primarily tertiary amines; however, some metal oxides have also been found effective. To stabilize the foaming mixture, silicone or other specialty surfactants are used.
CROSS-LINKING
The amine that is generated in the gas formation reaction reacts with more isocyanate to form a disubstituted urea, which cross-links the urethane polymer: H H O H | | || | R1 N H + R1 N = C = O R1 N C N R1 Amine Isocyanate Disubstituted urea (5)
Some of the disubstitute urea then reacts further with isocyanate to form highly cross-linked biuret structures: H O H O H (6) | || | || | R1 N C N R1 + R1 N = C = O R1 N C N R1 | O = C N R1 | H Biuret In addition to the previously mentioned components, foam formulations may contain one or a combination of additives to give specific properties to the foam products. Among these additives are those used to modify the burning characteristics of the foams: pigments; bacteriostats; inorganic fillers, such as glass fiber, silica, and barium sulfate; organic fillers, such as melamine and phosphate ester plasticizers; antistatic agents; UV stabilizers; cell openers; and internal mold release agents.
(4)
FOAM PRODUCTION METHODS

There are two basic methods for commercial foam production: spray and pour. The spray method is generally limited to rigid foams, while the pour method is used for all types of foams. The pour method is further subdivided into the categories of open pour, froth, and closed pour. produce a stable froth as the reacting mixture exits the mix head. In rigid insulation foams, this results in low pressure generation and good mold flow. The highly catalyzed flexible foams are used where the foam is poured into fabric. This is difficult to do with conventional foams due to fabric bleed through. Stable flexible froth, using specialized formulations and equipment, is also used to back carpets for pile bonding and cushioning. Machines used to dispense rigid froth foam, such as the Auto-Froth units supplied by BASF Corp., consist of pressurized component tanks, hose systems, and static mixer units. In addition to having pour capabilities, these units can be used with a spray gun. The spray foam in this case, however, is not of the same quality as that produced from a standard spray foam system.
OPEN POUR
In this method, the mixed foam reactants are dispensed either continuously or in timed shots into open cavities, where the reaction takes place. Except for very fast systems (such as high-density foamed elastomers), all flexible and rigid foams can be made by this technique. The cavity may be left open or closed after the pour. If the cavity is substantially open, the resulting material is called slab stock foam. When the cavity is closed, the foam is termed molded. For flexible foams, the world production is approximately 50% slab and 50% molded. Little rigid foam is made today using the slab method due to overall production inefficiencies. Molds may be individual, such as those used for automotive seats, or continuous, for products such as rigid foam laminate board. Many specialized machines were developed over the years for molding applications.
CLOSED POUR
In this method, the foam reactants are introduced into a closed mold, and as the foam expands, it completely fills the mold. The mold is closed either for part design considerations or because the foam reaction is too fast to permit closing the mold after the foam reactants are dispensed. For many applications, the foam mixture is simply poured through a hole that is plugged after the shot. With faster chemical systems or for specific design considerations, the mix head is either fixed directly to the mold or it is held against the mold until a pour gate is closed.
FROTH
In a specialized version of the open pour technique, highly catalyzed systems are used or an auxiliary blowing agent is added to
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CHAPTER 12
FOAM EQUIPMENT
FOAM EQUIPMENT
As a first consideration, foam equipment is classified as either low- or high-pressure, depending on the pressure of the chemicals as they enter the mix chamber or head. Typical low pressures are 50200 psi (3451379 kPa), and high pressures are considered as 10003500 psi (6.924.1 MPa). Some machines, particularly those used for slab foam production, are hybrid types that use low-pressure pumps on some streams and high pressure on others. The type of machine chosen depends on the foam type, versatility required, foam volume, and employee skills. High-pressure machines require greater technical skills for both operators and maintenance personnel. Independent of the technique used, several common elements are needed for effective foam production: Raw material supply. Metering units. Mix heads. Temperature control system. Process control system. recirculation capabilities ensure proper material conditioning and exact material delivery during the shot. With continuous pour machines, recirculation capability may be a needless expense.
Low-pressure Machines
Low-pressure machines normally use high-precision gear pumps. Specially designed pumps are required if abrasive fillers are used in the foam formulation. To eliminate problems that exist with seal leakage and environmental controls, isocyanate pumps are supplied with magnetic drive coupling systems. Various pump drives include direct drive units with DC or variable-frequency AC motors, gear motors, chain drives with replaceable sprockets for output adjustment, gear trains, and power pulley drives. High-output machines may be configured as hybrid machines (with highand low-pressure pumps) for better accuracy in metering the specific components. On slab stock machines, there is the capability for many streams, but all of the streams may not be active concurrently. They are installed to permit quick formulation changes to reduce change time and eliminate waste. With shot machines, the trend is to minimize the number of streams and thereby eliminate problems that occur with on/off operations.
RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY

Raw material supply includes the delivery containers from the chemical suppliers, in-house storage tanks, blending tanks, and the supply or day tanks for the foam machine. In some cases, a given container may serve two or more purposes. Supplier delivery is from rail cars, tank trucks, rubber bags in trailers, tote bins, or drums. When the delivery is made in large bulk containers, the materials are normally transferred to in-house bulk storage tanks. Handling of the bulk components depends on the chemical requirements, such as the need to maintain temperature or agitation. Isocyanates are stored in moisture-free conditions to prevent undesirable reactions. Some isocyanates also require heating to prevent solidification. For high-output slab stock machines, materials are normally delivered directly from bulk storage to the metering pumps. With other machines, the materials are delivered to intermediate conditioning tanks or day tanks at the foam machine for better maintenance of temperature and material conditioning. The specifics of the day tanks vary with the machine manufacturer and include single- and double-walled tanks with or without internal temperature control coils or plates, insulation, agitators, and means for recirculation. The tanks may also be pressurized or nonpressurized. Construction materials depend on the characteristics of the component, but the tanks are typically carbon steel with inner coatings of phenolic or epoxy if the component is corrosive. Stainless steel tanks are required for specific applications. Automatic fill systems are generally used to ensure proper component conditioning.
High-pressure Machines
High-pressure machines are frequently called reaction injection molding, reaction impingement mixing (RIM), or high-pressure impingement mixing (HPIM) machines. This terminology, developed during the early 1970s, refers to systems where the component mixing occurs through impingement of the component streams at high pressure without using mechanical stirrers. Another term, liquid injection mixing (LIM), was used for urethanes; however, the term was later trademarked by General Electric for liquid silicone rubber systems. While they are most frequently considered shot machines, RIM machines are also used for continuous pour applications such as laminated rigid foam panel production. There are two types of high-pressure metering: pumps and cylinders. Metering pump systems. This type of pump uses high-precision axial, radial, or in-line piston pumps capable of delivering the pressures required. These are modified versions of pumps that were originally designed for hydraulic oil or fuel service. Because of the close tolerances and construction materials, these pumps are not used with particulate materials that are abrasive, such as glass or mineral fibers. Very high viscosity materials are also not handled successfully, since the pumps have virtually no suction capability and clearances are very small. The nominal maximum viscosity limit of these pumps is 2000 centipoise (cP) at operating temperature. Through the use of booster pumps, higher viscosities are handled. The metering pumps are either fixed or adjustable output types. Various drive systems are used, and output can be varied manually through DC or variable-frequency AC motors, or with servo systems. Figure 12-1 is a schematic of a high-pressure machine shown with double-wall day tanks for temperature control. Cylinder metering units. Designated reinforced RIM (RRIM) machines use lance- or plunger-type cylinders that are capable of handling abrasives and high-viscosity materials. With a lance cylinder, shown in Fig. 12-2, the moving lance does not contact the inside surface of the cylinder; it only contacts the labyrinth seals so that pressure is developed. The material is displaced, and the cylinder does not empty completely after each lance stroke. Cylinders may be driven independently or with hydraulic slave cylinders.
METERING UNITS
Metering units may be high- or low-pressure units. Independent of these classifications, the units must deliver and maintain a high degree of accuracy, usually within 1%. Low-pressure machines are available to handle as many individual components as necessary to meet the formulation requirements, while high-pressure units are typically limited to two or three components, unless special provisions are made. Output capabilities range from a few ounces or milliliters per second for applications such as pour-in-place gaskets, to 1000 lb/min (454 kg/min) or more for large molded parts or slab stock production. With machines that are used for periodic shots,
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CHAPTER 12
FOAM EQUIPMENT
A schematic of a lance cylinder-type machine is shown in Fig. 12-3. To reduce the capital cost, a machine may have only a single cylinder to meter the abrasive component while a metering pump handles the nonabrasive component. Although operating pressures for cylinder machines are generally on the same order as metering pumps, special units can deliver impingement pressures up to 15,000 psi (103 MPa) for difficult-to-mix systems. While cylinder units are usually made to accommodate a fixed shot capability, special units, such as tandem cylinders that are carefully controlled to have overlapping strokes and precise operation of switching valves, are made to permit continuous output. Gusmer-Admiral also offers a continuous cylinder metering unit, the CDC pumping system. This doubleacting cylinder system, shown in Fig. 12-4, is not a lance cylinder due to the internal piston seal requirement. Other true cylinder metering units are used for special purposes, such as color addition or very low output, where it is difficult to achieve the desired accuracy with a rotating or reciprocating pump. Piston seal wear considerations limit these pumping units to nonabrasive service. Spray foam machines are also cylinder-metering units. They are normally driven pneumatically, and the stroke of each cylinder is locked to ensure a constant ratio of materials. Ratios are varied by changing cylinders. Spray units usually have external-mix, selfcleaning, hand-held guns, and the impingement pressures can reach 3500 psi (24 MPa). Valving arrangements are used to ensure essentially continuous flow with these machines. Most spray machines do not have recirculation capability, and components may be warmed by heat-traced hoses to ensure uniform fast reaction of the spray foam; this provides the desired laydown for a smooth surface. A typical pneumatically operated spray unit is shown in Fig. 12-5. Linden provides a hydraulically powered unit for spray or pour that eliminates problems that can occur if the compressed air supply pressure is inconsistent.
MIX HEADS
Mix heads are classified in two ways: recirculating or nonrecirculating, and low-pressure or high-pressure. In a recirculating head, the components are recirculated from the day tanks through ports in the mix head and back to the tank. The recirculating type with proper temperature control is essential for good operation when foam dispensing is intermittent. While recirculating, back pressure is controlled at the mix head. Spool valves or ports open when the shot is called for. Some continuous pour mix heads also provide some recirculation; however, most are nonrecirculating. With nonrecirculating heads, pumps are started or valving is opened in a sequence that ensures start-up is smooth and losses are minimized. On start-up, the minor streams (catalysts, surfactants, and liquid additives) are turned on first, followed by the polyol and then the isocyanate.
Low-pressure Mixing
Low-pressure machine mix heads are chambers with rotating impellers that are driven by hydraulic or electric motors. Drive speeds are usually variable from 2000 to 6000 rpm. The impellers may be a low- or high-shear design, depending on the mixing efficiency required. Low-pressure mixers can give excellent mixing and are designed for a wide range of output, including very low output. Essentially all of the mixing is done by the mechanical action. The mixer imparts high shear energy due to the close tolerances between the mixing element and the mixer barrel. Rotational speed and/or
Isocyanate component Hydraulic unit for mix head
Resin component
Filter
Metering pump Mix head
Fig. 12-1 High-pressure (RIM) machine schematic.
12-4
2 &
CHAPTER 12
FOAM EQUIPMENT
Plunger Labyrinth high-pressure seal Cylinder body From day tank To mix head
Fig. 12-2 Lance cylinder concept.
back pressure on the mix chamber is varied to alter the foam cell structure and mixing efficiency. One design of a high-shear mixer is shown in Fig. 12-6. Hybrid machines require less efficient mechanical mixers, since some mixing is achieved by impingement of the streams even though the impingement efficiency is low. The mixing element is simpler than the high-shear type and is usually a pin or Christmas tree type, as shown in Fig. 12-6. Low-pressure mix heads, with the exception of the hybrid machine types, have valving arrangements for the components that ensure simultaneous opening to minimize a condition known as lead-lag. With lead-lag, a component enters the mix chamber out of sequence with the other(s), resulting in the wrong ratio of components and defects in the foam product. The valving arrangements include individual component cone or ball valves that are opened by a single operator and spool valves that are coupled to an opening/ closing cylinder. Depending on the manufacturer, low-pressure mix heads may have two to six component streams. Elastogran Polyurethane GmbH developed a low-pressure mix head with up to seven ports that can be opened hydraulically in any combination. This offers the possibility of formulation changes between shots. With all low-pressure heads, separate valving is provided for solvent flushing and air purge to evaporate any solvent residue. A disadvantage of low-pressure mix heads is the need to purge and flush the head periodically, sometimes after each shot. This is because cured foam residues can build up on both the stirrer and mixer barrel. This build-up can diminish mixing quality, causing
Isocyanate component
Resin component
Hydraulic unit for mix head
Hydraulic cylinder
Transfer cylinder
Metering pump
Hydraulic oil reservoir
Mix head
Fig. 12-3 High-pressure lance cylinder (RRIM) machine schematic.
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12-6
Discharge ball Fill stroke High pressure Inlet ball Fill chamber Discharge chamber Inlet Low pressure Discharge ball High pressure Discharge stroke Inlet ball Discharge chamber Fill chamber Inlet Low pressure
CHAPTER 12
FOAM EQUIPMENT
To mix head
To mix head
,, ,, ,, ,,,,
Fig. 12-4 CDC pumping system.
Air dryer Main power supply Quick disconnect (customer installed)
To main air supply
2:1 transfer pump

HOSE MOTOR
RETRACT NORMAL PRESS TO TEST OFF ON OFF
To main air supply

A-HEATER MAIN R-HEATER POWER
Air hose assembly
2:1 transfer pump
POWER SET HOSE TEMP. SET A-TEMP. SET R-TEMP. SET
R-supply hose A-supply hose R-isolation hose TCP reservoir Hose heat power lead
A-isolation hose
Electric isolator T.S.U. extension adapter
Additional hose section Temperature sensing unit First section heated hose
Gun hose
FOAM EQUIPMENT
CHAPTER 12
12-7
Fig. 12-5 Spray machine.
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FOAM EQUIPMENT
the mid-1970s. The reasons are threefold. First, they can handle very fast reacting systems. Second, flush solvent is eliminated. Finally, the high-pressure machines are less complicated and require less overall maintenance than low-pressure machines. The high pressure in the mix head is dissipated in mixing and heat energy. The discharge pressure from the mix head is the back pressure created by the material flow through the restriction of the discharge nozzle outlet. The heads are opened and closed hydraulically, and no mechanical stirrers are required. For effective mixing, the mix head chamber diameter is matched to the desired machine output. If the output is too low for the diameter, the mix quality is poor. If the output is too high, splashing is a problem when making open pours. As the interest in high pressure grew, the machine manufacturers were particularly aggressive in patenting head designs, and in many cases, aggressively protected those patent rights. This has led to many commercialized concepts. Another reason for developing new mix head designs was to improve the mixing efficiency at high pressure to approach the quality of the best low-pressure mixers. A schematic of one early type of high-pressure head (crosslicensed between Elastogran Polyurethane GmbH and Krauss Maffei) is shown schematically in Fig. 12-8. This head features recirculation grooves that are cut into the single moving part, the control and clean-out piston. The component streams enter the head directly opposite from each other for direct impingement. When the head is closed, the components are pumped through the recirculation grooves under the same conditions they see when the mix head is open. The impingement pressure is controlled by fixed orifices or needle nozzles that are mounted in the mix head body. The control piston opens very rapidly as the head is shifted from the recirculation state to the mixing state; this is on the order of a few microseconds. Speed is essential to prevent operational problems, because the component streams are shut off momentarily during the switch. The mix head is sealed between the reacting components when closed by the close tolerance of the parts and a self-renewing polyurethane seal. As the patents for the recirculation grooves expired, this simple concept was adopted by other manufacturers in a variety of head designs. The majority of high-pressure machines are equipped with two-component mix heads. While heads are available with more component streams, these designs usually support specific requirements. For example, Cannon introduced its TRIO mix head with components entering at 120 angles to each other. This arrangement improves mixing, particularly with very fast reacting chemical systems. Four-component mix heads are also available for specific applications. While the straight head design shown in Fig. 12-8 is satisfactory for many applications, special head designs are available to reduce splashing and/or improve mix quality. The most popular of these is the L-head design, shown in Fig. 12-9. This design features both mixing (or transverse) and cleanout pistons. Heads of this type include the Cannon FPL, Elastogran SMA, Gusmer-Admiral RIM X, Krauss-Maffei UL, and Linden Industries MHL. The heads vary in mix chamber length, impingement nozzle arrangements, and other details to avoid patent infringement. Another Elastogran variant is the B-head design, which has three-component injection and actuated pins below the mix zone to smooth the flow. The major component is normally split into two opposing streams and the minor component enters roughly perpendicular to the opposed streams. The B-head schematic is shown in Fig. 12-10, and the operating principle is shown in Fig. 12-11. Hennecke Machinery has taken two other approaches to improved mixing. These are the MQ and MX mix heads, shown in
High-shear type
Pin type
Fig. 12-6 Low-pressure mix head stirre rs.
the mixer to overheat or jam. After the component streams are stopped, the head is first blown out with a blast of air. The chamber is then flushed with an appropriate solvent followed by another air blast to dry the head. Methylene chloride is a common solvent, but cost and environmental concerns have led to a search for alternative solvents. Several proprietary agents are available. Hot-water flushing systems were introduced in the 1980s and work satisfactorily for some applications. The flush water may be reused after decanting to remove foam solids. Low-pressure mix heads typically are partially disassembled each day following operations for thorough cleaning. The use of particulate fillers to modify foam properties presents a number of problems in processing. These include the strong tendency of fillers to settle and cake; oil absorption of some fillers, which increases viscosity and mixing difficulty; metering pump wear; and filler agglomeration. Edge-Sweets (PTI) Co. has developed and patented a low-pressure mix head system, designated FFH, which overcomes these problems by metering dry fillers into the mix chamber. Up to four different dry fillers can be metered, either simultaneously or in sequence. The fillers are metered into an auger screw that is mounted concentrically to the standard low-pressure mixer. The screw forces the fillers into the mix chamber. The basic configuration, shown in Fig. 12-7, is designed for continuous operation.
High-pressure Mixing
Although used since the early days of the industry, high-pressure impingement mixing has become increasingly popular since
12-8
Dry filler hopper
Filler drive motor
Mixer drive motor
Filler metering auger
Recirculation valves for chemicals
Mix chamber
FOAM EQUIPMENT
Reactive filled mix into mold or onto a conveyer
CHAPTER 12
12-9
Fig. 12-7 FFH mix head system.
Fig. 12-8 Principle of recirculating high-pressure mix head.
@ ? 4 = 1 3 2 ' & D 8 C B 7 6 + *
Hydraulic oil Hydraulic oil Component A Component B Recirculate Dispense Mold
12-10
FOAM EQUIPMENT
CHAPTER 12
Stroke adjustment
Oil Throttling/ clean-out piston
Oil
Oil
Mix piston
Dispensed foam
FOAM EQUIPMENT
Closed/cleaning position
Throttling/recirculation position
Mixing position
CHAPTER 12
12-11
Fig. 12-9 Operating principle of L-type mix head.
CHAPTER 12
FOAM EQUIPMENT
Fig. 12-10 Elastog ran B-type mix head.
Figs. 12-12 and 12-13, respectively. All of these designs provide improved mixing compared to the straight mix head shown in Fig. 12-8. Special heads were also developed for adding color to the reacting mixture. This application is particularly directed to integral skin or high-density microcellular foams, which require very
12-12
J 2 & K ? 3 ' I = 1
uniform color. Cannon has the CCS color system, which directs the liquid color pigment through a hole bored through the cleanout piston. Another successful approach for color addition is done with a third stream added to the basic L-head configuration. With some chemical systems, particularly high-density microcellular and integral skin foams, aftermixers are used in closed mold pours. These mixers are channels cut into the mold that do little actual mixing. They create back pressure on the mix head, which increases its efficiency.
Hydraulic control block
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
Control/clean-out piston
Component out
Oil
Component in
Mixing pin piston
Since polyurethane foaming involves chemical reactions, good temperature control is essential for maintaining foam production consistency. Particularly demanding are the requirements for highpressure machines due to the heat generated by recirculating under high pressure. It is common to see a temperature increase of 1015 F (68 C) in a single pass of the material through the mix head. One way to avoid heat build-up is to have automatic switching for low-pressure recirculation when there is sufficient time between foam shots. Most machine systems are equipped for heating and cooling to cope with a range of ambient conditions. Production systems typically achieve temperature control within 2 F (1 C). The machine day tanks are part of the temperature control system if they are fitted with jackets, external coils, or internal coils. Heating is done by electrical units immersed in the component tank or fitted to the component line at an appropriate location. A more common heating method is to recirculate hot water that is generated in a separate unit. Cooling water is supplied from a chiller unit or other local supply (water mains or wells) if the temperature is maintained at 60 F (16 C) or less. Using sensors located in the component streams, the temperature is controlled by either cycling between the hot and cold water sources or by using tempered water. When heat exchangers are used, the location is a matter of design philosophy. With all types of machines, separate temperature control loops with dedicated lines and recirculation pumps are used. Some highpressure machines use a recirculating system that also provides low-pressure feed to the inlets of the high-pressure metering pumps. The simplest system for high-pressure systems uses the metering pumps as recirculating pumps, with the heat exchangers placed in the return lines to the day tank. Plate heat exchangers have become increasingly popular due to their efficiency, low pressure drop, and ease of cleaning compared to tube-and-shell heat exchangers.
PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS
Systems range from basic relay logic systems, which turn equipment on and off in response to manual actuation and mechanical timers, to highly sophisticated computer-monitored electronic systems. Statistical process control data are generated by various means including high-pressure flowmeters, pressure transducers, and rapid-response temperature sensors. Flowmeter systems can provide flow control by using variable-speed drives for metering pumps or by servo adjustment of pump output. Programmable systems frequently feature CRT displays for easy access to control and process parameters. The costs for modern process controls can exceed that for the mechanical components of the machinery. In addition to controlling the foam machinery, the systems can also control any conveying systems, temperature systems, mix head traversers, and molds for complete system integration.
1. Closed and recirculation position
2. Recirculation with mixing pins in mix position
3.
Foaming position
Mixing pin
FOAM EQUIPMENT
CHAPTER 12
12-13
Fig. 12-11 Operating principle of Elastog ran B-type mix head.
6 5 * 1 ~ s r q g f e Z Y O N M C B A z y x o n m l c b a ` W V U T K J I H ? =
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FOAM EQUIPMENT
Oil Clean out piston Oil Mix chamber Sliding throttle valve Throttle valve stroke adjustment Oil Oil Vortex chamber Outlet Oil Component pressure adjustment Oil Isocyanate Isocyanate Polyol Polyol Oil Oil Mix position Closed/recirculation position
Fig. 12-12 Operating principle of Hennecke MQ mix head.
12-14
Fig. 12-13 Operating principle of Hennecke MX mix head.
| z p n d b X V L J ? 3 2 ' & ~ t s r h g f Z P O N D C B 7 6 + * @ W K o c
CHAPTER 12
FOAM EQUIPMENT
Oil Oil Throttling sleeve stroke adjustment Oil Oil Throttling sleeve Mix chamber Oil Oil Pressure reducing chamber Control piston Outlet Clean out piston Isocyanate Polyol Mix position Closed/recirculation position
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CHAPTER 12
FOAM MACHINES
FOAM MACHINES
There are three main types of foam machines: slab stock, block foam, and molded foam.
SLAB STOCK FOAM MACHINES

Slab stock foam machines produce large continuous slabs or blocks of foam, which are later fabricated for use in final products. Fabricated parts include furniture cushions, mattress cores, carpet underlay, packaging, clothing innerliners, recreational vehicle seating, vehicle interior trim pads, and aircraft seating. A conveying system is an integral part of a basic slab stock foam machine, and most lines are supplied as a single unit. The conveying system is a powered slat conveyer that is capable of varying the speed and angle from horizontal. The conveyer also has moving side walls that match the speed of the slat conveyer. The side walls are moved to adjust the width of the foam block buns. Bun width changes are made during production; this width must increase if such changes are made. Many variations of slab foam machinery exist. Machinery suppliers have attempted to make the buns more rectangular to reduce trim losses when the foam is fabricated. At least 10% more prime foam is obtainable from a rectangular block compared to a conventional crowned block. To describe a crowned block, Fig. 12-14 shows the profile of a rising foam bun. The components are poured onto an angled conveyer to permit higher buns than are possible on a flat conveyer. As the foam mixture leaves the mix head, it is clear or slightly cloudy (as long as the polyol is clear and contains no fillers). The mix head or a dispensing hose is traversed across the conveyer to distribute the material as evenly as possible. The conveyer and side support walls are lined with treated paper or plastic film that moves at the same speed as the conveyer. As soon as the reaction becomes visible, the material is said to be creaming; the cream line is the distance from the mix head to the start of creaming. As the foam begins to rise, there is frictional drag on the foam from the side wall paper/film. As a result, the foam at the side walls does not rise as much as that in the center of the bun, thereby giving a crowned shape. Generally the higher the bun, the
higher the crown. Careful control of the traversing action can reduce the crowning. The foam reaches its maximum height, at which time health bubbles appear; these indicate that the cell walls are rupturing and the gas generated (which causes the foam to rise) is being released. A slight amount of sigh back occurs shortly thereafter; this may slightly reduce the crown. A buns cross-section shows where the trim loss occurs, as indicated in Fig. 12-15. Obviously, a flatter bun reduces the trim loss. Conventional slab stock machines have output capabilities approaching 1100 lb/min (499 kg/min) and conveyer speeds up to 33 ft/min (10 m/min). Conveyer lengths and widths vary depending on the intended use of the foam but are generally 50-200 ft (15-61 m) long and 6-8 ft (1.8-2.4 m) wide. Bun height is controlled by the angle of the conveyer and the output of the machine. Therefore, good coordination is required between conveyer speed, conveyer angle, metering output, and the chemistry to maintain consistent production. Conventional conveyer lines (and the conversion of those lines to make flat-top buns) require the most floor space of any flexible slab stock foam line. Several mechanical methods are used to make buns that are more rectangular. The machinery is often referred to as flat-top equipment. Numerous patents were issued for these methods. Royalties are frequently required when these special machines are used. Even with royalty payments considered, flat-topping normally results in lower-cost foam production. The earliest flat-top methods were modifications to the conventional conveyer system. A schematic of a conventional system is shown in Fig. 12-16. Side wall paper is not shown in this figure. Figure 12-17 shows the Draka/Petzetakis modification. In this version, an additional side wall film is used. The film is lifted at a rate equal to the rise rate of the foam. Frictional drag is minimized to give a relatively flat-topped bun. This system is difficult to control and is labor intensive, since additional operators are required to handle the film. Another modification of a conventional machine to give a flattop bun is the Planiblock, Hennecke, or Econo Foam process.
Mix head
Cream line
Sigh back
Begin rise
Laydown
Fig. 12-14 Slab foam rise profile.
12-16
CHAPTER 12
FOAM MACHINES
Although the concept of these processes is the same, their details differ. The Planiblock and Hennecke systems were designed to retrofit existing lines, while the Econo Foam system was a complete line system. These systems use a top release paper to help spread the foam uniformly across the conveyer. The rise is restrained by special slats or pressure plates to give the flat-top surface. The top paper is automatically perforated to allow the foam to gas off, and the foam is essentially continuously molded. A schematic of the Planiblock system is shown in Fig. 12-18. The most popular current flat-top equipment is the Maxfoam approach, developed by Unifoam Company and shown in Fig. 1219. This approach requires completely new equipment. In this case, the components are dispensed through a fixed mix head at the bottom of a trough located at the end of a conveyer. The rising foam overflows the trough onto an insulated fall plate. The fall plate angle and the conveyer speed are adjusted to keep the top surface flat. In essence, the foam rises down. The original equipment had capability for only one width at a time. To get varying widths, the trough was exchanged. Newer versions, called Varimax, can change the width easily and quickly. The output of a Maxfoam line is lower
Trim scrap
Fig. 12-15 Conventional slab foam cross-section.
Traversing mix head
Slat convey er
Release paper feed roll
Fig. 12-16 Conventional slab foam conveye r.
Traversing mix head
Polyethylene film feed roll
Film lifter
Slat conveyer
Fig. 12-17 Draka/Petzetakis modification for flat-top foam.
12-17
CHAPTER 12
FOAM MACHINES
Traversing mix head
Release paper feed roll Hold down slats
Slat convey er
Fig. 12-18 Planiblock flat-top bun modification.
Fixed mix head
Side wall paper feed roll
Fall plate
Trough
Bottom paper feed roll
Belt conveyer
Fig. 12-19 Maxfoam/Varimax slab foam equipment.
than that of a conventional line; outputs range from 440880 lb/min (200400 kg/min), and conveyer speeds are 1326 ft/min (48 m/min). Bun heights are normally 4050 in. (11.3 m). All of the conveying systems described previously are designed for high-capacity production of slab foams. The basic layout of the line requires a large floor area. A machine was developed to reduce floor space requirements while providing accurately shaped round or rectangular buns. This is the Vertifoam machine, developed by Hyman PLC and Crain Industries, now licensed by Vertifoam International, Ltd., which produces foam vertically instead of horizontally. The metering unit capacity is low compared to that of horizontal machines: 200 lb/min (91 kg/min). Maximum block dimensions are 7 7 ft (2.1 2.1 m), and the block is cut to 4.5-ft (1.4-m) lengths at the end of the foaming conveyer. Block dimen-
sions can be varied quickly, and round blocks up to 5.5 ft (1.7 m) in diameter are possible. The machine is shown in Fig. 12-20. Round blocks are also made on other machines with special conveyer configurations and are desirable to reduce scrap losses when foams are peeled from a bun in the same manner as trees are peeled for plywood. Peeling is used to make wide, continuous sheets for applications such as carpet underlay. With the elimination of CFCs as auxiliary blowing agents, formulation adjustments were necessary to make various foam grades. Some of the chemical modifications consist of low-boiling-point hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and normal gases, such as carbon dioxide and cyclopentane. These materials present unique metering requirements for successful use. The products are used by adding them batchwise to a proper mix tank. This requires higher-pressure-
12-18
CHAPTER 12
FOAM MACHINES
CO2 Cut block to storage
Polyol
Isocyanate
Block cut-off
CO2 metering pump CO2 polyol premix unit Low pressure mix head Process direction Fall plate
Additional components
Paper rewind
Laydown device
Conveyer
Fig. 12-21 CarDio slab foam schematic.
Paper feed
Foam mixture
Fig. 12-20 Vertifoam equipment.
rated tanks than those normally used. Cyclopentane adds the complication of being a flammable and potentially explosive product. Machinery manufacturers have responded to the challenge by introducing in-line blending equipment. These units include the Cellomat system from Hennecke and the EasyFroth system from Cannon. Cannon has gone one step further, introducing a complete slab foam production line, the CarDio system, as shown in Fig. 12-21. Liquid carbon dioxide is blended into the polyol and fed to a multicomponent low-pressure mixer. The mixed materials exiting the mix head are a rapidly expanding froth. To control this froth, a special laydown device stabilizes the froth and provides a smooth laydown with the foam pre-expanded to about 30% of its full height. Conveyer speeds are generally slower and output is lower than those for Maxfoam machines, but the pre-expansion gives a fully cured foam quicker. A typical output of 90130 lb/min (4159 kg/min) and a conveyer speed of 3.3 ft/min (1 m/min) is used to produce full-size blocks. The CarDio system can be retrofitted to existing conventional or Maxfoam slab stock machines. Since the carbon dioxide that is generated in the water-isocyanate reaction is the primary blowing agent in flexible foams, increasing the water level is a means of replacing CFCs or methylene chloride if the objective is only to adjust density. Unfortunately, other foam properties are also affected (some adversely). While
other formulation changes can overcome physical property changes, higher water levels give higher exothermic heat, which can lead to foam scorching (discoloration) or autoignition. To overcome this problem, rapid cooling systems were developed and patented for slab stock foams; these systems eliminate the need for auxiliary blowing agents. Two commercial systems are Enviro-Cure, developed by Crain Industries, and RapidCure, developed by General Foam. Both of these systems can be retrofitted to existing conveying systems. They use cooling chambers to pull cool air through the foam to reduce its temperature. A short delay between foaming and cooling is desirable to get the proper foam cure. Depending on the particular foam machine operation, the foam block may require trimming, or barrier films may be applied to ensure that the cool air flows completely through the foam. The RapidCure system additionally has a carbon absorption tower to prevent volatile material emissions to the atmosphere. For many years, foam formulations were modified to maintain the density of the foams as the production plant altitude varied. At higher altitudes, the foam has a lower density for a given formulation. Taking this into account, Foamex patented the variable-pressure foaming (VPF) slab stock process, which can produce a wide range of densities using water as the only source of blowing agent. This is done by adjusting the ambient pressure around the foam as it reacts and rises.
BLOCK FOAM MACHINES

Preparation of foams in large discrete blocks was done for many years, primarily in lesser-developed countries. Machinery developed for this purpose is shown in Fig. 12-22. The foam is supplied to the day tanks as two components: a polyol blended with water and catalysts and an isocyanate. These components are fed automatically to the tanks. The cycle starts with the polyol component in the mix tank with both weigh tanks filled. The mixer is started, and the drain valve for the isocyanate tank is opened. After a predetermined mix time, the hinged bottom of the mix tank opens, dropping the mixed foam reactants into the mold box. The bottom then closes, and the next polyol component charge is fed to the mix tank to act
12-19
CHAPTER 12
FOAM MACHINES
Weigh tanks
Mixer Hinged bottom Mix tank
ously described, where the foam is made under reduced-pressure conditions. This process can eliminate an auxiliary blowing agent in preparing low-density foams. Foams are made in any cross-section desired for final fabrication. The foam components are introduced into a closed mold. By ensuring full mold fill under vacuum conditions, the foam yield is maximized, and larger blocks are possible than with the older block foam method. An additional advantage of the CEF system is that the foam is virtually skin free. A schematic of the CEF system (less the proprietary mixing equipment) is shown in Fig. 12-23.
MOLDED FOAM MACHINES

Mold box
Fig. 12-22 Block foam (Golden Bucket) machine schematic.
as a diluent to the residual foam and to nearly eliminate foam buildup in the mix tank. The mold box, which is on wheels, is moved away from the machine. An end flap is raised and a floating lid is placed on the top to achieve the desired rectangular configuration for maximum foam utilization. This equipment, commonly known as the Golden Bucket, presents several processing difficulties. The components require careful formulation to avoid foaming problems with the partial prepolymer that is left in the mix tank at the end of each cycle. If mix tank cleaning is required, the component in the tank is often scrapped. As the foam mixture is dumped from the mix tank, it splashes and traps air, frequently leading to foam defects. It is difficult to make low-density foams with this equipment. The discrete block foaming system was updated by developing and patenting the Controlled Environment Foaming (CEF) system by Foam One. In principle, it is similar to the VPF system previ-
Molded foam techniques are used when the final product cannot be made by fabrication from slab foam because of design, cost, or chemical reaction constraints. Molded products include items such as automotive cushions with molded-in frames or support wires, automotive instrument panels, automotive exterior body parts, refrigerators, building doors, and metal-faced construction panels. Metering units for molded foam are either high- or low-pressure units with the output sized to most effectively produce the required part. There are several types of conveying systems available for molded foams such as rotary tables, hanging conveyers, drag chain conveyers, shuttle systems, and laminating lines. The type of conveyer chosen depends on factors such as the number of parts required per unit time, foam cure rate, pour technique, and part complexity, which may require multiple operations or mold manipulation. With the conveying system, some type of mix head support is required to manipulate the head over the mold. This can range from a manually operated boom to an automatic multiple-axis robot. Molds are poured while either open or closed.
FOAM CONFIGURATION
The flexible molded foam industry grew with three basic technologies: cold cure, hot cure, and high resiliency. Cold-cure foams are processed at ambient temperatures. Molds may be temperature
Mold handling system
Round or rectangular Pressure control valve
Mold A
Mold B
Containment vessel
Door
Foam Reactive mix Scrubber Vacuum pump
Fig. 12-23 Foam One CEF system.
12-20
CHAPTER 12
CONVEYING SYSTEMS
controlled to maintain uniformity of processing and properties; however, acceptable foams are made without additional heat. Many products are made in this way, including automotive interior trim parts, instrument panels, door panels, head restraints, and armrests. Hot-cure foams for cushioning applications require curing in the mold at elevated temperature to provide satisfactory processing and products. High-resiliency (HR) foams were developed in the 1970s to meet new requirements for automotive seating. These foams require lower temperatures and shorter cure times than hot-cure foams and are the predominant materials for molded cushioning today.
CONVEYING SYSTEMS
Hot-cure molded foams require conveying systems with hightemperature oven capabilities. The typical conveyer configuration is a racetrack design, with a drag chain conveyer. Molds are mounted in carriers that ride on parallel drive chains. Mold opening and closing is usually done by using curved rails. When highresiliency foams were introduced, production was started on existing lines. Modifications were made to increase line speeds and to reduce oven requirements. Few changes were required to the metering equipment. Racetrack lines are continuous movement lines, but it is difficult to provide special movement of individual molds. A schematic of racetrack lines is shown in Fig. 12-24. Racetrack lines are most frequently used when large volumes of identical parts are required over extended periods of time. All mold temperature control on these lines is done by hot-air recirculation. As technology advanced, the cure temperature for high-resiliency foams decreased, and the ovens on older lines often served only to conserve foam exothermic heat for cure enhancement. Mold carriers are switched on these lines by using forklifts or overhead cranes. A variant of the drag chain conveyer system is the hanging conveyer. In this design, the molds are mounted in carriers suspended from an overhead conveyer chain. Provisions are made for mold temperature control by mounting hot-water heater units in the mold carriers. A single mold heater may serve several molds. Power to the heaters is supplied through slip rails. Because the mold carriers are precisely positioned, overhead conveying systems offer the possibility for more mold actuation, such as for clamping airbags and for automatic opening and closing devices. Mold carriers are changed by guide rails that are switched onto the overhead system. Drag chain conveyers are also made with a single drive chain, with wheeled carts riding on a steel track. Various mold sizes can be mounted on the carts to provide production flexibility. As with the overhead chain type, power is supplied to the mold carriers for temperature control or mold actuation. Rotary table or carousel systems are used for many molded foam applications, both flexible and rigid, and the lines may be custom built for specific part applications. The usual construction for heavy molds features the table supported by a central bearing point, with the outer edge supported by heavy-duty nonpneumatic wheels. The table is electrically or hydraulically actuated by a caterpillar drive that engages drive dogs on the outer edge of the table, a drive chain around the circumference, or pneumatic tires driving along the outer vertical edge. Light-duty tables are supported by only the central bearing; they are driven by the same means as the heavy tables or by cam follower systems. The tables are usually indexed between stations. Indexing provides more working time for operators and simplifies the pour patterns and mix head carriers. While mold carriers can be changed automatically without interrupting production, cost considerations generally require that the molds are changed by forklift or overhead cranes during break periods. Rotary tables are more versatile than the racetrack systems, since it is easy to install a variety of molds on the table and achieve proper control. Molds are frequently temperature controlled with tempered water systems, and provisions for vacuum are easily made when molding parts into plastic or special fabric covers. A heavy-duty rotary table system is shown in Fig. 12-25. Many molded foam applications are best met by using stationary molds. These applications include a variety of parts, such as automotive trim parts and instrument panels, automotive exterior body panels, residential entrance doors, specialized seating products, and refrigerated display cases. Multiple molds are serviced by using manually operated booms or by robots. Another approach is to use ring line systems. This system has multiple mix heads that are supplied from a single metering unit. The mix heads are operated in any sequence; however, only one head may pour at a given time. While the mix heads are most likely fixed to the molds, the system is adaptable to boom or traverser operation. The number of heads possible is determined by the line length and foam reaction time requirements, with a typical maximum of 12 heads. Figure 12-26 shows the concept.
Hot cure foam configuration
4 3 6 7 8 9 10 1 2
High resiliency foam configuration
10
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Pour station Mold closure High-temperature oven 500 - 600 F (260 - 316 C) Cure oven 250 - 300 F (121 - 149 C) Cure oven 300 - 350 F (149 - 177 C) Mold opening and part removal Mold cleaning Mold release application Mold cooling Insert placement
Fig. 12-24 Molded foam linesracetrack configuration.
12-21
12-22
Station 7 10 8 Station 5
CONVEYING SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 12
St
at
io
n 6
11 12 4
8 n 4
Station 1 Station 1 Part removal and mold cleaning Station 2 Automatic mold release spray Station 3 Part substrate placement Station 4 Automatic foaming into mold Stations 5 8 Foam cure
io
at
St
Station 3
St at io
6
St at io n 2
5
1. 2. 3. 4.
Rotary table Ventilation system support Main control panel Safety fence
5. 6. 7. 8.
Mold release spray unit Mold carrier Mix head carrier Foam metering machine
9. 10. 11. 12.
Table drive unit Mold temperature control unit Chiller unit Vacuum system
Fig. 12-25 Molded foam linerotary table configuration.
CHAPTER 12
FOAM MOLDS
Fixed mix head
Blocking unit
Switch-over units Hydraulic Polyol metering unit Isocyanate metering unit
Fig. 12-26 Molded foam linering line concept.
FOAM MOLDS
Foam molds for cushion production are usually cast aluminum; however, some small-scale operations have used epoxy or glass fiber-reinforced polyester or epoxy molds. Molds for integral skin and microcellular foams used for automotive exterior parts are nickel-plated aluminum or steel since grain, texturing, or Class-A paintable surfaces are important for the applications. Automotive instrument panel and door trim molds are typically cast or machined aluminum or epoxy-surfaced cast aluminum. The epoxy surfaces on the aluminum facilitate tuning molds for better fit. Metal molds are often made with cast-in temperature control coils for optimum efficiency. Machined metal tools are gun drilled for water temperature control. Some molds for small parts, such as those for shoe soles, are electrically heated. Molds are either self-contained (all means of actuation are part of a single unit) or they are mounted in mold carriers. Mold carriers range from simple clamping frames to heavy hydraulic presses, depending on the total system requirements. These carriers are also provided with inflatable air cushions to move the cavity or lid of the mold after the frame is clamped to ensure full metal-to-metal contact across the entire parting line. This eliminates frequently adjusting clamps during prolonged production or when molds are changed. The air cushions provide self-adjustment. As molds get larger or the foaming pressure increases, the previously discussed mold carriers may not be suitable. Mold carriers that have their origins in presses used for woodworking, plastic compression molding, and injection molding have been developed for foam handling. Both pneumatically operated (Fig. 12-27) and hydraulically operated (Fig. 12-28) mold carriers are available. These carriers are used in producing door panels, steering wheels, computer housings, and automotive body panels and fascias.
FIXTURING
Four-post presses used for mold spotting or compression molding are also used in foam-part production for products such as residential doors or refrigeration units. Part fixtures with metal or plastic faces and other fittings are placed in the press. When the press is closed, the foam is injected into the cavities through pour holes in the part. For hot-molded flexible foams, the lids generally float under restrained conditions, with the lid lifting from the foam rise and then settling as sigh back occurs. Vents are drilled in the lid in appropriate areas to eliminate trapped air. Venting is also placed around the parting or flash line, where the cavity and lid meet. High-resiliency foam molds are of higher quality than hot-cure molds. They are of heavier construction and have very tight flash
MOLD CARRIERS
Simple clamping frames are used on the drag chain and hanging conveyer systems. The back edge of the frame is hinged, and the front edge is equipped with some type of toggle clamp. Opening and closing of the mold carrier is a function of the conveying system. The molds are adjusted in the frames to achieve the proper sealing at the parting line. Small molds used on stationary systems also use this concept, since they are easily manipulated manually. The simple mold carriers can be upgraded to carriers with hydraulic or pneumatic actuation for opening, closing, and locking, and all are controlled by programmable logic controllers (PLC).
12-23
CHAPTER 12
FOAM MOLDS
Control panel
Base frame Air bag pressure units
12-24
Fig. 12-27 Pneumatically operated mold carrier.

Upper mold support Lower mold support
C 7 ' 4 + * 8
CHAPTER 12
FOAM MOLDS
Upper edge stroke table 75 E7 E8 X2 15 15
12-25
Fig. 12-28 Hydraulically operated mold carrier.
X1
CHAPTER 12
FOAM MOLDS
lines; the lid is not permitted to lift during the foam rise, because this can lead to foam collapse problems. Some molds are fitted with extruded silicone rubber seals to ensure sealing. Venting is also more carefully controlled with high-resiliency foams. Rigid foam molds for some applications are essentially the same as the molds used for flexible foams. Wood simulation parts are made with silicone rubber mold liners so that the exact surface replication is achieved. For molded products such as refrigerators, hot-water heaters, and doors, the outer metal or plastic shell of the product acts as the mold; however, supporting fixtures or jigs are required to prevent part distortion. These supporting structures take the place of mold carriers; they are integrated into shuttle or transfer line conveying systems or used in stationary systems specifically designed for the product.
MOLD TEMPERATURE
The initial mold temperature is critical. With hot-molded foams, the optimum is about 100 F (38 C). Much lower temperatures give a soft foam layer, a densified layer, and then the desired foam in the core. As the temperature is increased, the densified layer becomes thinner and closer to the surface. When the mold gets too hot, the skin that forms is loose and flaky, creating a poor appearance, or areas of very closed cell foam can exist. High-resiliency foams can be poured into cold molds with few problems other than higher density and longer cure, since there is usually no skin and none of the densification that occurs with hot foam. If the mold gets too high with high-resiliency foam, outer surface defects and collapse become a problem. Instrument panels can show a range of problems if the mold temperature is not correct. These panels are a composite of an outer skin (ABS, vinyl, or polyolefin), semiflexible foam, and an insert or retainer (plastic, metal, or wood fiber). If the mold temperature is low, the foam density increases, and the part does not completely fill out. If the mold temperature is too high, premature foam gel can occur, resulting in collapse or voiding. Gas pressure may also increase to the point that when the part is demolded, the skin is blown away from the foam. Shrinkage may also be a problem.
MOLD RELEASES
Mold releases are used to facilitate demolding of foam parts where the foam contacts the mold surface. Various combinations of natural and synthetic waxes are used to obtain the best results. For high-resiliency foams, some mold releases add dimethylsilicone fluids to cause cell breakdown at the foam surface, providing greater breathability. Mold releases are characterized as waterbased or solvent-based, depending on the carrier. Water-based mold releases are more difficult to use with high-resiliency foams, because the molds are too cold to evaporate the water in a short time. Alcohol in the release assists evaporation. For cushion foams, the mold release does not require removal from the part before it is used. Other parts may require removal of the release because of postoperation requirements. In some cases, solvent or soap washing is required. Some products, such as steering wheels and wood simulation, use in-mold coatings that act as the mold release and form the base or top color for the f inished part. Depending on the character of the in-mold coating, a light film of a conventional mold release is sprayed on the mold first. Excess mold release can build up on molds. Because part sticking can then result, operators may incorrectly add more release. The mold release can act as a thermal barrier, and trapped solvent can cause defects. To reduce this problem for integral skin and high-density microcellular foams where surface appearance is critical, internal mold releases were developed. These releases are generally proprietary and covered by patents. The basic approach is to use a material such as zinc stearate as the internal release. Even with an internal mold release, a periodic light coat of a standard mold release is usually necessary to ensure good part release. Mold release is minimized if the part is to be painted.
CRUSHING
Cushion foams usually have a large number of closed cells on demold. This requires crushing the foam after demolding, since the foam otherwise shrinks. Crushing is done by passing the foam through crushing rolls or by putting it into a vacuum chamber, where it is cycled through atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. Special techniques are available for high-resiliency foams to eliminate the need for crushing. Among these is the patented timedpressure release (TPR) method, in which the foam mold is opened and then reclamped during the closed mold cure cycle. The same principle is also used in instrument panel production to prevent gassing, or blowing away of the cover on demolding.
RIGID FOAM LAMINATE BOARD LINES

While a number of urethane foam products are manufactured in essentially their final form, few products match the complexity of production sophistication for faced rigid foam panels used in building wall, roof, and cold storage unit construction. These lines incorporate flexible or rigid facing layers, with rigid insulating foam continuously and automatically starting with rolls or sheets of facing material and the urethane raw materials, and ending with cut-to-length banded panels ready for shipment. A complete production line is shown in Fig. 12-29. Such a line can produce panels in the ranges shown in Table 12-1. The largest conveyer of this type for steel-faced panels has a maximum output rate of 65 ft/min (20 m/min). Because of the foaming pressure of the rigid foam, the conveyer is sturdily built to support the flat panels. Furthermore, the slat conveyer is properly guided to eliminate the pitch of the slat as it reverses direction at the end of the conveyer. This pitch, unless controlled, results in a polygon effect, which marks the face of the panel. Likewise, the upper and lower slat conveyers are absolutely speed-synchronized to prevent damage to the facings, particularly to painted finishes. Replaceable seal chains run at the edges of the conveyer slats to retain the reacting foam and give the desired edge profile of the finished panel.
PRODUCTION CYCLE
The production cycle takes the following steps: 1. The flexible facing material is fed to the roll forming machine to give the desired face appearance. If the face material is not flexible, the sheets are fed into the interface conveyer by a vacuum lifter. Roll forming dies can be changed in 3060 minutes to meet varying requirements.
12-26
10
11 14 13 12
16 8 4 6 9 2 3 15 5 1 Infeed and profiling 1 Coil unwinding station 3 Rollforming machine 2 Vacuum lifter
Metering and coating 4 Coating gantry 5 Tank farm 6 High pressure metering machine The double belt 7 Double slat conveyer 9 Sealing chain structure 8 Upper and lower slat chain band
Cutting and cooling 10 Cross cutter (circular saw) 12 Cooling conveyer 11 Cross cutter (band saw)
Stacking and storing 13 Stacking system 14 Rack stacker
CHAPTER 12
Controlling 15 Main control panel 16 Control
12-27
Fig. 12-29 Double-belt rigid panel production line.
CHAPTER 12
TABLE 12-1 Rigid Panel Sizes Cut panel length 780 ft (224 m) Finished panel width 1550 in. (3811270 mm) Finished panel thickness 1.58.0 in. (38203 mm)
2. The facings are preheated to ensure proper adhesion of the foam to the face. Heated air in a closed-loop system is used, since infrared heating is ineffective with bare metal surfaces. 3. Rigid foam is dispersed using high-pressure metering equipment. The mix head, mounted on a continuously variable-speed traversing mechanism, is a special unit with a fan nozzle that disperses the foam uniformly across the lower facing material. Since the mix head does not have the self-cleaning ability of a standard high-pressure head, foam build-up in the head can occur. To avoid production interruptions, two mix heads are mounted on the traversing mechanism, and foam component flow can be switched between heads. The fouled head is automatically decoupled from the traverser for cleaning. 4. The conveyer is temperature controlled by heated air that passes through the upper and lower chords of the conveyer.
FOAM FABRICATION
As produced, many foamed polyurethanes are not immediately useful as an end product. Various fabrication methods were developed for specific types of foam, and some of these are discussed in the following sections.
TRIMMING, SLITTING AND CUTTING

A variety of equipment is available for cutting and fabricating slab stock foams into the sizes and shapes required for finished products. Cutting blades for flexible foams are kerfless to avoid ripping the foam and producing fine dust. Some types of cutting equipment are:
Bandknife Slitters
These slitters are positioned at any angle; however, the common orientation is horizontal or vertical. Some saws are equipped with automatic sharpeners. In some operations, buns up to 200 ft (61 m) long are slit by fixed-position horizontal slitters and reversible belt conveyers running at up to 200 ft/min (61 m/min). The foam is cut into thin roll stock that is used for lamination. The loose roll from the cutting operation may be placed in another machine for diameter compression and wrapping for shipment. Smaller slitter versions are used with automatic or manual tables for cutting small bun sections. The table surfaces are movable.
Baumer Slitters
These special slitters use bun lengths of about 400 ft (122 m). The ends of two 200 ft (61 m) buns are glued together to form an over-and-under loop that conforms to the conveyer. The slitter cuts from the inside of the loop. The slitter blade is automatically indexed down to maintain foam thickness. Roll stock is the final product.
Carousel Slitters
Short bun sections are placed on a special rotary table that is equipped with a vacuum to hold the buns in place. The table indexes the foam through a horizontal slitter blade to cut the foam to the
12-28

The side wall chains are equipped with electrical resistance heaters. 5. Upon exiting the double-belt conveyer, the foam panel enters the cutoff section. Circular or band saw arrangements are possible. Panels are cut in approximately 10 seconds with a tolerance of 0.04 in. (1 mm). For roof panels, which require an end-to-end overlap, saws are arranged to automatically cut the overlap section. 6. With panels over 4 in. (101 mm) thick, cooling is required, and a cooling conveyer is used. 7. If the panels are used for cold storage units, they are additionally milled to form a tight-fitting, tongue-and-groove shape. 8. At the end of the line, the panels exit on automatic stacking conveyers and are transferred to banding and wrapping machines as required. The entire production line is maintained by a central control system that is equipped with monitors. Each section can, however, be operated independently for set-up and maintenance. Full process documentation is maintained by integration of a compatible industrial computer. desired thickness. The carousel and slitter are programmed to give the desired thick-cut slab foams, which are used for products such as furniture cushions or mattresses.
Profile Cutters
These cutters are a modification of the bandknife slitters using tables. The tables are fitted with dies and compression devices. The foam is compressed as it passes the slitter blade. When the foam recovers, it has the desired shape, such as dimpled foam used for packaging, mattress pads, pillows, and balls. The concept is shown in Fig. 12-30. Modern versions of these cutters use computer-controlled circular knife blades that can cut extremely complicated configurations. These cutters are used to cut thin sheets of foam (roll stock) to the desired contour for applications such as automotive trim covers or panels. Sharp die steel bands are fixed in plywood bases. The bases are mounted on a stamping press, which may be pneumatic or
Die Cutters
Movable platen Foam
Saw blade path
Fixed height bed
Fig. 12-30 Profile cutter.
CHAPTER 12
FOAM FABRICATION
hydraulic, to cut the foam sheet. When used with special foams designed for flame lamination, the die-cutting operation features electrically heated platens/cutters to combine the operations of die cutting with the shaping of a flat foam piece and edge sealing in a single operation. Lamination of the foam to a cover can also be integrated into the operation using appropriate adhesives. flammable, excess air is used to dilute the vapors so that they do not sustain combustion or explode in dryer chambers. The solvent vapors must be eliminated from atmospheric discharge, through use of a vapor incinerator, carbon absorption, or more modern equipment that condenses the solvent for recovery and reuse. Carbon absorption has the disadvantage of the carbon pellets requiring periodic regeneration or replacement. If regeneration is done, the vapors are recovered or incinerated. Incineration is costly unless the heat is recovered for plant heating or other process requirements.
Routers
High-speed special rotary blades are used to cut grooves in thin sheet foam for the same applications as given for die cutters. Routers are used where it is not practical to fabricate the foam by other means.
Latex Adhesives
These adhesives are water based but frequently contain other compounds, such as ammonia, that require special handling of the vapors from the dryer. Higher heat is required for latex adhesives than for the solvent types.
Log Peelers
Where there is a requirement to have the foam slit wider than a standard bun width, log peelers are used to cut circular buns in the same fashion as plywood is cut from wooden logs.
Hot-wire Cutters
Foam is also cut by electrically heated wires. Such systems have limited commercial application because of slow cutting speed, problems with foam melting or discoloration, and high maintenance. If small foam blocks are required, however, hot-wire cutting can provide very accurately cut blocks.
Hot-melt Systems
These systems use a variety of conventional hot-melt glues, thermoplastic films, and powdered adhesives. Powders have been used in laminating fabrics for garments since about 1965. Polyesters are the most frequently used powders. These polyesters are also supplied in films or meltblown webs or in molten forms. The most common polyesters are crystalline terephthalate copolyesters. These types have melting points of 210270 F (99132 C) and crystallize from the melt in 110 minutes, depending on the grade. Adhesive crystallinity is important in fabric lamination to withstand laundering or dry cleaning. Melt viscosities cover a wide range, and the choice depends on the equipment used for lamination. If the viscosity is too low, the adhesive will flow into the cellular structure, and poor bonds result. Other solid thermoplastic adhesives that are widely used include polyamide, EVA, thermoplastic urethane. Adhesives are also made with the copolymers of polyamide, EVA, and thermoplastic urethane.
LAMINATION
Lamination is used to bond foam to fabrics or other cover and substrate materials for use in automotive trim covers, headliners, sound-deadening pads, trunk liners, seating, and similar products. At one time, many automotive seat cushions were made using laminated parts; the cushions were referred to as skived seats, and the process is still used today to make aircraft and recreational vehicle seats. Two important factors in lamination are the choice of adhesive and the process used. Adhesive choice is based on economics and application requirements. Independent of the adhesive and process, urethane foam that is laminated to most fabrics requires good web tension and alignment control.
Powder
Powder is applied by dry powder spray units. The powder is applied to one of the substrates, which then passes under heaters to melt the adhesive. The second substrate is then applied, and the composite passes through nip rolls before it is taken up on a winder. Powder application has an advantage over molten hot melts in that adhesive build-up in melt trays and doctor blades is eliminated. A schematic of a dry powder system is shown in Fig. 12-31.
ADHESIVE TYPES Solvent-based Rubber or Urethane Systems

Solvent-based systems are among the highest quality adhesives. The solvents chosen are generally volatile organic solvents, which are evaporated by various means. Since many of the solvents are
Dry powder application
Substrate B
Substrate A Nip rolls Heater
Open mesh conveyer belt
Conveyer belt
Winder
Fig. 12-31 Dry powder laminating line.
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CHAPTER 12
FOAM FABRICATION
Thermoplastic Urethane Films
Thermoplastic urethane films and thermoformable urethane slab foams can be combined in equipment to both laminate and form the composite, providing a product such as insulation or sound-deadening panels for automotive applications. The thermoformable foam is made in slabs and cut to feed into the transport conveyer of the laminating machine. It is heated in a hot-air oven; it then moves into the forming section, and at the same time, the thermoplastic urethane film is unrolled onto the sheet and cut to the proper length. The composite is then fed to the forming press, where the heated foam is cooled to set it to shape and fuse the film to the foam. The thermoplastic film serves as the show and protective surface. A process line for this operation is shown in Fig. 12-32.
Composite Products
Composite products containing plastic films (such as PVC or ABS), nonporous fabrics, rigid plastics, metal shapes, or fiberboard are made using the natural adhesive characteristics of the urethane foam during the foaming process. Mixed liquid foam components are injected or poured between the substrates, and the products are formed in suitable molds. Common applications of this approach are automotive instrument panels, head restraints, and door panels. The structural RIM (SRIM) process also uses the adhesive characteristics of the urethane foam to bond materials such as nonwoven or woven glass fiber into rigid shapes that are used for door panel substrates, sunroof covers, spare tire covers, and bumper beams. In some cases, a plastic film is combined in a composite in the same operation. The glass fiber mat is placed in a mold, the urethane foam is dispensed on the mat, and the mold lid is closed. The rigidity of the product is controlled by the type and amount of glass, as well as by the foam formulation used.
Flame Bonding
Flame bonding is melting a foam surface with an open flame to produce a bond with a fabric. The foam is melted by a 2000 F (1093 C) flame before contacting the fabric. This process, used for many years, was originally based on specially formulated flamelaminatable foams. Polyester-based foams were preferred from a processing standpoint; however, they created problems in use because of degradation in warm, humid environments. The original polyether-based foams did not usually provide the desired bond strength. With the advent of the newer polyether polyols, a standard grade of flexible polyether-based foam can now be successfully laminated. To overcome problems with vapors from flaming the foam, most makers of flame-laminating equipment have incorporated scrubbers into their machines.
DIELECTRIC SEALING
High frequency is used to seal or emboss suitable substrates. This is commonly used for PVC, polyester, and nylon fabrics or films. Special formulations for flexible foams make them sealable; however, even standard foams can be used in dielectrically sealed products if the foam thickness is small. Radio frequency power is directed to the composite, and the seal is made by the heat-sealing die or electrode that is firmly pressed against the substrate. Time, energy input, and pressure are adjusted to obtain a satisfactory bond. Embossing is used to simulate stitching or other decorative patterns on the sealing film by using suitably engraved brass dies.
CARPET UNDERLAY
Carpet underlay has become a major market for urethane foams, where it has replaced sponge rubber or jute fiber pads. Urethane underlay has greater durability and is a more uniform product. compared to prime foam. The high load bearing capability makes bonded foam a preferred product for commercial carpet underlay applications. Bonded foam is also used for other products such as automotive headrests, cushioning inserts for firmness and lateral stability, and energy absorption inserts in snowmobile seats. To make bonded foam, the scrap is first ground into particles using a shredder. A low free-NCO prepolymer is sprayed onto the particles in a blender/tumbler. If the adhesive is properly applied, the foam particles are not sticky to the touch. The mixture is poured into large block molds or processed continuously on special purpose conveyers. Curing is done by heat, water-catalyst blends, or steam, all under varying degrees of pressure that depend on the density required. The blocks are round or rectangular, depending on the final fabrication process.
PRIME FOAM
Underlay is produced from virgin foam slab stock that is cut to the desired thickness. The highest-quality foams used for this application are made from graft polyols, which incorporate styrene and/or acrylonitrile polymer into the matrix. The slit foam is laminated to a suitable film that permits easy installation of the carpet. Without the film, the nonslip characteristics of the foam make it difficult to stretch the carpet and avoid distortion of the underlay. Special laminating films made from ethylene-acrylic acid copolymers, ethylenevinyl acetate copolymer, polyethylene, or terpolymers are used to face the underlay. The film is applied using a machine that heats and applies it under carefully controlled pressure. The use of film avoids using liquid adhesives, which are more difficult to apply.
Direct Backing
Direct backing of carpet requires that the foam applied to the carpet does not penetrate the carpet facing. Bleed-through gives an unacceptable product. The viscosity of the foaming materials is kept high, and the carpet must have the proper backing. In one process developed and patented by Textile Rubber and Chemical Co., the foam components are poured on a continuous Teflon -coated fiberglass belt that has been sprayed with an acrylic release film. The reacting foam components are spread with an air doctor blade to obtain a uniform thickness. The reverse side of the heated carpet is then brought into contact with the
BONDED FOAM
Rebond foam underlay is made from urethane scrap and/or slab foam made especially for this purpose. While the most desirable scrap is from slab production, molded foam scrap is used if it does not contain excessive tough skin or mold release residue, which would interfere with bonding. Scrap may be a preconsumer or postconsumer product. Bonded foam underlay is characterized by high density, high load bearing capability, and relatively low strength
12-30
Product discharge conveyer
Automatic foam sheet transfer
Manual part removal
Forming press TPU film roll feed and cladding unit
Air heater Foam sheet contact heater Aligning and foam feed conveyer
Thermoformable foam supply pallet
CARPET UNDERLAY
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12-31
Fig. 12-32 Lamination line for thermoformable foam.

CHAPTER 12
CARPET UNDERLAY
foam. After passing over heated platens while still on the continuous belt to cure the foam, the carpet is placed onto a finish roll. Frothing techniques for urethanes that are similar to those for latex and PVC are also used. Foam expansion is largely accomplished by frothing, using a mix head as shown in Fig. 12-33. The froth is applied to the carpet by either knife coating to a release paper, with the carpet positioned on top, or by direct knife coating, as shown in Fig. 12-34. Union Carbide and Dow patented variations of this process. Dow licenses the process to use its Enhancer foam technology. Spray foam technology was developed and patented by ICI in the 1950s. A traversing spray distributes a very fast reacting flexible foam system directly on the back of untreated carpet. The foam is formulated to give partial penetration of the foaming mixture into the carpet to bond the tuft to the primary backing. After partial curing under heat lamps, the carpet passes over a heated embossing roll to compact the foam skin surface for improved durability. A significant amount of direct-backed carpet is made as molded products for the automotive industry. Large complex parts are made in this manner, and molding provides the opportunity to vary the foam thickness as required to fit the car. In many cases, the carpet is preformed prior to backing. In addition to providing cushioning, carpet backing serves as a sound insulator.
Mixing head Annular cavity Rotor Front stator Rotor shaft Outlet Rear stator Inlet Injection point
Fig. 12-33 Mix head for froth application.
Delivery hose
Froth foam machine
Knife coater
Let-off
Curing oven
Cooling
Take-up
Additive dispenser
250 - 300 F (121 - 149 C)
Ambient
Uncoated carpet
Coated carpet
Fig. 12-34 Schematic of froth carpet coating line.
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CHAPTER 12
FOAM TYPES
FOAM TYPES
RETICULATED FOAM
Reticulated foam has an extremely open cell structure. These foams are used for applications such as filters, sound absorbing pads, and speaker covers. Over the years, numerous patented processes were developed. Among these are: Immersion of the foam in an aqueous solution of an alkaline hydroxide, a water soluble glycol, and an aliphatic alchohol. U.S. 3,423,337. As above but replacing the aliphatic alcohol with a monocyclic aromatic alcohol. U.S. 3,423,338. Rupturing the cells with a water jet. U.S. 3,862,282. Rapid and transient heating by use of gas compression heating. U.S. 3,329,759. Exposure to light pulses (strobe light). U.S. 3,175,030. Contact with orthotoluidine. U.S. 3,753,756. Hydrolysis with aqueous sodium hydroxide. U.S. 3,171,820. Sealing the foam and combustible mixture in a chamber and igniting the combustible mixture. U.S. 3,175,025. Stretching and heat setting of the foam in the distorted state. U.S. 3,425,890. Passing a heated stream of gas through the foam to melt the cell walls. U.S. 3,475,525. Numerous formulation variations were also patented for the application. The preferred methods are those that do not use solvents or water due to the extra processing required to dry the foam after treatment. Perhaps the most common industrial processes are the light pulse and combustion methods. pour-in-place seats can be recovered; it takes approximately eight minutes to disassemble a front seat. Ninety-two percent of the foam from cut-and-sew seats is recoverable, and it takes approximately 13 minutes to disassemble this type of front seat. Recovered scrap foam is worth $500$1000 per metric ton.
Filler Usage
Another potential application for the scrap from seats or from high-density foamed elastomers is the Ecostream process developed by Woodbridge. The foam is finely ground and used as a filler in new seats. One need for this technique is to find a more economical way to grind the foam; cryogenic grinding is currently used. The Illinois Institute of Technology has developed a process for solid-state shear extrusion (SSSE), which appears promising. Ground scrap from reject or recovered high-density foamed elastomers used in bumper covers or other automotive body panels is also usable as a filler in making new similar parts. When used in this way, new machinery techniques were developed to overcome swelling of the filler when it was in contact with one of the reactive components. The problem was overcome by providing third-component metering on RIM machinery. As with the Ecostream process, the scrap is finely ground. Larger scrap particles are compression molded to make nonshow automotive parts.
Automotive Shredder Residue

There are foams in the automobile that are difficult to recover. They include the foam in instrument panels, door panels, headliners, and sun visors. In all likelihood, these foams would end up as part of the automotive shredder residue (ASR) that is left from the final breakdown of a scrapped car. ASR, or fluff, remains after as much metal as possible is removed. It is a mixture of rubber, various plastics, textiles, rust, and fluids with an average density of 25 lb/ft3 (40.5 kg/m3). It is a poor fuel because it contains an average ash content of nearly 58%. The National Research Council of Canada reported in 1994 that there are several reasonable solutions to the ASR disposal problem: While there was concern that hazardous materials would leach from the ASR if it was landfilled, this was not a problem. In fact, the ASR absorbs hazardous materials from other products in the landfill. ASR also performs better than dirt as a day cover for landfills; it settles less and is not easily washed away. ASR can be used in particleboard when combined with other recycled plastics. The resultant board is stronger than wood particleboard. Tertiary recovery processes, such as pyrolysis, can recover oil, gas, and carbon black. A more selective mixed ground scrap containing semiflexible foam with textiles and other plastic scrap is made into composite sheets. The scrap is mixed with polymeric isocyanate and then pressed into shape and cured with steam and heat. The product is suitable for glove box liners, package trays, and similar applications. Rigid foam scrap and panel trimmings, including bits of metal, are processed in the same way as the semiflexible foam previously mentioned. The resultant product is a very strong and durable board stock that is used for building walls and floors. Gymnasium floors made from this board function very well.
RECYCLING FOAM
There is pressure on the plastics industry to increase recycling. In 1990, the Polyurethanes Division of the Society of the Plastics Industry established the Polyurethane Recycle and Recovery Council (PURRC) to address the issue of polyurethane product waste disposal. The goal was to reduce the amount of polyurethane that was landfilled by 25% by 1995. Similar activities were established in other parts of the world, particularly in Europe, where recycling is far ahead of that in the United States.
Rebond Foam
Flexible urethane foams are recycled in many ways. The resulting product is rebond or bonded foam. There is a market for this product, and the demand has outpaced the industrys ability to supply it. Many tons of foam scrap are imported to the United States every year to cover the shortage of scrap for rebond. Scrap from both slab and molded foams is used. Rebond foams are characterized by relatively high densities and low strength properties, but the most important property for most applications is its high loadbearing capability. Carpet underlay is a major market, and many specifications are written for the product. Federal specifications have limited the extenders that are used for bonding adhesives, and the amount of polyester scrap that is combined with the polyether foam is restricted to prevent aging problems. Postconsumer waste is no different from preconsumer waste when the product is used in rebond foams. A major effort is under way to recover foams from automotive seating. New seat assembly techniques and construction make it easier to recover this foam. Data show that 97% of the foam from
12-33
CHAPTER 12
FOAM TYPES
Chemical Recycling
There are a variety of chemical means for recovering foams. Some were commercialized to make polyols that are used for rigid foams or as part of a system for sound-deadening viscoelastic foams. In 1992, the PURRC presented a summary of the possibilities for chemical recycling of polyurethanes. This is shown in Table 12-2. The use of urethanes as a fuel was also evaluated, and the PURRC has development projects underway to determine the best course of developing this fuel. TABLE 12-2 Chemical Recycling of Polyurethanes Method Patents Literature Hydrolysis 41 46 Glycolysis 57 24 Aminolysis 10 10 Partial chemical thermal 5 3 Pyrolysis 8 63 ISO hydrolysis 24 1 Thermal processing 5 6 Polyester hydrolysis 0 17 Other recycle 46 5 CFC recovery 3 2 Miscellaneous 11 13
TROUBLESHOOTING FOR CONVENTIONAL SLAB STOCK FOAM

Many problems are encountered in producing slab stock polyurethane foams. The machines often have 10 or more independent metering streams and chemical costs alone exceeding $1000 per minute of operation. For this reason, it is important to quickly identify and resolve production problems. The following list is designed to assist the operator of a conventional slab stock machine in solving these problems. Within any defect, there may be several causes. These causes and the suggested remedies may at times appear contradictory. This occurs because of the multiple factors, chemical and mechanical, that affect foam preparation and are often interrelated. Using these suggestions may, however, eliminate some of the trial and error in stabilizing line operations. The problems and solutions are most specific to conventional foams and production lines; however, some are related to high-resiliency foam and flat-top machine problems. Before discussing problems and solutions, a brief description of the slab formation is given to assist in understanding the problem areas. Figure 12-35 shows the profile of a rising foam bun. Conventional foams are poured on an angled conveyer to permit pouring a higher bun than is possible on a flat conveyer. As the foam reactants are discharged from the mix head, they are deposited on the conveyer (a). The mix head traverses perpendicularly to the conveyer direction. Traverse speed is adjusted to give a uniform final bun height. The reactants are clear or only slightly cloudy in the laydown area when conventional polyols are used. Polymer polyols result in an opaque laydown. As the foaming reaction becomes visible (b), the material creams; the cream line is the distance from the laydown to the start of creaming. A gradual rise occurs throughout the foam-blowing reaction (c). When the foaming mass reaches its maximum height (d), health bubbles, the release of blowing gases breaking through the top skin surface, appear. In e, a slight amount of settling or sigh back normally occurs. Tables 12-3, 12-4, and 12-5 describe defects, causes, and possible remedies for producing slab stock foam.
(e) Settling or sigh back
(d) Maximum height (a) Foam reactants (c) Rise (b) Opaque laydown
Fig. 12-35 Profile of a rising foam bun.
12-34
TABLE 12-3 Troubleshooting for Conventional Slab Stock Foam Defect A. Creeping cream line Description Cream line moves toward the laydown Possible Cause 1. Rapid foam reaction Suggested Remedy 1. a. Reduce blowing catalyst level b. Lower component temperatures c. Reduce air injection to mix head d. Increase mix head back pressure 2. a. Decrease metering unit output b. Increase conveyer speed c. Increase conveyer angle 1. a. Increase amine catalyst b. Increase component temperatures c. Increase air injection to the mix head d. Decrease mix head back pressure 2. a. Decrease metering unit output b. Increase conveyer speed c. Decrease conveyer angle 1. a. Decrease amine catalyst b. Reduce component temperatures 2. a. Increase surfactant level b. Check surfactant efficiency by hand mix 3 Check component stream outputs for proper amount and consistent flow 1. See B above 2. Adjust as necessary 3. Narrow traverse width 4. Increase mixer speed 5. Eliminate leaks 6. Increase component temperatures 7. a. Increase nozzle diameter b. Increase nozzle length c. Decrease metering output d. Install diffuser screen 8. Replace seal
2. Machine output, conveyer speed or conveyer angle imbalance B. Undercutting Liquid reactants from The a flow under the materials reacting in b (see Fig. 12-35). This can cause streaks, splits, or densification lines 1. Slow reaction initiation
2. Machine output, conveyer speed, or conveyer angle imbalance C. Boiling Foam not rising, with severe bubbling on the surface 1. Gas generation too fast 2. Silicone surfactant level too low or inactive 3. Metering problems D. Streaks Adjacent areas of different cell structure 1. Result of undercutting 2. Improper head traverser speed 3. Traverse width too high, giving streaks near edge 4. Mixer speed too low 5. Leaking lines or head connections dripping material into rising foam 6. Cold components causing poor mix 7. Splashing during laydown
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8. Air leaks through mixer seal
12-35
(continued)
12-36
Defect
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TABLE 12-3(continued) Troubleshooting for Conventional Slab Stock Foam Description Adjacent areas of different cell structure Possible Cause 9. Overheating of mixer 10. Improper incorporation of additives Suggested Remedy 9. Replace or lubricate mixer seal 10. a. Check additive compatibility b. Increase mixer stream c. If appropriate, increase pressure on additive stream 1. a. Reduce amine catalyst level b. Reduce component temperatures 2. a. Check activity of catalyst b. Increase tin catalyst level 3. a. Check activity of surfactant b. Increase surfactant level 4. Check individual component streams for contamination by hand mix 5. Check component stream output for fluctuations 6. Make necessary repairs 1. Reduce isocyanate level 2. Check component output for quantity and fluctuations 1. a. Eliminate air leakage into mix head b. Reduce output c. Increase mixer nozzle diameter d. Increase nozzle distance to conveyer e. Install diffuser screen 2. a. Increase day tank pressures b. Increase nucleation air D. Streaks (continued)
E. Collapse
Foam rises and then dramatically falls back with little final rise
1. Gas generation too fast 2. Loss of activity of gel catalyst (tin) 3. Loss of surfactant activity 4. System contamination 5. Metering problems, particularly if collapse areas are mixed with areas of good foam 6. Excessive vibration or jerky motion of conveyer
F. Smoking
Visible vapors rising from the foam, generally with a strong isocyanate odor
1. Isocyanate level too high 2. Metering inaccuracies 1. Excessive air entrapment during laydown, a (see Fig. 12-35)
G. Moon craters, pimples
Pock marks or pits on the top surface of the cured foam
2. Inadequate dissolved gases in the major components
3. Excessive gas entrapment in polyol or 3. Allow gas to escape before using the isocyanate from unloading operations component H. Splits Horizontal or vertical separations within the foam, sometimes breaking through the skin 1. Gel rate exceeds gas generation during the later stages of rise 1. Restore proper catalyst balance
2. Excessive movement of foam during 2. Reduce conveyer vibration or erratic the later stages of rise movement 3. Gas generation exceeds gel rate (continued) 3. Restore proper catalyst balance
TABLE 12-3(continued) Troubleshooting for Conventional Slab Stock Foam Defect H. Splits (continued) Description Horizontal or vertical separations within the foam, sometimes breaking through the skin Possible Cause 4. Surfactant level too low or has lost reactivity 5. Undercutting 6. Excessively fine call structure 7. Excessively high isocyanate level 8. Erratic metering 9. Leaking hoses or fittings 10. Paper splits 11. Excessive reactivity I. Worm holes, buckshot, Spherical or tubular voids in the foam core peaholes, mouse holes, and blow holes 1. Associated with cratering 2. High surfactant level 3. Gelation too fast 4. High auxiliary blowing agent temperature 5. Leaking hoses or fittings 6. Foam residue dropping into foam J. Tacky skin Bun surface remains sticky for a prolonged time 1. Low catalyst levels 2. Low ambient temperature Suggested Remedy 4. a. Increase surfactant level b. Check surfactant activity 5. See B above 6. a. Reduce amine catalyst level b. Decrease mix chamber pressure 7. Reduce isocyanate level 8. Check component outputs
9. Eliminate leaks 10. Ensure paper (or film) feed is correct and wrinkles are eliminated 11. a. Reduce component temperature b. Reduce all catalyst levels 1. See G above 2. Decrease surfactant level 3. Reduce tin catalyst level 4. Reduce component temperature 5. Eliminate leaks 6. Clean mixer chamber 1. Increase catalyst levels 2. a. Heat bun surface b. Spray bun surface with mist of water containing amine catalyst 1. a. Decrease isocyanate level b. Check flow rate to ensure uniformity 2. a. Increase mixer speed b. Lengthen mixer outlet nozzle 1. Increase catalyst levels 2. a. Warm conveyer b. Heat bun top surface 1. Lower tin catalyst level 2. Cool conveyer
K. Crumbly or flaky skin
Surface of foam has little integrity, tears easily
1. Excess isocyanate 2. Insufficient mixing
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L. Thick or heavy skin
Bun surface skin is thick and of high density
1. Low catalyst levels 2. Low ambient temperature
M. Gummy bottom, bottom cavitation
Bun bottom surface has closed cells, and separation occurs between bun and bottom paper/film
1. Tin catalyst too high 2. Conveyer too hot
12-37
(continued)
12-38
P.
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TABLE 12-3(continued) Troubleshooting for Conventional Slab Stock Foam Defect N. Closed cells, glassy cells, shiners, windows, and mirrors Description Cell walls remain intact, giving a shiny appearance by light reflection; foam has pneumatic feel when compressed Possible Cause 1. Gel rate too high 2. Incorrect mixer speed 3. Insufficient air nucleation 4. Mix head pressure too high Suggested Remedy 1. Reduce tin catalyst level 2. Increase mixer speed and/or decrease hold-up time in mixer 3. a. Increase air injection to mixer b. Increase day tank pad pressure 4. Decrease mix chamber pressure by reducing output or increasing the outlet nozzle diameter 5. Reduce temperatures 6. Determine if the isocyanate has partially frozen; thaw and mix if required 1. See N above 1. Reduce water and/or isocyanate 2. Provide adequate free air space in storage
5. Component temperatures too high 6. TDI isomer ratio change O. Shrinkage Contraction of foam on cooling, thereby causing wrinkling and compacting 1. Excessive closed cells 1. High water and/or high index formulation 2. Bun stacking in storage too close
Scorching, discoloration Yellow to brown discoloration of foam bun core; in extreme cases, this can lead to bun autoignition
3. Color change from heat effect on 3. Determine effect of heat on additives; additives, particularly flame retardants choose alternatives as appropriate 4. Formation of black nylon in graft (polymer) polyol formulations 5. Inadequate stabilizer in polyol 6. Delayed exotherm 7. Foam excessively open celled for water level used 8. Component contamination 4. Reduce water level 5. Contact polyol supplier for higher-stabilized product 6. Increase amine catalyst 7. Increase tin catalyst 8. Check for presence of soluble iron salts
TABLE 12-4 Troubleshooting for Flexible Molded Foams The following table lists common problems encountered in producing molded foam parts such as seat cushions or head restraints. The causes and remedies are specified for both low-pressure (LP) and high-pressure (HP) impingement mixing machines. While defects and suggested remedies are given as individual items, in practice multiple defects and/or causes may be present, complicating troubleshooting efforts. In considering the causes for specific defects, some causes may be contradictory. The guide below can, however, eliminate some trial and error in solving line problems. (continued)
TABLE 12-4(continued) Troubleshooting for Flexible Molded Foams Defect A. Splits Description Tears in the foam that are generally parallel to the surface Possible Cause 1. Gel rate exceeds gas generation rate Suggested Remedy 1. Adjust catalyst levels
2. Excessive movement of foam during 2. a. Change pour pattern latter stage of rise b. Reduce shot weight 3. Lid movement during critical stage of gel 4. Excessive mold pressure 3. a. Close lid before gel point b. Avoid lid movement 4. a. Reduce shot weight b. Increase venting c. Use floating lid (hot-cure foam only) 5. Adjust catalyst levels 1. Adjust catalyst levels 2. Check catalyst activity and replace if necessary 3. a. Check to ensure that proper type is used for application b. Check activity and replace if necessary c. Increase level 4. a. Clean vents b. Increase number of vents c. Reduce vent size 1. a. Increase mixer speed b. Reduce hold-up time in mixer 3. a. Reduce gel catalyst b. Reduce component temperatures 4. a. Reduce mold temperature b. Ensure uniform mold temperature 5. a. Reduce padding pressure on day tank b. Reduce mix air (LP) 1. a. Increase mixer speed b. Increase hold-up time in mixer 2. a. Increase day tank padding pressure b. Increase mix air (LP) 3. a. Increase hold-up time b. Increase back pressure c. Reduce mixer clearance
5. Gas generation rate exceeds gel rate B. Collapse Foam cell structure is destroyed and high-density residue is left 1. Gas generation rate too fast 2. Loss of catalyst activity 3. Surfactant deficiency
4. Pressure relief collapse (high-resiliency foam) C. Foam shrinkage with Foam surface is dimpled soon after demolding, or closed cells (shiny or foam distorts upon cooling, as dimensions are glassy cells) reduced by condensation of gases in closed cells 1. Incorrect mixer speed (LP)
2. Impingement pressure too high (HP) 2. Reduce impingement pressure 3. Gel rate too high 4. Mold too hot 5. Excess air in components
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D. Coarse cells
Large cell structure with harsh foam feel
1. Incorrect mixer speed (LP) 2. Insufficient dissolved air in components 3. Insufficient shear in mix chamber (LP)
12-39
(continued)
12-40
CHAPTER 12
TABLE 12-4(continued) Troubleshooting for Flexible Molded Foams Defect D. Coarse cells (continued) E. Visible pour pattern Description Large cell structure with harsh foam feel Laydown pattern of foam visible on foam surface and possibly causing ridges Possible Cause 4. Surfactant deficiency 1. Splashing, erratic laydown Suggested Remedy 4. a. Check surfactant activity b. Increase tin catalyst (hot-cure foam) 1. a. Decrease distance between end of mix head nozzle and mold b. Decrease throughput of machine c. Increase outlet nozzle diameter (LP) 2. Clean mold to remove excess mold release and foam build-up 1. See E1 2. Adjust catalyst levels 3. Reduce component temperatures 1. Increase mold temperature 2. a. Increase amine catalyst b. Increase isocyanate index 3. Clean mold 4. Increase shot weight 5. Limit lid movement by clamps or alignment pins 6. a. Increase machine output b. Change pour pattern 1. a. Check calibration b. Reduce isocyanate index 2. a. Increase mixer speed b. Decrease mixer clearance c. Increase hold-up 1. Increase mold temperature 2. a. Increase surfactant level b. Use more efficient surfactant 3. Clean mold 1. Switch to mold release with a cell opener added 2. a. Reduce surfactant level b. Use less efficient surfactant c. Adjust catalyst levels
2. Dirty mold F. Blow holes Large holes in foam from escaping gas 1. Air trapped during pour 2. Gelation too fast 3. Component temperature too high G. Loose skin (hot-cure foam) Adhesion of thin foam skin is too low, causing it to separate from the foam 1. Mold temperature low 2. Amine catalyst level low 3. Dirty mold 4. Underfill 5. Lid movement during rise 6. Foam undercutting H. Flaky skin (hot-cure foam) Crumbly surface or friable skin causes surface to rub off easily 1. Excess isocyanate 2. Insufficient mixing
I. Thick skin (hot-cure foam)
Heavy, elastomeric skin surface
1. Mold temperature low 2. Surfactant level low 3. Dirty mold
J. Tight skin (highresiliency foam)
Skin surface has a low porosity, giving a pneumatic feel
1. Mold release 2. Surfactant level high
(continued)
TABLE 12-4(continued) Troubleshooting for Flexible Molded Foams Defect K. Hard flash Description Material vented from mold is very hard and difficult to trim 1. Overfill 2. Slow gel rate 3. Excess mold pressure Possible Cause Suggested Remedy 1. Reduce shot time 2. Adjust catalysts 3. a. Reduce shot time b. Change vent locations c. Change vent size
TABLE 12-5 Troubleshooting for Composites Such As Instrument and Door Panels The following table lists common problems encountered in producing composite foam parts such as those having a plastic or metallic insert/substrate and a formed plastic film skin. The causes and remedies are specified for high-pressure impingement mixing machines; however, the suggestions given may apply to low-pressure machine operations. While defects and suggested remedies are given as individual items, in practice, multiple defects and/or causes may be present, complicating troubleshooting efforts. Defect A. Air trap void Description Smooth and shiny bubbles that are near the surface of the foam Possible Cause 1. Flow restricted in the mold causing trapped air pockets 2. Air entrained in foam reactants Suggested Remedy 1. Revise flow pattern by regating or removing obstructions to flow 2. a. Reduce day tank agitator speed b. Reduce day tank padding pressure c. Maintain day tank at upper limit 3. Seal gate area outside edge 4. See D below 5. Reduce machine output 6. Check vent location, clean blocked vents 7. Reorient mold 1. Recalibrate machine 2. Check hydraulic system, particularly accumulator pressure 3. Check and adjust impingement pressures 4. Remove and clean nozzle; replace if needed 5. Check pump operation, particularly pump relief valve 1. Check for hydraulic oil leaks at mix head and from hoses
3. Air drawn in through gate 4. Underfill 5. Machine output too high, causing splashing or sputtering in mold 6. Improper or blocked vents 7. Improper mold orientation, with natural high spot too low B. Foam wet spot Resin- or isocyanate-rich spots at beginning or end of pour, giving soft, hard, or sticky spot 1. Mix ratio incorrect 2. Mix head opening slowly 3. Improper mix 4. Fouled component nozzle 5. Pump malfunction C. Voids Irregular voids with open cell structure or ratty appearance 1. Hydraulic oil contamination
CHAPTER 12
12-41
(continued)
12-42
E. Splits F. Tears
CHAPTER 12
TABLE 12-5(continued) Troubleshooting for Composites Such As Instrument and Door Panels Defect C. Voids (continued) Description Irregular voids with open cell structure or ratty appearance Possible Cause 2. Mold release contamination 3. Mold not clamping properly 4. Turbulent foam flow 5. Mold overfill 6. Contamination on substrate or skin 7. Improper component temperatures 8. Movement of substrate during foam injection 9. Mold sealing failure D. Underfill Areas of the part not filled with foam 1. Low shot weight 2. Mold clamps open 3. Blocked vents 4. Mold cold Suggested Remedy 2. Avoid overuse or overspray of mold release 3. Check mold operation, adjust clamps 4. a. Reduce machine output b. Eliminate obstructions 5. Reduce shot size 6. Ensure that substrate and skin are free of oil, mold release, or other contaminants 7. Check and reset temperatures as needed 8. Check substrate fixing points or devices 9. Check mold operation for proper clamping; replace seals as needed 1. Check shot timer 2. Check mold for proper operation 3. Check and clean vents 4. a. Check and adjust temperature controller as needed b. Start mold preheat before start of operations 5. Check and adjust component temperatures 1. Adjust catalysis 2. Check mold for proper operation 3. Check substrate fixing points or devices 1. a. Clean mold b. Check mold release application 2. Check substrate fixing points or devices for proper release 3. Modify mold 4. Check for proper vacuum control
5. Components cold Larger areas of foam with tears that are generally parallel to the surface of the part 1. Improper stabilization of the foam 2. Movement of the upper and lower mold halves before foam gels 3. Movement of the substrate before the foam gels Foam separation due to stress occurring during demolding 1. Foam sticking to the mold 2. Substrate sticking 3. Negative draft angle 4. Vacuum holding skin not released before demold (continued)
TABLE 12-5(continued) Troubleshooting for Composites Such As Instrument and Door Panels Defect G. Gassing Description Large gas bubble that blows foam apart at demolding, generally resulting in a split that is parallel to the surface; may also blow skin away from the foam Possible Cause 1. Mold too hot 2. Demold time too short 3. Components too hot 4. Vents blocked H. Delamination Foam separates from skin or substrate 1. Basic incompatibility of materials Suggested Remedy 1. Cool mold to approximately 105 F (41 C) 2. Extend demold time 3. Reduce component temperature 4. Clean vents 1. a. Add adhesion promoter to foam system b. Surface treat substrate (such as with corona discharge or charring with flame) c. Mold plastic substrate with slightly rough surface 2. Ensure that parts are clean and free of contaminates 1. a. Check calibration for proper ratio b. Check component temperature and adjust if too high c. Check mold temperature and adjust if too high 2. Overfill J. Wrinkles Distortion of the skin 1. Improper forming of skin 2. Mold shape and skin forming mold do not match 3. Unexpected skin shrinkage 4. Inadequate vacuum to hold skin to shape in mold cavity 5. Improper loading of skin into mold K. Surface dent Depression in the skin surface after demolding 1. Foreign matter in the mold 2. Mold defect 2. Reduce fill time 1. Check vacuum-forming or skin-casting operation 2. Tune molds 3. Check skin compound against standards; adjust as needed 4. Check vacuum pump and control 5. Check operator attention to skin loading 1. Ensure that mold cavity is clean before loading skin 2. Check mold condition and repair as needed
2. Contamination by mold release or oil I. Waviness Unevenness of part surface not due to mold configuration 1. Foam shrinkage
CHAPTER 12
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CHAPTER 12
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibliography Bender, R.J., Handbook of Foamed Plastics, Lake Publishing Corporation, Libertyville, IL, 1965. Buist, J.M., Developments in Polyurethane, Applied Science Pub., London, 1978. Buist, J.M. and Gudgeon, H., Advances in Polyurethane Technology, Maclaren and Sons, London, 1968. Doyle, E.N., The Development and Use of Polyurethane Products, McGraw Hill, New York, 1971. Ortel, G., Polyurethane Handbook, Hanser, New York, 1985. Saunders, J.H. and Frisch, K.C., Plastic Foams, Part I, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1972. Saunders, J.H. and Frisch, K.C., Polyurethanes, Chemistry and Technology, Part I, Chemistry Interscience, New York, 1962. Saunders, J.H. and Frisch, K.C., Polyurethanes, Chemistry and Technology, Part II, Technology Interscience, New York, 1964. Woods, G., The ICI Polyurethanes Book, Wiley and Sons, New York, 1987. Woods, G.W., Flexible Polyurethane Foams, Chemistry and Technology Applied Science, New Jersey, 1982.
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CHAPTER 12

FOAM PRODUCTION METHODS 12-2 FOAM EQUIPMENT FOAM MACHINES

CONVEYING SYSTEMS 12-21 FOAM MOLDS

FOAM TYPES 12-33 FILLER USAGE

FOAM PRODUCTION METHODS

RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY

Isocyanate component Hydraulic unit for mix head

Metering pump Mix head

Fig. 12-1 High-pressure (RIM) machine schematic.

Fig. 12-2 Lance cylinder concept.

Hydraulic unit for mix head

Hydraulic oil reservoir

Fig. 12-3 High-pressure lance cylinder (RRIM) machine schematic.

Fig. 12-4 CDC pumping system.

Air dryer Main power supply Quick disconnect (customer installed)

To main air supply

2:1 transfer pump

To main air supply

Air hose assembly

2:1 transfer pump

POWER SET HOSE TEMP. SET A-TEMP. SET R-TEMP. SET

Electric isolator T.S.U. extension adapter

Fig. 12-5 Spray machine.

Fig. 12-6 Low-pressure mix head stirre rs.

Dry filler hopper

Filler drive motor

Mixer drive motor

Filler metering auger

Recirculation valves for chemicals

Reactive filled mix into mold or onto a conveyer

Fig. 12-7 FFH mix head system.

Fig. 12-8 Principle of recirculating high-pressure mix head.

Oil Throttling/ clean-out piston

Fig. 12-9 Operating principle of L-type mix head.

Fig. 12-10 Elastog ran B-type mix head.

Mixing pin piston

PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

1. Closed and recirculation position

2. Recirculation with mixing pins in mix position

Fig. 12-11 Operating principle of Elastog ran B-type mix head.

Fig. 12-12 Operating principle of Hennecke MQ mix head.

Fig. 12-13 Operating principle of Hennecke MX mix head.

SLAB STOCK FOAM MACHINES

Fig. 12-14 Slab foam rise profile.

Fig. 12-15 Conventional slab foam cross-section.

Traversing mix head

Release paper feed roll

Fig. 12-16 Conventional slab foam conveye r.

Traversing mix head

Polyethylene film feed roll

Release paper feed roll

Fig. 12-17 Draka/Petzetakis modification for flat-top foam.

Traversing mix head

Release paper feed roll Hold down slats

Release paper feed roll

Fig. 12-18 Planiblock flat-top bun modification.

Fixed mix head

Side wall paper feed roll

Bottom paper feed roll