Josef Krautkrmer

Herbert Krautkrmer

Ultrasonie Testing
of Materials
Third Edition
in Collaboration with
W Grabendrfer . M. Gregor . L. Nildas
R. Frielinghaus . W Kaule . H. Schlemm
U. Schlengermann . H. Steiger
Translation of the
Third Revised German Edition

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH 1983

Dr. rer. nato Josef Krautkrmer

Dr. rer. nato Herbert Krautkrmer
Cologne

Werner Grabendorfer, Dr. phil.

Manfred Gregor, Dr.-Ing.
Ludwig Niklas, Dr. phil.
Rainer Frielinghaus, Dr.-Ing.
Walter Kaule, Dipl.-Ing.
Hans Schlemm, Dr. rer. nato
Udo Schlengermann
Helmut Seiger, Dr. rer. nato
Cologne
Translated from:
WerkstoffprUfung mit Ultraschall, 3. Auf\. 1975
Translated by Dip\.-Ing. B. W. Zenzinger, Pretoria, South Africa
in consultation with Dr. J. Krautkrmer, Cologne, and
John E. Bobbin, Stratford, Conn., USA

With 509 figures and 10 diagrams

ISBN 978-3-662-02357-0 (eBook)

ISBN 978-3-662-02359-4
DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-02357-0

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data. Krautkrmer, Jose f. Ultrasonic testing of materlals. Translation of Werkstoffpriifung mit Ultraschall. Bibliography: p. 1- Ultrasonic testing.
I. Krautkrmer, Herbert, joint author. II. Title. TA417.4.K713 1976 620.1'1274 7612561'fhis work Is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material
is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprintIng, reuse of illustraHons, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machine or similar means, and storage in data banks.
"Under 54 of the Herman Copyright Law where copies are made for other than private nse, a fee Is
payable to the publisher , the amount of the fee to be determlned by agreement with the publlsher.
by SpringerVerlag Berlin Heidelberg 1969, 1977 and 1983
Originally published by SpringerVerlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Io 1983
Softcover reprlot oftbe hardcover 3rd edition 1983
"The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. In this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective Iaws
and regulatlons and therefore .free for general use.
:2061/3020 - li 4 3 2 l O

Preface to the Third Edition

The amendments of this third English edition with respect to the

second one concern beside some printing errors the replacement of some
pictures in part D by more modern ones and updating the list of standards to the state of the fourth German edition.
Cologne, January 1983

J OSEF

KRAUTKRMER

Preface to the Second Edition

This seeond English edition is based on the third German edition. In

view of most recent teehnologieal advanees it has beeome neeessary in
many instanees to supplement the seeond German edition and to revise
some parts completely.
In addition to piezo-eleetric methods, others are now also extensively
diseussed in Chapter 8. As for the intensity method, ultrasonie holography is treated in the new Seetion 9.4. In Part B, for reasons of systematies, the resonanee method has been ineluded under transit-time
methods. It appeared neeessary to elaborate in greater detail the definition of the properties of pulse-echo testing equipment and their measurements (10.4). The more recent findings of pulse speetroscopy (5.6) and
sound-emission analysis (12) are mentioned only in passing because their
significanee is still controversial. Apart from numerous additions,
partieularly those coneerning automatie testing installations, Part C also
eontains a new chapter whieh deals with tests on nu eIe ar reactors (28),
as weIl as abrief diseussion of surfaee-hardness tests (32.4). It beeame
impossible to include a critieal analysis of the principal standards in
Chapter 33. A few are mentioned, however, where the most important
subjeets (e.g., the testing of welded joints in Chapter 26) are discussed,
while others are only tabulated in Chapter 33.
The present, vastly inereased literature made bibliographieal seleetion
rather diffieult. Consequently, we wish to apologize to any authors whose
reports may have been omitted beeause of limitations governing the size
of this volume.

VI

Preface

We wish to express our gratitude .to the publishers for their understanding and for their excellent cooperation in the preparation of this
second English edition. The original authors also wish to thank their new
co-workers who have been responsible for various additions, as weIl as
the other contributors, too numerous to mention, who supplied valuable
information.
Our thanks are also due to B. W. Zenzinger, Pretoria, South Africa,
who also translated this edition from German into English and to John
E. Bobbin of Stratford, Connecticut, for his assistance.
Cologne, March 1977

JOSEF. KRAU:rKRMER
HERBER~ KRAU~KRMER

Contents

Introduction ...............................................

PartA
Physical Principles 01 Ultrasonic Testing 01 Materials
1. Waves .................................................

Oscillations and Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Modes and Forms of Waves .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. .. . ... . .
Composite and Standing Waves. Interference .........
Formulas and Numerical Data ......................

5
8
12
17

2. Plane Sound Waves on Boundaries ........................

23

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

2.1
2.2

Perpendicular Incidence on Single, Plane Interfaces. . . .

Perpendicular Incidence on Multiple Interfaces. Plate
and Gap..........................................
The Law of Refraction .............................
The Acoustic Pressure Values at Boundaries ..........
Reflection in a Right-Angled Edge and in a Corner. ....
Splitting of Surface and Boundary Waves ............
Acoustic Propagation in Plates. Plate Waves . . ... . ....

26
30
32
40
42
43

3. Geometrie UItrasonic Optics .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

3.1 Limits of Validity .................................

3.2 Acoustic Pressure Distance Law for Spherical and Cylindrical Waves . .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. ... . .. ... ....
3.3* Reflection and Refraction of Spherical Waves on Plane
Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
3.4* Curved Interfaces as Concave Mirrors and Lenses . ... ..
3.5* Spherical Waves in Hollow and Solid Cylinders . .. . .. ..

46

2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7

* The seetions marked with an asterisk are less important for beginners.

23

47
48
51
57

VIII Contents
4. Wave Physics of Sound Field. The Sound Beam

62

4.1 Elementary Description ............................

4.1.1 Flat Oscillators .............................
4.1.2* Focussed Radiators ........................ "
4.2* Zone Construction of Sound Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Sound Field by Non-Uniform Excitation of the Radiator
and Pulse Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62
62
75
80

5. Echo and Shadow of an Obstacle in the Sound Field . . . . . . . . .

90

86

5.1 Echo of a Plane Reflector at Right Angles to the Axis

of the Sound Beam of a Piston Oscillator (DOS Diagram) 90
5.2 Shadow of a Circular Disc Reflector at Right Angles to
the Acoustic Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 96
5.3 Obliquely Oriented Flaws. Reflection by Edge Waves .. 98
5.4 Other Types of Reflectors .......................... 101
5.5 Natural Reflectors. Roughness ...................... 102
5.6* Effect of the Reflector on the Frequency Distribution of
the Pulse ......................................... 105
6. Attenuation of Ultrasonic Waves in Solids ................. 107
6.1 Absorption and Scattering .......................... 107
6.2* Attenuation in Metals. Anisotropy and Cast Structure .. 113
7. Piezoelectric Methods of Generation and Reception of Ultrasonic
Waves ................................................. 119
7.1 The Piezoelectric Effect ............................
7.2 The Piezoelectric Plate as 'fransmitter and Receiver of
Ultrasonic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
7.3* The Piezoelectric Transducer with Pulse Excitation ....
7.4 Piezoelectric Materials .............................

119
124
132
142

8. * Other Methods for Transmitting and Receiving Ultrasound ... 150

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4

Mechanical Effects .................................

Thermal Effects ...................................
Electrostatic Methods ..............................
Methods Based on Non-Magnetic Effects of the Electric
Current ..........................................
8.5 Electrodynamic Methods ...........................
8.6 Magnetostrictive Methods ..........................
8.7 Optical Methods ....................................

151
151
154
156
157
162
165

Contents

IX

PartB
Methods and Instruments lor the Ultrasonie Testing 01 Materials
9. Intensity Methods ....................................... 174
9.1 Principle, Classification and Differentiation as Compared
with the Transit-Time Methods .......................
9.2 Instruments for Intensity Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
9.3 Instruments for Sound-Image Methods ...............
9.4* Ultrasonic Holography .............................

174
179
181
185

10. Pulse-Echo Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 193

10.1 History and Principles .............................
10.2 Construction and Mode of Operation of a Pulse-Echo
Instrument .......................................
10.2.1 Sweep Section with CR Tube ................
10.2.2 Transmitter Unit ...........................
10.2.3 The Amplifier ..............................
10.2.4 Distance Scale and Time Markers .............
10.2.5 Noise Suppression ..........................
10.3 The Probes .......................................
10.3.1 Normal Probes .............................
10.3.2 Angle Probes ..............................
10.4 Properties of Pulse-Echo Instruments and Probes. . . . ..
10.4.1 Properties of the Image Unit ................
10.4.2 Properties of the Amplifier ..................
10.4.3 Properties of the Sound Field ................
10.4.4 The Distance Adjustment ...................
10.5 Instruments of the Pulse-Echo Method ...............
10.6 Methods and Auxiliary Instruments for Electronic Data
Processing ........................................
10.7 Methods and Auxiliary Instruments for Documentation.
10.8* Frequency-Modulation Method ......................

193
197
198
202
205
214
218
219
219
228
235
236
237
241
244
245
247
252
263

11. Transit-Time Method .................................... 265

11.1 Transit-Time Methods with Continuous Sound (Resonance Method). Principles and Instruments ...........
11.2 Transit-Time Methods Using Pulses ..................
11.2.1 Comparative Method. Interferometer .........
11.2.2 Frequency Measuring Methods ...............
11.2.3 Electronic Transit-Time Measurements ........
11.2.4* Phase Measuring Method ....................

265
269
269
272
278
286

Contents

12.* Sound Emission Analysis ................................ 287

parte
General Testing Technique
13. Coupling, Choice of Probe and :M:easuring Frequency ......... 289
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6

Condition and Preparation of Surface ................

Curved Surfaces ...................................
Coupling :M:edia ...................................
Checking of Coupling ..............................
Coupling through Intermediate Layers ...............
Ultrasonie Frequency and Type of Probe .............

289
290
293
296
297
304

14. Interference Effect of Boundaries. Complex Sound Paths and

Screen Patterns ......................................... 307
14.1
14.2

14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6

Effect on the Sound Field by Boundaries Parallel to the

Beam Axis .......................................
Secondary Echoes Produced by Split-Off Transverse
Waves .................................... , ......
Triangle Reflections ...............................
61 Reflection .....................................
Screen Patterns when Testing a Plate ................
Interfering Echoes through Surface Waves ............

307
311
314
316
318
324

15. Testing by :M:eans of Transverse, Surface and Plate Waves ... 326
15.1 Transverse Waves ................................. 326
15.2 Surface Waves .................................... 332
15.3 Plate Waves ...................................... 336
16. Determination of Shape and Size of Flaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 338
17. Interference by External High-Frequency and Ultrasonic
Sources ................................................ 344
18. Organization of the Test. Staff and Training Problems ....... 348
19. Testing Installations and Evaluation of Test Results ......... 353

Contents

XI

Part D
Special Test Problems
20. Flaw Detection on Metallic Specimens
20.1
20.2

357

Heavy Forgings ................................... 357

Worked Parts of Machines .......................... 371

21. Railway Material ....................................... 381

21.1
21.2
21.3

Axles ............................................ 381

Rails .................................... " ........ 388
MisceIlaneous Railway Material ..................... 396

22. Plate and Strip ......................................... 399

22.1
22.2

Medium and Heavy Plate .......................... 399

Strip and Sheet ................................... 413

23. Semi-Finished Products: Rods, BiIlets and Wires ............ 427

23.1
23.2
23.3

Rod Material ..................................... 427

BiIlets ........................................... 435
Wires ............................................ 437

24. Pipes and Cylinders ....... .'............................. 439

25. Castings ............................................... 458
26. Welded Joints .......................................... 466
26.1

26.2
26.3
26.4

Butt-Welded Joints ................................

26.1.1 Testing Method, General ....................
26.1.2 Plate Thickness, Beam Angle and Testing Frequency ............... , ... " .... '" ..... '"
26.1.3 Flaw-Locating Methods .....................
26.1.4 Nature, Shape and Size of Defect .............
26.1.5 Recording and Automation ..................
Fillet Welds ......................................
Spot Welds .......................................
Other Forms of Welded Joints ......................

466
466
470
473
481
486
496
500
501

27. Joints Produced by Rivetting, Glueing and Shrinking ........ 505

27.1
27.2
27.3

Rivet-Hole Testing ................................ 505

Laminar Joints Produced by Soldering, Brazing, Glueing,
Plating, etc. ...................................... 507
Shrink Fits ....................................... 516

XII

Contents
518

28. Nuclear Reactors

29. Metals and their Special Testing Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 526

29.1 Steel .............................................
29.2 Cast Steel ........................................
29.3 Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
29.4 Light Metals ......................................
29.5 Copper and Copper Alloys ..........................
29.6 Other Non-Ferrous Metals ..........................
29.7 Sintered Metals ...................................

526
528
529
536
540
541
543

30. Testing Problems on Non-Metallic Specimens ............... 545

30.1
30.2
30.3
30.4
30.5
30.6
30.7

Ceramic Materials and Glass ........................

Plastics ..........................................
Rubber ..........................................
Rock, Abrasive Wheels and Carbon ..................
Concrete .........................................
Woodand Leather .................................
Bacon and Meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

545
551
554
555
558
563
565

31. Determination of Position, Shape and Level ................ 569

32. Measuring Methods Using Ultrasound ...................... 573

32.1
32.2
32.3
32.4

Measutement
Measurement
Measurement
Measurement

of
of
of
of

Wall and Layer Thicknesses ..........

Acoustic Velocity ...................
Attenuation and Scatter of Sound .....
Surface Hardness ...................

573
580
587
595

33. Standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 598

Appendix. Formulas, Diagrams and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 605

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 622
Index ..................................................... 659