Basics of PL/SQL

About PL/SQL PL/SQL is a Oracles Procedural Language (PL) extension to Structured Query Language (SQL), that Oracle developed as an extension to standard SQL in order to provide a way to execute procedural logic on the database. PL/SQL provides a mechanism for developers to add a procedural component at the server level. It has been enhanced to the point where developers now have access to all the features of a full-featured procedural language at the server level. It also forms the basis for programming in Oracles continually evolving set of client/server development tools, most notably Developer/2000. It, too, usually runs on the database server, but some Oracle products such as Developer 2000 also contain a PL/SQL engine that resides on the client. Thus, you can run PL/SQL code on the either the client or the server depending on which is more appropriate for the task at hand. Unlike SQL, PL/SQL is procedural, not declarative. This means that your code specifies exactly how things get done. As in SQL, however, you need some way to send your PL/SQL code up to the server for execution. PL/SQL also enables you to embed SQL statements within its procedural code. Use of PL/SQL You can use PL/SQL to perform processing on the server rather than the client. You can use PL/ SQL to encapsulate business rules and other complicated logic. It provides for modularity and abstraction. Finally, it provides you with a level of platform independence. Oracle is implemented on many platforms, but PL/SQL is the same on all of them. It makes no difference whether you are running Personal Oracle on a laptop or Oracle 8 Server on Windows NT In a nutshell, With PL/SQL you have the power to make your applications more robust, more efficient, and most secure Advantages of PL/SQL PL/SQL is a block-structured language offered by Oracle to facilitate the use of the Oracle RDBMS. It has the following properties and features that can be used to aid in application development: PL/SQL is completely portable, high performance transaction processing, which offers the following advantages. Without PL/SQL, Oracle must process SQL statements one at a time. With PL/SQL, an entire block of statements can process in a single command line statement. This reduces the time taken to communicate the application and the Oracle server. PL/SQL blocks are portable to any operating system or platform.

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PL/SQL allows us to use of all SQL data manipulation commands, transactions control commands, SQL functions (except group functions), operators and pseudo columns. Any DDL Statements are not allowed in PL/SQL Block. PL/SQL supports all the SQL data types and as well as it has its own.

These features make PL/SQL a powerful SQL processing language. Using PL/SQL has several major advantages over using standard SQL statements (in addition to allowing the use of stored procedures and functions). Among these are ease of use, portability, and higher performance. PL/SQL Block PL/SQL code is grouped into structures called blocks. A Block contains three sections, as described below. declare <declaration of variables, constants, function, procedure, cursor etc.>; begin <executable statement(s)>; exception <exception handling>; end; / Within a PL/SQL block, the first section is the Declaration section. Using Declaration section, you can define variables and cursors that the block will use. The declaration section starts with the keyword declare and ends when the Executable commands section starts. (as indicated by the keyword begin ). The executable commands section is followed by exception handling section; the exception keyword signals the start of the exception handling section. The PL/SQL block is terminated by the end keyword. In PL/SQL Block only the executable section is required, the declarative and exception handling sections are optional. A Simple Block Example Begin Insert into emp(empno,ename) values(100,Shruti); Insert into emp(empno,ename) values(101,Yesha); End; /

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/ forward slash executes the PL/SQL block. When the PL/SQL block is executed it will inserted two rows in emp table.

4 A Block without Declaration and Exception part is known as anonyms block.

PL/SQL Architecture PL/SQL blocks are executed by PL/SQL engine. The PL/SQL engine executes only the procedural statements and sends the SQL statements to the SQL statement executor in the Oracle Server. The PL/SQL engine can either reside in the Oracle Server or another Oracle tools like SQL* Forms, Oracle Forms, Reports etc.

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dbms_output.put_line() dbms_output.put_line() is used to displays the value of variable or any message on the next line of the console. Yo u m i g h t w o n d e r, t h a t , t h o u g h t h e b l o c k i s s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p l e t e d w i t h dbms_output.put_line() it is not showing any output. For that we have to check out that the serveroutput is on or not? If not, write the following line on the SQL prompt, and execute the block again, now you get the output on the console. SQL>Set Serveroutput On 4 It is not necessary to write the above statement for the execution of each and every block. This statement is written only once per session You can omit line word from d bms_output.put_line(). d bms_output.put() is used to displays the value of variable or any message on the same line on the console.

Example Begin dbms_output.put_line(Starting of PL/SQL); dbms_output.put_line(Welcome to) dbms_output.put(AZURE); End; / When the above PL/SQL block is executed, you will receive the following response from Oracle. SQL> PL/SQL Procedure successfully completed. Starting of PL/SQL Welcome to AZURE

4 before executing above block make sure that Serveroutput must be on. Datatypes PL/SQL datatypes can be classified into two types. Scalar datatypes Composite datatypes

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All SQL data types like number, char, varchar2, raw, long raw, lob, date and ANSI Standard data type such as boolean, binary_integer and number are categorized as a scalar datatype .

Boolean Boolean data types can be used to store the values TRUE, FALSE or NULL. Binary_Integer Binary_integer is used to store signed integers. The range of binary_integer value is 2 31 i.e. the range of binary_integer is 2147483647 to 21474483647 Number It is same as SQL number data types. In addition to this it includes ANSI standard types which includes following datatypes Dec / Decimal Int / Integer Real Identifiers Identifiers are names, which the programmer used within the program. They can refer to one of the following. Variable Constant Some data are predetermined before a block is used, and its value remains unchanged during the execution of block, these are constant . Other data may change or be assigned values, as the block executed is known as variable . Variables Communication with the database takes place via variables in the PL/SQL block. Variables are memory locations, which can store data values. As the program runs, the contents of variables can and do change. Information from the database can be assigned to a variable, or the contents of a variable can be inserted into the database. These variables are declared in the declarative sections of the block. Every variable has a specific type as well, which describes what kind of information can be stored in it. Variables are declared in the declarative section of the block. The general syntax for declaring a variable is variable_name type [:= value/expression];

where variable_name is the name of the identifier, type is the any valid data type and value is the value of the variable.
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For example, the following are the legal variable declarations: salary number(5); Declares variable called salary to store maximum 5-digit number.

Assigning values to a variable We can assign a value to the variable using followings. Assignment operator (:=) Default keyword By fetching method Declare variable name to store maximum 10 characters and assign AZURE value through assignment operator name varchar2(10):=AZURE;

Declared variable called salary to store maximum 5-digit number and assign value 3999 to it using default keyword. Salary number(5) default 3999; Store an employee name in nm variable whose employee number is 2 using fetching method. Select ename into nm from emp where empno = 2; Constants We can declare variable as a constant and use them in executable part. One cannot change the value of constant throughout the program. variable_name CONSTANT type := value/expression; where variable_name is the name of the identifier, type is the any valid data type and value is the value of the variable. For example, pi constant number(9,7):=3.1415926; Here value of variable pi cant be change throughout the program execution. Example Insert value into dept table using variables. Declare v_deptno number := 10; v_dname varchar2(10) := sales; v_loc varchar2(10) := bombay; Begin
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insert into dept values(v_deptno, v_dname, v_loc); End; / Example To get the area of the circle provided the radius is given. Declare pi constant NUMBER(9,7) := 3.1415926; radius INTEGER(5); area NUMBER(13,2); Begin radius := 3; area := pi * power(radius,2); dbms_output.put_line(Area of the circle is ,area); End; / In the above example, Declaration section having constant identifier (the value of which can not be reinitialized) named pi , which stores a constant value 3.1415926 and another two variables of type Integer and Number respectively. In Executable Section, radius is initialize with value 3 and then area is initialize with the calculated result according to the mathematical formula for finding area of the Circle. Example To get the name and salary of specified employee. Declare nm varchar2(20); sal number(9,2); Begin Select ename,salary into nm, sal from emp where empno=2; dbms_output.put_line(Name : || nm); dbms_output.put_line(Salary : || sal); End; / In the above example we have use concatenation operator (||). Concatenation operator attaches two or more strings together. hello ||world gives you hello world output.

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Comments in PL/SQL Block As we know from very beginning of programming, Comment improves readability and makes your program more understandable. The PL/SQL engine ignores them at the compilation and execution time. There are two kinds of comments: Single-line comments It is starts with two dashes and continues until the end of the line. Example Begin declaration section is ignored Insert into emp(ename, empno) values(Tejas,1234); End; / Multiline comments It is starts with /* delimiter and end with the */ delimiter. This is the same style of comments used in the C language. Example Begin /* declaration section and exception section is also neglected*/ Insert into emp(ename, empno) values(Tanmay,1234); End; /

4 One can utilize multiline comments in Single line. Example To get the name and salary of specified employee. Declare nm varchar2(20); sal number(9,2); Begin /* Get employee name and Salary */ Select ename,salary into nm, sal from emp where empno=2; /* Display Employee name and Salry */ dbms_output.put_line(Name : || nm); dbms_output.put_line(Salary : || sal); End; /
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%type Attribute In many cases, variable will be used to manipulate data stored in a database table. In such case, the variable should have the same type as the table column. For example, the ename column of emp table has type varchar2(20). Based on this, we have to declare a variable as follows as discussed in above program. nm varchar2(20); This is fine, but what happens if the definition of ename column is changed? Say the table is altered and ename now has type varchar2(25). Any PL/SQL code that uses this column would have to be changed, as shown here: nm varchar2(25); If you have a large amount of PL/SQL code based on ename column of emp table, this can be a time consuming and error prone process. Rather than hardcode the type of a variable in this way, you can use the %type attribute . This attribute is used to declare a variables data type as being equivalent to the specified columns datatype. So, you need not know the exact data type and size of a database column. For example: nm emp.ename%type; By using %type , nm will have whatever type and size the ename column of the emp table has. If the database definition changes, the datatype in PL/SQL block is also changed according to changes made in database. Example To get the name and salary of specified employee using %type attribute. Declare nm emp.ename%type; sal emp.salary%type; Begin Select ename,salary into nm, sal from emp where empno=2; dbms_output.put_line(Name : || nm); dbms_output.put_line(Salary : || sal); End; / %rowtype Attribute %type attribute is used to declare a variables data type as being equivalent to the specified columns datatype , while %rowtype attribute is used to declare composite variable that is equivalent to a row in the specified table. The composite variable is consist of the column names and datatypes in
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the referenced table i.e. in the declaration of %rowtype attribute with variable, variable inherits column and its datatype information for all the columns of a table. For example: erec emp%rowtype; By using %rowtype , erec will have all the columns with it of emp table. To, access value of the particular column is done as follows. erec.ename; Where, erec is a composite variable, while ename is a column of emp table. Example To get the name and salary of specified employee using %type attribute. Declare emprec emp%rowtype; Begin Select * into emprec from emp where empno=10; dbms_output.put_line(Name : || emprec.ename); dbms_output.put_line(Salary : || emprec.salary); End; / %rowtype attribute specially used with Cursor, which will be discussed later. PL/SQL Control Structures Control structure is the most important in PL/SQL to change the logical flow of statements within PL/SQL Block. PL/SQL has a variety of control structures that allow you to control the behavior of the block as it runs. These structures include conditional statements and iterative controls i.e. PL/ SQL supports basic programming control structures. Sequence Selection / Condition Iteration These structures combined with variables, gives PL/SQL its power and flexibility. 4 dbms_standard package provides a language facility to interact with Oracle. Selection Control Within PL/SQL block, Selection control is used when the execution of a particular set of statement is based on a specific condition. Sequence of statements can be executed based on some condition using the if statement. There are various form of if statement.
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If-then form The simple form of the if statement is the if-then statement as follows. IF <boolean_expression> THEN statements; END IF; Where boolean_expression is any expression that evaluates to a Boolean value. Example Accept Number from a User and display Hello message if the entered number is Positive. Declare num number; Begin num := &num; if num > 0 then dbms_output.put_line(Hello); end if; end; / Example Display Salary of a specified employee increasing by 500 if its salary is more than 3000. Declare sal number(9,2); num emp.empno%type; Begin num := &num; Select salary into sal from emp where empno=num; If sal > 3000 then sal := sal + 500; end if; dbms_output.put_line(Salary : || sal); End; / Above block will display salary of specific employee (as per entered employee number) by increasing 500 if its salary is greater than 3000 otherwise it will display salary as it is.

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If-then-else form So far we have discussed the simplest form of the if statement, which gives us a choice of executing a statement of block or skipping them. If-then-else form allows us to execute either or blocks depend on condition using if-then-else form as follows. IF <boolean_expression> THEN True block statements; ELSE False block statements; END IF; True block statements are executed only if the condition is satisfied otherwise the else portion will be executed. Example Accept number from a user and find out whether it is Odd or Even. Declare num number; Begin num := &num; if mod(num,2) = 0 then dbms_output.put_line(no,is even); else dbms_output.put_line(no,is Odd); end if; End; / Example Accept employee number from a user and increase its salary depends on the current salary as follows. Salary Increment >= 5000 12.5%; <5000 11% Declare sal number(9,2); num emp.empno%type; pf number(9,2); Begin num := &num;
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Select salary into sal from emp where empno=num; If sal >= 5000 then update emp set salary = salary+(salary*0.125)where empno=num; else update emp set salary = salary + (salary*0.11) where empno=num; end if; End; / If-then-elsif form This form is used to select one of multiple alternatives.

IF <boolean_expression1> THEN statements; ELSIf <boolean_expression2> THEN statements; ELSIf <boolean_expression2> THEN statements; END IF;

Example Declare sal emp.sal%type; eno emp.empno%type; Begin Eno := &eno; Select salary into sal from emp if sal > 10000 then dbms_output.put_line(Salary elsif sal >= 7000 then dbms_output.put_line(salary else dbms_output.put_line(Salary end if; End; /
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where empno=eno; is more than 10000); is between 7000 to 10000); is less than 7000);

Iterative Control / Loops PL/SQL provides a facility for executing statements repeatedly, via loops. In PL/SQL we have three loops as follows to execute statements repetitively. Simple loop While loop For loop Simple loop The most basic kind of loops, simple loop have this Syntax: LOOP Sequence_of_statements; END LOOP; Sequence_of_statements will be executed infinitely, since this loop has no stopping condition. We can exit this loop via EXIT statement . General form of exit statement is as follows. EXIT [WHEN condition]; Example Declare I number(2):=0; Begin Loop dbms_output.put_line(I); I:=I+1; Exit when (I>10); End loop; End; /

WHILE Loop WHILE <condition> LOOP Sequence_of_statements; END LOOP; Before each iteration of the loop, condition is evaluated. If it evaluates to TRUE, sequence_of_statements is executed. If condition evaluates to FALSE or NULL, the loop is finished and control resumes after the END LOOP statement. The only difference between simple loop and while loop is simple execute first and then it will check
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condition, so simple loop execute at least once and in while loop first it will check condition and then execute. Example Declare I number(2):=0; Begin While I > 50 loop dbms_output.put_line(i); I:=I+5; End Loop; End; /

FOR Loop The number of iterations for simple loops and while loops is not known in advance; it depends on the condition. FOR loops, on the other hand, have a defined number of iterations. FOR loop_counter IN [REVERSE] LowerBound..UpperBound LOOP Sequence_of_statements; End LOOP; Where loop_counter is the implicitly declared index variable, lowerbound and upperbound specify the number of iterations, and sequence_of_Statements is the contents of the loop. Example Declare no number := 5; Begin For I in 1..10 loop dbms_output.put_line(no|| * ||I|| = ||no*I); End loop; End; / Reverse keyword If the REVERSE keyword is present in the FOR loop, then the loop index will iterate from the high value to the low value. Notice that the syntax is the same; the low value is still referenced first .

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Example Begin For I in REVERSE 1..5 LOOP dbms_output.put_line(I); End LOOP; End; / Goto Statment The goto statement allows us to branch to a label unconditionally. The label, which is enclosed within double angular brackets, must precede an executable SQL or a PL/SQL block. When executed, the goto statement transfers control to the labeled statement or a block. Example Declare no number:=1; Begin While no<=10 loop dbms_output.put_line(no); no := no+1; If no = 5 then goto lbl; End if; End loop; <<lbl>> dbms_output.put_line(Number Printing from lable ||no); End; / In above example, when no is equal to 5 control transfer to label lbl and execute whatever mentioned after label and stop execution of for loop.

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Exception Handling
Trappings Errors and Exceptions An Exception is raised when an error occurs. In case of error, normal execution stops and the control is transferred to the exception handling part of PL/SQL block. Sometimes the Oracle server or the users application causes an error to occur during runtime processing. Such errors can arise from hardware or network failures, application errors, logical errors, data integrity errors, and many other sources. These errors are known as exceptions; that is, these unwanted events are the exceptions to the normal processing that is expected. Typically, when an error occurs, processing of the PL/SQL block terminates immediately. Hence your application stops processing and the task at hand goes unfinished. Oracle enables you to be prepared for these errors and write logic in your programs to handle them gracefully and allow processing to carry on as you have designed it. This logic written to manage errors is known as exception-handling code. With Oracle exception handling, when an error is detected, control is passed to the exception-handling portion of your program, and then processing completes normally. Handling errors also provides valuable information for debugging applications and for better proofing the application against future errors. Any well-written program must have the ability to handle errors intelligently and recover from them if possible. PL/SQL implements error handling via exceptions and exception-handlers. Exceptions can be associated with Oracle errors or with your own user-defined errors. Exception One of the features of PL/SQL is the exception handling mechanism. By using exceptions and exception handlers, you can make your PL/SQL programs robust and able to deal with both unexpected and expected errors during execution. What kind of errors can occur in a PL/SQL program? Errors can be classified into run-time error and compile-time error . Exceptions are designed for run-time error handling. Errors that occur during the compilation time are detected by PL/SQL engine and reported back to the user. The program cannot handle this, since this had yet to run. Exceptions and exception handlers are how the program responds to runtime errors. When an error occurs, an exception is raised. When this happens, control is passed to the exception handler, which is the separate section of the PL/SQL Block. This separates the error handling from the rest of the block, which makes the logic of the program easier to understand. In PL/SQL, the user can anticipate and trap for certain runtime errors.
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here are two types of exceptions: G Predefined Exceptions G User-defined Exceptions 4 Exceptions can be internally defined by Oracle or by the user. Pre-defined Exceptions The Pre-defined exception is raised implicitly (automatically) when PL/SQL block or any of its statement violets Oracle rule. Those errors, which are frequently occur, are assign as a pre-defined exception by Oracle. Then General form Exception Handling is : Declare ... Begin ... Exception When Exception_1 then <Statement(s)>; When Exception_2 then <Statement(s)>; ... End; / In this syntax, Exception_1 and Exception_2 are the names of the predefined exceptions. Statements are the valid code that will be executed if the exception name is satisfied. The Oracle server defines several errors with standard names. Although every Oracle error has a number, the errors must be referenced by name. PL/SQL has predefined some common Oracle errors and exceptions. Some of these predefined exception names are Sr. Exception 1 2 3 4 5 6 No_Data_Found Too_many_rows Invalid_cursor Value_error Invalid_Number Zero_divide Description SELECT returned no rows SELECT into statement returned more than one row. This exception is raised when we violet cursor operation. For example, when we try to close a cursor, which is not opened. Arithmetic, Conversion, Truncation or Constraint Error occurred. i.e. Attempt to insert a value with larger precision. Conversion of a character to a number is failed. Attempted to divide by zero.

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7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Dup_val_on_Index Cursor_already_open Not_logged_on

Attempted to insert a duplicate value into a column that has a unique index. Attempted to open a cursor that was previously opened. A database call was made without being logged into Oracle.

Transaction_backed_out Usually raised when a remote portion of a transaction is rolled back Login_denied Program_error Storage_error Timeout_on_resource Others Login to Oracle failed because of invalid username and password. Raised if PL/SQL encounters an internal problem. Raised if PL/SQL runs out of memory or if memory is corrupted. Timeout occurred while Oracle was waiting for a resource. This is a catchall. If the error was not trapped in the previous exception traps, this statement will trap the error.

Oracle declares predefined exceptions globally in the package standard . Therefore, you do not need to declare them yourself. Example Write a PL/SQL Block to accept employee name from a user if it is exist display its salary otherwise display appropriate message using exception handling. Declare erec emp%rowtype; nm emp.ename%type; Begin nm:=&nm; SELECT Exception When No_Data_Found then dbms_output.put_line(Entred name is not found); When Others then Null; End; / Example Write a PL/SQL Block to display the salary of that employee whose age is 45 year otherwise display appropriate message using exception handling. * into erec from emp where ename=nm; dbms_output.put_line(Employee Salary : || erec.salary);

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Declare erec emp%rowtype; yr number; Begin yr := &yr; SELECT *into erec from emp Where round((SYSDATE-BDATE)/365),0)= 45; dbms_output.put_line(Employee Salary : || erec.salary); Exception When No_Data_Found then dbms_output.put_line(No Employee with 45 years age); When Too_many_rows then dbms_output.put_line(More than one Employee with 45 years age); When Others then Null; End; / Example Write a PL/SQL Block to insert add one row in employee table with employee number and name. Display appropriate message using exception handling on duplication entry of employee number. Declare eno emp.empno%type; nm emp.ename%type; Begin eno := &eno; nm := &nm; insert into emp(empno,ename) values(eno,nm); Exception When Dup_val_on_index then dbms_output.put_line(Employee Number already Exist); When Others then Null; End; / As you saw in the earlier examples of exception-handling blocks, the other exception was used as a catchall exception handler. Others is normally used when the exact nature of the exception isnt important, when the exception is unnamed, or even when its unpredictable

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User-Defined Exception Unlike internal exceptions, user-defined exceptions should be explicitly specified. The user-defined exception must be declared in the declaration part of the PL/SQL Block and it can explicitly raised with the RAISE Statement. Declaration of user-defined cursor declares a name for user_defined error that the PL/SQL code block recognizes. The raise exceptions procedure should only be used when Oracle does not raise its own exception or when processing is undesirable or impossible to complete Steps for trapping a user-defined error include the following: 1) Declare the name for the user-defined exception within the declaration section of the block. 2) Raise the exception explicitly within the executable portion of the block using the RAISE Statement. 3) Reference the declared exception with an error-handling routine. Example Declare Invalid_Pay Exception; Pay Number := &Pay; Begin If Pay Not Between 2000 and 5000 Then RAISE Invalid_Pay; End If; Exception When Invalid_Pay Then dbms_Output.Put_Line(Salary should be between 2000 and 5000); End; / Example Accept employee number and salary from a user and store it into the table if salary is greater than zero otherwise display appropriate message using user-defined exception. Declare sal emp.salary%type; eno emp.empno%type; sal_error exception; Begin eno := &eno; sal := &sal; if sal=0 then raise sal_error;
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else update emp set salary = sal where empno=eno; end if; Exception when sal_error then dbms_output.put_line(Salary must be >0); End; / Example Accept employee number and salary from a user and update employee salary as per following rules if employee exist other wise display appropriate message using exception handling a) If job is Manager then Salary not more then 7000 b) If job is Clerk then salary not more then 4000 c) If job is Analyst then salary not more then 24000 Declare sal emp.salary%type; eno emp.empno%type; vjob emp.job%type; upd_error exception; Begin eno := &eno; sal := &sal; select job into vjob from emp where empno = eno; if upper(vjob) = MANAGER AND sal > 7000 then raise upd_error; elsif upper(vjob) = CLERK AND sal > 4000 then raise upd_error; elsif upper(vjob) = ANALYST AND sal > 24000 then raise upd_error; else update emp set salary = sal where empno=eno; dbms_output.put_line(salary of employee || eno ||is Updated to|| sal); end if;

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Exception when no_data_found then dbms_output.put_line(Employee numbe not exist); when upd_error then dbms_output.put_line(Salary is not been changed as per the Rule); end; /

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Cursors
In SQL when you submit a query, it returns number of rows depends on query. It may be zero or may be hundreds. While in PL/SQL if your select statement returns multiple rows then oracle must return Too_many_rows error message (Exception). In Such circumstances it is necessary to manipulate multiple rows through PL/SQL Block without raising Exception. The resource that Oracle provides to accomplish this job is the Cursor . PL/SQL cursors provide a way for your program to select multiple rows of data from the database and then to process each row individually. Specifically, a cursor is a name assigned by Oracle to every SQL statement processed. This is done in order to provide Oracle a means to direct and control all phases of the SQL processing Two kinds of cursor are used by Oracle: Implicit and Explicit. PL/SQL implicitly declares a cursor for every SQL statement. Implicit cursors are declared by Oracle for each UPDATE, DELETE, and INSERT SQL command. Explicit cursors are declared and used by the user to process multiple rows returned by a SELECT statement. Explicitly defined cursors are constructs that enable the user to name an area of memory to hold a specific statement for access at a later time. A SELECT statements can return Zero, One, or many rows of data. When a PL/SQL cursor query returns multiple rows of data, the resulting group of rows is called the active set . This active set is stored by Oracle in the explicitly defined and named cursor that you create. The Oracle cursor is a mechanism used to easily process and manage each individual row that is selected by the cursor query. Another feature of the cursor is that it contains a pointer that keeps track of the current row being accessed, which enables your program to process the rows one at a time. Following figure illustrates an Oracle cursor: It shows the active set, consisting of the rows returned by the cursors SELECT statement, and the pointer indicating the latest row fetched from the active set.

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Explicit Cursor User define cursor are known as Explicit cursor. Explicit cursor is one in which the cursor explicitly assigned to the select statement. Processing of explicit cursor involves four steps. 1) Declare the cursor 2) Open the cursor 3) Fetch data from cursor 4) Close the cursor Declaring the cursor The first step is to declare cursor in order for PL/SQL to reference the returned data. This must be done in the declaration portion of your PL/SQL block. Declaring a cursor accomplishes two goals:
G G

It names the cursor It associates a query with a cursor

The name you assign to a cursor is an undeclared identifier, not a PL/SQL variable. You cannot assign values to a cursor name or use it in an expression. This name is used in the PL/SQL block to reference the cursor query. Cursor <cursor_name> is <select statement>; Where, cursor_name is the name you assign to the cursor. SELECT statement is the query that returns row to the cursor active set. In the following example, the cursor named cur_emp is defined with a SELECT statement that queries the employee table. cursor cur_emp is select * from emp where ename like A%; The only constraint that can limit the number of cursors is the availability of memory to manage the cursors. Opening the Cursor Opening the cursor activates the query and identifies the active set. When the OPEN command is executed, the cursor identifies only the rows that satisfy the query used with cursor definition. The rows are not actually retrieved until the cursor fetch is issued. OPEN also initializes the cursor pointer to just before the first row of the active set. Syntax to opening a cursor is : Open <cursor_name>; In this syntax, cursor_name is the name of the cursor that you have previously defined.
4 After a cursor is opened, until the moment you close it, all fetched data in the active set will remain static.

This means that the cursor will ignore all SQL DML commands (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and SELECT) performed on that data after the cursor was opened. Hence, you should open the cursor only when you need it.
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Fetching Data from the Cursor

Getting data form the Activ Set is accomplished with FETCH command. The FETCH command retrieves the rows from the active set one row at a time. The FETCH command is usually used in conjunction with some type of iterative process. The first FETCH statement sorts the active set as necessary. In the iterative process, the cursor advances to the next row in the active set each time the FETCH command is executed. The FETCH command is the only means to navigate through the active set. Syntax for Fetching Data from the Cursor is :
Fetch <cursor_name> into <record_list>; In this syntax, cursor_name is the name of the previously defined cursor from which you are now retrieving rows-one at a time. record_list is a list of variables that will receive the columns from the active set. The FETCH command places the results of the active set into these variables. The record_list or Variable list is the structure that receives the data of fetched row. For each column value retrieved by the cursors query must have corresponding variable in the INTO list. Additionally, their datatypes must be compatible. If you want to revisit a previously fetched row, you must close and reopen the cursor and then fetch each row in turn. If you want to change the active set, you must assign new values to the input variables in the cursor query and reopen the cursor. This re-creates the active set with the results of the revised query statement. Closing the Cursor

The CLOSE statement closes or deactivates the previously opened cursor and makes the active set undefined. Oracle will implicitly close a cursor when the users program or session is terminated. After closing the cursor, you cannot perform any operation on it or you will receive and invalid_cursor exception. Syntax for closing a cursor:
Close <cursor_name>; where, cursor_name is the name of the previously opened cursor Example Declare cursor cur_emp is select ename,Salary from emp; nm emp.ename%type; sal emp.salary%type; Begin open cur_emp; fetch cur_emp into nm,sal; dbms_output.put_line(Name : || nm); dbms_output.put_line(Salary : || sal); close cur_emp; End; /
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Above cursor will store all the records of emp table into active set but display only first employee details. Because no iterative control is used with fetch statement. To display all the employee details you should aware little about Cursor Attribute. Explicit Cursor Attributes Each cursor, whether it is explicitly or implicitly defined, carries with it attributes that provide useful data of the cursor. The four cursor attributes are %isopen, %rowcount, %found and %notfound. These attributes can be used in any PL/SQL statement. Cursor attributes cannot be used against closed cursors, an invalid_cursor exception will be raised if you attempt this. The %isopen Attribute The %isopen attribute indicates whether the cursor is open. If the named cursor is open, then this attribute equates to true; otherwise, it will be false. The following example uses the %isopen attribute to open a cursor if it is not already open: Example Declare cursor c1 is select * from emp; Begin open c1; if c1%isopen then dbms_output.put_line(cursor already open); else open c1; end if; close c1; End; / The %notfound Attribute The %notfound attribute is useful in telling you whether a cursor has any rows left in it to be fetched. The %notfound Attribute equates to true when last fetch statement return no row (there are no more rows remaining in Active Set), while it equates to false if last fetch statement retuns row. Prior to the first fetch, this attribute will equate to null. An error will be returned if you evaluate %notfound on a cursor that is not opened. Following example illustrates use of %notfound attribute.

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Example Declare cursor cur_emp is select * from emp where ename like A%; emp_rec emp%rowtype; Begin open cur_emp; loop fetch cur_emp into emp_rec; exit when cur_emp%notfound; dbms_output.put_line(Name : || emp_rec.ename); dbms_output.put_line(Age : || round((sysdateemp_rec.bdate)/30, 0); end loop; close cur_emp; End; / Above PL/SQL block of cursor will store all the records of employee into active set whose name start with A and display their name with the age. The %found Attribute: The %found attribute equates to true if the last FETCH statement returns row. Therefore, the %found attribute is a logical opposite of the %notfound attribute. The %found attribute equates to false when no rows are fetched. Like the %notfound, this attribute also equates to null prior to the first fetch. The following example illustrates practical use of %found attribute Example Declare cursor cur_emp is select ename,salary from emp; nm emp.ename%type; sal emp.salary%type; Begin open cur_emp; loop fetch cur_emp into nm,sal; if cur_emp%found then dbms_output.put_line(Name

: || nm);

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dbms_output.put_line(Salary : || sal); else exit; end if; end loop; close cur_emp; End; / The %rowCount Attribute: The %rowCount attribute returns the number of rows fetched so far for the cursor. Prior to the first fetch, %rowcount is zero. There are many practical applications of the %rowcount attribute. The following example will perform a commit after the first 250 employees salaries are processed. Example Declare cursor c1 is select * from emp where salary > 4000; emp_rec emp%rowtype; Begin open c1; loop fetch c1 into emp_rec; exit when c1%rowcount > 5; dbms_output.put_line(emp_rec.ename); end loop; close c1; End; / Above PL/SQL block of cursor will display only first five records whose salary is greater than 4000. Automated Explicit Cursors (Cursor For Loop) The previous section illustrated the basic mechanism of declaring and using cursors. In many programming situations, there is more than one way to code your logic. This also applies to PL/SQL cursors; there are opportunities to streamline or simplify the coding and usage of them. An alternate way to open, fetch and close the cursor Oracle furnishes another approach to place the cursor within a FOR Loop. This is known as a CURSOR FOR loop. A CURSOR FOR loop will implicitly.
G G G G

Declare the Loop Index Open the Cursor Fetch the next row from the cursor for each loop iteration Close the cursor when all rows are processed or when the loop exits
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The Syntax for cursor for loop : For <record_list> in <cursor_name> Loop Statements; End loop;

CURSOR FOR loops are ideal when you want all the records returned by the cursor. With CURSOR FOR loops, you should not declare the record that controls the loop.
Example Declare cursor emp_cursor is select * from emp where deptno in (10,30); emp_rec emp%rowtype; Begin for emp_rec in emp_cursor loop update emp set salary = salary + (salary * 0.10) where empno = emp_rec.empno; end loop; End; / Implicit Cursor As mentioned earlier, Oracle creates and opens a cursor for every SQL statement that is not part of an explicitly declared cursor. PL/SQL implicitly declares cursors for all SQL data manipulation statements, including queries that return one row. The most recent implicit cursor can be referred to as the SQL cursor. You cannot use the OPEN, CLOSE, and FETCH statements with the implicit cursor. However, you can use the cursor attributes to access information about the most recently executed SQL statement through the SQL cursor. In the following example, PL/SQL creates an implicit cursor to identify the set of rows that are affected by the UPDATE command. Example Begin update emp set comm = salary * 0.15 where deptno = 10; if sql%notfound then dbms_output.put_line(No record is updated); else dbms_output.put_line(sql%rowcount|| rows updated);

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end if; End; / Implicit Cursors Attributes Like explicit cursors, implicit cursors use attributes. The implicit cursor attributes are %isopen, %found, %notfound and %rowcount. Implicit cursors have no name; you must add a prefix SQL to the attributes. The implicit cursor contains information concerning the processing of the last SQL statement (INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE, and SELECT INTO). Implicit cursor attributes can be used only in PL/SQL statements and not in SQL Statements. The following section briefly describe each of these The %isopen Attribute: After the execution of the SQL statement, the associated SQL cursor is always closed automatically by Oracle. Hence the %isopen attribute always evaluate to false. The %found Attribute: This attribute will equate to true if an INSERT,UPDATE or DELETE affected one or more rows or a SELECT INTO returns one or more rows. Otherwise, it evaluates to false. %found will equate to null until a SQL DML statement is executed. The following is an example using the implicit %found attribute: Example Begin Update emp set sal=3000 where ename like A%; If sql%found then commit; Else dbms_output.put_line(no such employee found); End if; End; / The %notfound Attribute: The %notfound attribute evaluates to true if the most recent SQL statement does not affect any rows. Otherwise, it will evaluate to false. The following example illustrates the implicit %notfound attribute. Example

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Begin Update emp set sal=3000 where ename like Himani; If sql%notfound then dbms_output.put_line(no such employee found); Else commit; End if; End; / Careful code design must be exercised when using the SELECT INTO statements. The %notfound attribute cannot be used immediately after the SELECT INTO statement when no records are retrieved. This is because the No_Data_Found exception will be raised and before the %notfound attribute is set. The following example illustrates this point: Example SQL>ED TRY Declare mename emp.ename%type; Begin select ename into mename from emp where empno=79; if sql%notfound then dbms_output.put_line(no such employee found); end if; exception when No_Data_Found then dbms_output.put_line(no such employee found [handled in exception]); End; / Output SQL> @try2 No Such Employee Found [Handled in Exception] PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

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The %rowcount Attribute: This attribute equates to the total number of rows affected by the most recent SQL statement. An example of the %rowcount follows: Example SQL>ED try Begin delete emp set sal = sal + (sal * 0.05)where ename like S%; dbms_output.put_line(Total ||sql%rowcount|| row(s) deleted); End; / Output SQL> @try3 Total 2 row(s) deleted. PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Parameterized Cursors

So far we have used cursors querying all the records from a table. For that the cursor must be declared in such a way that it recognizes that it will receive the requested value(s) at the time of opening the cursor. Such a cursor is known as Parameterized Cursor. Syntax for parameterized
cursor is: cursor cur_name(variable_name1 datatype, variable_name2 datatype ) is select statement The scope of cursor parameters is local to that cursor, which means that they can be referenced only within the query declared in the cursor declaration. The values of cursor parameters are used by the associated query when the cursor is opened. For Example, cursor c1(msal number) is select * from emp where salary > msal; The parameters to a cursor can be passed in the open statement. They can either be constant values or the contents of a memory variable. Remember that the parameters of a cursor cannot return values like subprograms (discussed Later). 4 Each parameter in the declaration must have a corresponding value in the open statement. For Example, open cur_emp(5000);
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OR open cur_emp(sal); where sal is a memory variable of the block. 4 Memory variable should be declared and the value should be assigned before using it in parameterized cursor. Ref Cursor and Cursor Variable A PL/SQL cursor is a named area in the database. The cursor variable, by definition, is a reference to that named area. Cursor variables point to a querys work area in which the querys resultset is stored. A cursor variable is also dynamic in nature because it is not tied to a specific query. Oracle retains this work area as long as a cursor pointer is pointing to it. You can use a cursor variable for any type-compatible query. This type of cursor is known as REF cursor. There are two type of REF cursors Strong and Weak. One of the most significant features of the cursor variable is that Oracle allows you to pass a cursor variable as an argument to a procedure or function call. The cursor variable cannot accept variables to itself. After the cursor variable is declared there, you can pass it as a bind variable to your PL/SQL block. Likewise, these variables can be declared in other Oracle products such as Forms. Additionally, you can pass cursor variables back and forth between servers and applications through Oracles remote procedure calls. The Cursor Variable Declaration

To create a cursor variable, you must first create a referenced cursor type and then declare a cursor variable on that type. Syntax for Creating the Cursor Type:
Type <cur_type_name> is ref cursor [return <return_type>]; In this syntax, ref stands for reference, cur_type_name is the name of the type of cursor, and return_type (Optional) is the data specification for the return cursor type. Strong and Weak cursor is based on their return type. If return type is specified then it is Strong cursor while Weak cursor is a cursor whose return type is not specified. The following example illustrates this declaration Declare creation of Strong cursor type Type emp_scur_type is ref cursor return emp%rowtype; creation of Weak cursor type Type emp_wcur_type is ref cursor; creation of cursor variable based on cursor type es emp_scur_type;
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ew emp_wcur_type; Begin ..... End; / Remember, the cursor variable declaration does not create a cursor object, but rather a pointer to a cursor object. As such, you cannot substitute a cursor variable where a proper cursor is expected and required. Cursor Usage with Cursor Variables After the cursor variable is declared, you can use the variable in three different statements: OPEN...FOR, FETCH, and CLOSE.

You can assign a value to it through the OPEN...FOR cursor statement. Syntax for the OPEN...FOR
Cursor Statement: open <cur_variable_name> for <select_statement>; In this syntax, cur_variable_name is the name for the cursor, the cursor variable, or the host cursor variable, and select_statement is the appropriate SQL statement. The OPEN...FOR statement executes the multirow query associated with the declared cursor variable. The OPEN...FOR statement also identifies the resultset, which consists of all rows that meet the query search criteria. The OPEN...FOR statements can open the same cursor variable for different queries as needed. After the cursor is opened, you can perform a typical FETCH using the cursor variable. The syntax for the FETCH statement using a cursor variable is the same as for a normal explicit static cursor, so we shall not discuss the same. PL/SQL will make sure the return type of the cursor variable is compatible with the INTO clause of the FETCH statement. For each column value returned by the query associated with the cursor variable, there must be a corresponding variable in the INTO clause. Also, the number of fields or variables must equal the number of column values. Strong Cursor The following example puts together the concepts of declaring, opening, and fetching data from Strong cursors: Example SQL>ED try Declare type emp_cur_type is ref cursor return emp%rowtype;
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C1 emp_cur_type; emprec emp%rowtype; Begin open C1 for select * from emp where sal > 3000; dbms_output.put_line(list of employees getting salary more than 3000); Loop fetch C1 into emprec; exit when C1%notfound; dbms_output.put_line(emprec.empno || || emprec.ename || || emprec.salary); End loop; close C1; open C1 for select * from emp where sal < 2000; dbms_output.put_line(list of employees getting salary less than 2000); Loop fetch C1 into emprec; exit when C1%notfound; dbms_output.put_line(emprec.empno || || emprec.ename || || emprec.salary); End loop; close C1; End; / Output List 7566 7782 7839 7902 7934 List 7369 7499 7521

of Employees getting Salary more than 3000 JONES 4998 CLARK 4527.6 KING 6875 FORD 5400 MILLER 5000 of Employees getting Salary less than 2000 SMITH 1344 ALLEN 1680 WARD 1250

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7654 7698 7844 7876 7900

MARTIN 1250 BLAKE 1000 TURNER 1500 ADAMS 1848 JAMES 1425

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. Check out this example Declare cursor cur_ref is ref cursor return emp%rowtype; cur_var cur_ref; Begin open cur_var for select ename from emp; End; / This select statement is not valid for this return type. If you want to select only ename from emp table then declaration must be as follows : cursor cur_ref is ref cursor return emp.ename%type; Weak Cursor The following examples puts together the concepts of declaring, opening, and fetching data from Weak cursors: Example Declare type weak_type is ref cursor; weak_cur weak_type; eno emp.empno%type; enm emp.ename%type; sal emp.salary%type; drec dept%rowtype; Begin open weak_cur for select empno, ename, salary from emp; Loop fetch weak_cur into eno, enm, sal; exit when weak_cur%notfound; dbms_output.put_line(eno|| || enm || || sal); End loop;
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Close weak_cur; open weak_cur for select * from dept; Loop fetch weak_cur into drec; exit when weak_cur%notfound; dbms_output.put_line(drec.deptno || || drec.dname); End loop; Close weak_cur; End; / Example Declare type weak_type is ref cursor; weak_cur weak_type; eno emp.empno%type; enm emp.ename%type; Sal emp.salary%type; dno dept.deptno%type; dnm dept.dname%type; Begin open weak_cur for select empno, ename, emp.deptno, salary, dname from emp, dept where emp.deptno = dept.deptno; Loop fetch weak_cur into eno, enm, dno, sal, dnm; exit when weak_cur%notfound; dbms_output.put_line(eno|| || enm || ||dno || || sal || || dnm); End loop; Close weak_cur; End; /

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Output 7782 7839 7934 7782 7839 7934 7369 7902 7876 CLARK 10 4527.6 ACCOUNTING KING 10 6875 ACCOUNTING MILLER 10 5000 ACCOUNTING CLARK 10 4527.6 AD KING 10 6875 AD MILLER 10 5000 AD SMITH 20 1344 RESEARCH FORD 20 5400 RESEARCH ADAMS 20 1848 RESEARCH

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

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SUBPROGRAMS
So, far we have seen PL/SQL Block (Anonymous Block) which are executed by interactively entering the block at the SQL prompt or by writing the PL/SQL statements in a user_named file and executing the block at SQL prompt using @ command. The block needed to compile at every time it is run and only the user who created the block can use the block. Any PL/SQL block consists of some hundreds statements, in such cases it is necessary to break the entire block into smaller modules depending on your requirements. So, your block became more easy to understand and efficient to perform operation and maintenance. Stored procedures / Subprograms are such kind of named PL/SQL Block. Basically it is Sophisticated Business rules and application logic. Stored subprogram are compiled at time of creation and stored in the database itself. The source code is also stored in the database. Any user with necessary privileges can use the stored subprogram. Procedures and Functions are subprograms having group of SQL, PL/SQL and Javaenables Statements you to move code that enforce the business rules from your application to database. It takes a set of parameters given to them by the calling program and perform a set of actions. The only real difference between a procedure and a function is that a function will include a single return value. Both functions and procedures can modify and return data passed to them as a parameter. A procedure or function that has been stored in the library cache is referred to as a stored procedure or a stored function. A stored procedure or stored function has the following characteristics: It has a name : This is the name by which the stored procedure or function is called and referenced. It takes parameters : These are the values sent to the stored procedure or function from the application. It returns values : A stored procedure or function can return one or more values based on the purpose of the procedure or function. Procedures A procedure is a one kind of subprogram, which is designed and created to perform a specific operation on data in your database. A procedure takes zero or more input parameters and returns
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zero or more output parameters. The syntax of a creation of procedure is as follows: Syntax: CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE procedure_name [(argument1 [IN/OUT/IN OUT] datatype, argument2 [IN/OUT/IN OUT] datatype,)] IS [<local variable declarations>] BEGIN Executable Statements [EXCEPTION Optional Exception Handler(s) ] END; The procedure is made up of two parts: the declaration and the body of the procedure. The declaration begins with the keyword PROCEDURE and ends with the last parameter declaration. The body begins with the keyword IS and ends with the keyword END . The procedure body is further divided into three parts : declarative, executable and exception part same as PL/SQL blcok. The declaration section is used to assign name and define parameter list, which variables are passed to the procedure and which values are returned from the procedure back to the calling program. Parameters can be define in following format Argument [parameter mode] datatype There are three types of parameters mode: IN, OUT and IN OUT IN Mode

Default parameter mode. Used to pass values to the procedure. Formal parameter can be a constant, literal, initialized variable or expression. Used for reading purpose

OUT Mode

Used to return values to the caller. Formal parameter cannot be used in an expression, but should be assigned a value. Used for writing purpose
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IN OUT Mode

Used to pass values to the procedure as well as return values to the caller Formal parameter acts like an initialized variable and should be assigned a value. Used for both reading and writing purpose

4 In a procedure declaration, it is illegal to constrain char and varchar parameter with length and number parameter with precision and scale. The body of the procedure is where the real work is done. The body is made up of the PL/SQL statements that perform the desired task. The EXCEPTION Section In both procedures and functions, you can add optional exception handlers. These exception handlers allow you to return additional information based on certain conditions (such as no data found or some user-specified condition). By using exception handlers and allowing the stored procedure to notify you of some special conditions, you can minimize the amount of return-value checking that must be done in the application code. Because the work to determine that no data has been selected has already been done by the RDBMS engine, you can save on resources if you take advantage of this information. Example Create a procedure, which receives a number and display whether it is odd or even. Create or replace procedure oddeven (num in number) is a number(3); Begin a := mod(num,2); If a = 0 then dbms_output.put_line( num || is even number); Else dbms_output.put_line( num || is odd number); End if; End; / Procedure created.

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Execution of procedure Procedure is executed from a SQL prompt as per follows and One can execute procedure from caller program also. SQL > execute/exec procedure_name(parameter list) For example above created procedure is executed as follows SQL> Exec example1(7) 7 is odd number Example Make a procedure, which will accept a number and return its Square. Create or replace procedure square_no(num in number,ans out number) Is Begin ans:=num*num; End; / Procedure created. To execute above procedure we make one block, which is known as a Caller Block Declare ret number(10); no number(5) := &no; Begin square_no (no, ret); dbms_output.put_line(Square of ||no|| is : || ret); End; /

Output
Enter value for no: 10 old 3: no number(5) := &no; new 3: no number(5) := 10; Square of 10 is : 100

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Procedures Related to Table Example Pass employee no and name and store into employee table. Create or replace emp.ename%type) Is Begin Insert into emp(empno,ename) values(eno,enm); Exception When Dup_val_on_index then dbms_output.put_line(Employee Number already Exist); End; / To run above procedure SQL> exec emp_add(1013,DAXESH); Example Create a Procedure, which receives employee number and display employee name, Designation and salary. Create or replace procedure empdata(eno in number) Is enm varchar2(20); jb varchar2(20); sal number(10,2); Begin Select ename, job, salary into enm, jb, sal from emp where empno= eno; dbms_output.put_line(employee name dbms_output.put_line(employee salary End; / Procedure created. : || enm); : || sal); dbms_output.put_line(employee designation: || jb); procedure emp_add (eno emp.empno%type, enm

Output
SQL>exec empdata(1051)
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employee name : RISHI employee designation: ANALYST employee salary : 5000 Example Write a PL/SQL block, which will use a user-defined procedure, which accept employee number and return employee name and department name in a out parameter. Create or replace procedure emp_data(eno number, enm out varchar2, dnm out varchar2) Is Begin select ename, dname into enm, dnm from emp, dept where emp.deptno = dept.deptno and empno = eno; End; / Procedure created Block To execute procedure Declare employee varchar2(30); department varchar2(20); eno number(4); Begin eno :=&employeenumber; emp_data(eno, employee, department); dbms_output.put_line(Employee Number ||eno); dbms_output.put_line(Employee Name ||employee); dbms_output.put_line(Department Name ||department); End; /

Output
Enter value for employeenumber: 1011 old 6: eno :=&EmployeeNumber; new 6: eno :=1011; Employee Number 1011 Employee Name TEJAS Department Name RESEARCH

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Example Create a procedure, which receives department number and get total Salary of that Department. Create or replace procedure dept_total(dno in numbe, total out number) Is Begin Select sum(salary) into total from emp where deptno= dno; dbms_output.put_line(Total salary of Department || dno || is || total); End; / Procedure created. Block To execute procedure Declare dn number(5) := &no; tot number; Begin dept_total(dn,tot); End; / Output Enter value for dn: 10 old 2: dn number(5) := &dn; new 2: dn number(5) := 10; Total salary of Department 10 is 235300 Example Write procedure to accept Department number and display Name, Designation and Age of each employee belonging to such Department. Create or replace procedure dept_list(dno number) Is cursor c1 is select * from emp where deptno = dno; erec emp%rowtype; Begin For erec in c1 loop

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dbms_output.put_line(Emp. Name : || erec.ename); dbms_output.put_line(Designation : || erec.desg); dbms_output.put_line(Age : || round((sysdate-erec.bdate)/ 365,0); dbms_output.put_line(=============================); End loop; End; / Procedure created.

Output
SQL>exec dept_list(20);

Emp. Name : AANSHI Designation : ANALYST Age : 21 ========================= Emp. Name : TEJAS Designation : MANAGER Age : 27 ========================= Emp. Name : DAXESH Designation : MANAGER Age : 24 ========================= Example Create a procedure, which will accept Deptno and Display no of employee under different grade. Create or replace procedure empcount(dno in number) Is Cursor c1 is select grade, count(*) from emp where deptno = dno group by grade; grd varchar2(3); noofemp number(3); Begin Open c1; dbms_output.put_line(Grade ||No of employee); Loop Fetch c1 into vgrade, noofemp;
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Exit when c1%notfound; dbms_output.put_line(grd|| End loop; Close c1; End; / Procedure created .

||noofemp);

Output
SQL>exec empcount(30); Grade A B C D Functions A function, like a procedure, is a set of PL/SQL statements that form a subprogram. The subprogram is designed and created to perform a specific operation on data. A function takes zero or more input parameters and returns just one output value. If more than one output value is required, a procedure should be used. The syntax of a function is as follows: Syntax CREATE OR REPLACE Function function_name [(argument1 [IN/OUT/IN OUT] datatype, argument2 [IN/OUT/IN OUT] datatype,)] [<local variable declarations>] BEGIN PL/SQL Statements [EXCEPTION Optional Exception Handler(s)] END [function_name]; / As with a procedure, a function is made up of two parts: the declaration and the body. The declaration begins with the keyword Function and ends with RETURN statement. The body begins with the keyword IS and ends with the keyword END . The difference between a procedure and a function is the return value. A function has the return declaration as well as a RETURN function within the body of that function that returns a value. This RETURN function is used to pass a return value to the calling program.
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No of employee 1 2 2 1

RETURN datatype IS

4 If you do not intend to return a value to the calling program, or you want to return more than one value, use a procedure. How Procedures and Functions Operate Procedures and functions use the same basic syntax in the program body with the exception of the RETURN keyword, which can only be used by functions. The body itself is made up of PL/SQL blocks that perform the desired function and return the desired data to the calling program. The goal of the body of the procedure is both to minimize the amount of data to be transmitted across the network (to and from the calling program) and to perform the PL/SQL statements in the most efficient manner possible. Example Create a function to get cube of passed number Create or replace function cube(no number) return number Is ans number(4); Begin ans := no * no * no; return ans; End; / Function created. Output SQL> select cube(5) from dual; CUBE(5) 125 Example Write a Function to find out maximum salary for the passed designation. Create or replace function maxjob(des varchar2) return number Is maxsal number(7,2); Begin select max(sal) into maxsal from emp where job = des; return maxsal; End; /

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Function created.

Output
SQL> SELECT MAXJOB(ANALYST) FROM DUAL; MAXJOB(ANALYST) 6725 Example Create a Function to find out existence of employee whose name is passed as a parameter Create or replace function empchk(enm varchar2) return boolean Is erec emp%rowtype; Begin select * into erec from emp where ename = enm; return true; Exception When no_data_found then return false; When too_manu_rows then Return true; End; / Function created. Block To execute procedure (Caller Program) Declare nm emp.ename%type; b Boolean; Begin nm := &employeename b :=empchk(nm); if b = true then dbms_output.put_line(Employee Exist); else dbms_output.put_line(Employee not exist); end if; End; /

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Example Write a Function to find out Total salary for the passed department Name. Create or replace function totsalary(dnm varchar2) return number Is totsal emp.sal%type; Begin select sum(sal) into totsal from emp,dept where dept.deptno = emp.deptno and dname = dnm; return totsal; End; / Function created. Block To execute procedure Declare tot number; dnm dept.dname%type := &departmentname; Begin tot = totalsalary(dnm); dbms_output.put_line(Total Salary of || dnm || is || tot); End; / Example Write a Function to find out No Of Employee who joined between dates passed. Create or replace function noofemp(date1 date,date2 date) return number Is noofemp number(7); Begin select count(*) into noofemp from emp where hiredate between date1 and date2; return noofemp; End; / Function created.

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Output SQL> select noofemp(20-dec-80',20-dec-81') from dual; NOOFEMP(20-DEC-80',20-DEC-81') 11 Example Write a function to check whether passed number is Odd or Even. Create or replace function oddeven(no number) return varchar2 is Begin If mod(no,2)=0 then return Else return no || is odd; End if; End; / Function created.

Output
SQL>Select oddeven(10) from dual; ODDEVEN(10) 10 is Even

SQL> select oddeven(11) from dual; ODDEVEN(11) 11 is Odd

Example Write a Function to find out total annual income for the employee, whos number we passed. Create or replace function ann_income(eno number) return number Is total number(9,2); Begin

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Select (salary + nvl(comm,0))*12 into total from emp where empno = eno; return total; End; / Function created. Output SQL> select ann_income(1010) from dual;

ANN_SAL(1010) 60000 Example Create a function, which receives three arguments, first two as a number and third as a arithmetic operator and return proper answer, In case of invalid operator display appropriate message. Create or replace function calc(a number, b number, c char, x boolean) return number is d number; invalid_opt exception; Begin If c =+ then d := a + b; Elsif c=- then d := a-b; Elsif c=/ then d := a/b; Elsif c=* then d := a*b; Else Raise invaid_opt; End if; x:=true; Return d; Exception When value_error then
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dbms_output.put_line(cannot x:=false; return 0; When invalid_opt then x:=false; return 0; End; / Block To execute procedure Declare n1 number; n2 number; ans number; op varchar2; valid Boolean; Begin n1 := &firstnumber; n2 := &secondnumber; op := &operator ans = (n1,n2,op,valid); if valid then

perform

calculation);

dbms_output.put_line(n1 op n2 || is || ans); end if; End; / Packages A package is an Oracle object, which holds other objects within it. Objects commonly held within a package are procedures, functions, variables, constants, cursors and exceptions. It is a way of creating generic, encapsulation, re-useable code. A package once written and debugged is compiled and stored in Oracles system tables held in an Oracle Database. All users who have execute permissions on the Oracle Database can use the package. Packages can contain PL/SQL blocks of code, which have been written to perform some process entirely on their own. Some PL/SQL blocks of code do not require any kind of input from other PL/ SQL block. These are the packages standalone subprograms. Alternatively, a package can contain a subprogram that requires input from another PL/SQL block to perform its programmed processes
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successfully. These are also subprograms of the package but these subprograms are not standalone. Subprograms held within a package can be called from other stored programs, like triggers, or any other Interactive Oracle program like SQL * Plus. Unlike the stored programs, the package itself cannot be called, passed parameters to, or nested. Use of Packages Packages offer the following advantages:

Packages enable the organization of commercial applications into efficient modules. Each package is easily understood, and the interfaces between packages are simple, clear, and well defined.

Packages allow granting of privileges efficiently. A packages public variables and cursors persist for the duration of the session. Therefore, all
cursors and procedures that execute in this environment can share them.

Packages enable the overloading of procedures and functions when required. Packages improve performance by loading multiple objects into memory at once. Therefore,
subsequent calls to related subprograms in the package require no I/O.

Packages promote code reuse through the use of libraries that contain stored procedures and
functions, thereby reducing redundant coding. Components of Package A package has usually two components, a specification and a body. A packages specification declares the types (variables of the Record type), memory variables, constants, exceptions, cursors, and subprograms that are available for use. A packages body fully defines cursors, functions, and procedures and thus implements the specification. Package Specification The package specification contains:

Name of the package Names of the datatypes of any arguments This declaration is local to the database and global to the package

This means that procedures, functions, variables, constants, cursors, exceptions, and other objects, declared in a package are accessible from anywhere in the package. Therefore, all the information a package needs, to execute a stored subprogram, is contained in the package specifications itself. The following is an example of the creation of a package specification. In this example, the specification declares a function and a procedure:
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Example Create Or Replace Package Pack1 As Function Cube(x Number) Return Number; Procedure EmpProc(Dno Number); End Pack1; / Package created. Package Body The body of a package contains the definition of public objects that are declared in the specification. The body can also contain other object declarations that are private to the package. The objects declared privately in the package body are not accessible to other objects outside the package. Unlike package specification, the package body can contain subprogram bodies. After the package is written, debugged, compiled and stored in the database applications can reference the packages types, call its subprograms, use its cursors, or raise its exceptions. Create Or Replace Package Body Pack1 As Function Cube(x Number) Return Number is Begin Return x*x*x; End; Procedure EmpProc(Dno Number) is Erec Emp%Rowtype; Cursor c1 is Select *from Emp where Deptno=Dno; Begin Open c1; Loop Fetch c1 into Erec; Exit when c1%NotFound; Dbms_output.Put_line(Emp.No. :||Erec.Empno); Dbms_output.put_line(Name :||Erec.Ename); Dbms_output.put_line(Dept.No.:||Erec.Deptno); Dbms_output.put_line(Salary :||Erec.Salary); Dbms_output.put_line(); End Loop; End; End Pack1; / Package Body created
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4 Package specification name and Package Body name must be same. Otherwise Package Body will give you compilation error. To Execute Packages Function Declare No Number:=&No; Res Number; Begin Res:=Pack1.Cube(No); Dbms_output.put_line(Cube of ||No|| is:||Res); End; / Output Enter value for No:3 Cube of 3 is 9 To Execute Packages Procedure: SQL>Exec Or SQL> Declare No Number:=&No; Begin Pack1.EmpProc(No); End; / Enter value for No:20 This will display all the record of Deptno 20 of Employee table. Pack1.EmpProc(20)

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Database Triggers
Trigger defines an action the database should take when some database-related event occurs. Triggers may be used to supplement declarative referential integrity, to enforce complex business rules, or to audit changes to data. The code within a trigger, called a trigger body, is made up of PL/SQL blocks. Its like a stored procedure that is fired when an insert, update or delete command is issued against associated table. The execution of triggers is transparent to the user. Triggers are executed by the database when specific types of data manipulation commands are performed on specific tables. Such commands may include insert, update, and delete. Updates of specific columns may also be used as triggering events. Because of their flexibility, triggers may supplement referential integrity; they should not be used to replace it. When enforcing the business rules in an application, you should first rely on the declarative referential integrity available with Oracle; use triggers to enforce rules that cannot be coded through referential integrity. In other words, a trigger is a PL/SQL block that is associated with a table, stored in a database and executed in response to a specific data manipulation event. Triggers can be executed, or fired, in response to the following events:
G G G

A row is inserted into a table A row in a table is updated A row in a table is deleted

4 It is not possible to define a trigger to fire when a row is selected. A database trigger has three parts namely a trigger statement, a trigger body and a trigger restriction. Trigger statement specifies the DML statements like insert , update, delete and it fires the trigger body. It also specifies the table to which the trigger associated. Trigger body is a PL/SQL bock that is executed when a triggering statement is issued. Restrictions on a trigger can be achieved using the WHEN clause as shown in the syntax for creating triggers. They can be included in the definition of a row trigger, wherein, the condition in the WHEN clause is evaluated for each row that is effected by the trigger. A trigger is a database object, like a table or an index. When you define a trigger, it becomes a part
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of the database and is always executed when the event for which it is defined occurs. It doesnt matter if the event is triggered by someone typing in a SQL statement using SQL* Plus, running a Client/Server program that updates the database, or running a utility like Oracles SQL Loader in order to bulk-load data. Because of this, triggers serves as a choke point, allowing you to perform critical data validation or computations in response to database changes, no matter what the source. Types of Triggers A triggers type is defined by the type of triggering transaction and by the level at which the trigger is executed. In the following sections, you will see descriptions of these classifications, along with relevant restrictions. Row-Level Triggers Row-level triggers execute once for each row in a transaction. Row-level triggers are the most common type of trigger; they are often used in data auditing applications. Row-level triggers are also useful for keeping distributed data in sync. Row-level triggers are created using the for each row clause in the create trigger command. Statement-Level Triggers Statement-level triggers execute once for each transaction. For example, if a single transaction inserted 500 rows into a table, then a statement-level trigger on that table would only be executed once. Statement-level triggers therefore are not often used for data-related activities; they are normally used to enforce additional security measures on the types of transactions that may be performed on a table. Statement-level triggers are the default type of trigger created via the create trigger command. BEFORE and AFTER Triggers Because triggers are executed by events, they may be set to occur immediately before or after those events. Since the events that execute triggers include database transactions, trigger can be executed immediately before or after insert, update and delete. For database-level events, additional restrictions apply; you cannot trigger an event to occur before a logon or startup takes place. Within the trigger, you can reference the old and new values invoked by the transaction. The access required for the old and new data may determine which type of trigger you need. Old refers to the data, as it existed prior to the transaction; updates and deletes usually reference old values. New values are the data values that the transaction creates (such as the columns in an inserted record). If you need to set a column value in an inserted row via your trigger, then you need to use a BEFORE INSERT trigger to access the new values. Using an AFTER INSERT trigger would not allow you to set the inserted value, since the row will already have been inserted into the table. AFTER row-level triggers are frequently used in auditing applications, since they do not fire until the row has been modified. The rows successful modification implies that it has passed the referential integrity constraints defined for that table.
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Together with commonly used four types, it gives a total of 12 possible trigger types, which are listed in the following Table. Note that the SELECT statement is the only data manipulation statement for which no triggers can be defined.

Before update row Before update statement Before insert row Before insert statement Before delete row Before delete statement After update row After update statement After insert row After insert statement After delete row After delete statement

Also note that one trigger can be defined to fire for more than one SQL statement. INSTEAD OF Triggers You can use INSTEAD OF triggers to tell Oracle what to do instead of performing the actions that invoked the trigger. For example, you could use an INSTEAD OF trigger on a view to redirect inserts into table or to update multiple tables that are part of a view. You can use INSTEAD OF triggers on either object views or relational views. For example, if a view involves a join of two tables, your ability to use the update command on records in the view is limited. However, if you use an INSTEAD OF trigger, you can tell Oracle how to update, delete, or insert records in the views underlying tables when a user attempts to change values via the view. The code in the INSTEAD OF trigger is executed in place of the update, delete, or insert command you enter. Uses of Triggers The possible uses for database triggers are varied and are limited only by your imagination. Some common uses are listed below:

Enforcing business rules Maintaining referential integrity Enforcing security Maintaining a historical log of changes Generating column values, including primary key values Replicating data

Syntax: Create [ or replace ] trigger [user.]trigger_name { before | after | instead of }

{ delete | insert | update [ of column [, column] ] } on [user.]{ Table | View } for each { row | statement } [ when (condition) ] PL/SQL Block Clearly, there is a great deal of flexibility in the design of a trigger. The before and after keywords indicate whether the trigger should be executed before or after the triggering transaction. If the instead of clause is used, the triggers code will be executed instead of the event that caused the trigger to be invoked. The delete, insert, and update keywords (the last of which may include a column list) indicate the type of data manipulation that will constitute a trigger event. When the for each row clause is used, the trigger will be a row-level trigger; otherwise, it will be a statement-level trigger. The when clause is used to further restrict when the trigger is executed. The restrictions enforced in the when clause may include checks of old and new data values. For example, suppose we want to monitor any adjustments to Salary column value that are greater than 10 percent. The following row-level BEFORE UPDATE trigger will be executed only if the new value of the salary column is more than 10 percent greater than its old value and add transaction details in audit table. This example also illustrates the use of the new keyword, which refers to the new value of the column, and the old keyword, which refers to the original value of the column. Example Create or replace trigger emp_salary_update_row before update on emp for each row when (:New.Amount / :Old.Amount > 1.1) usr varchar2(20); Begin Select user into usr from dual; Insert into EMP_AUDIT values (:Old.salary, :New.salary, :Old.eno, usr, to_char(sysdate,HH:MI),sysdate); Commit; End; / Trigger created. Breaking the above created trigger command makes it easier to understand. Lets do it: Create or replace trigger emp_salary_update_row The emp_salary_update_row is the trigger name, which indicates table name and it acts upon and the type of trigger. One can define trigger with any valid name. before update on emp
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above statement indicates that this trigger applies to the Emp table and it will executed before update transactions have been committed to the database. for each row Because of above statement, the trigger will apply to each row in the transaction. If this clause is not used, then the trigger will execute at the statement level. The When clause adds further criteria to the triggering condition. The triggering event not only must be an update of the Ledger table, but also must reflect an increase of over 10 percent in the value of the Amount column. when (New.Amount / Old.Amount > 1.1) The PL/SQL code shown in the following listing is the trigger body. The commands shown here are to be executed for every update of the emp table that passes the when condition. For this to succeed, the EMP_AUDIT table must exist, and the owner must have been granted privileges on that table. This example inserts the old values from the emp record into EMP_AUDIT table before the employee record is updated in emp table. Structure of EMP_AUDIT table is as per follows. EMP_AUDIT eno old_salary new_salary user tr_time tr_date number(5) number(9,2) number(9,2) varchar2(20) varchar2(10) date

Begin Select user into usr from dual; Insert into EMP_AUDIT values (:Old.eno, :Old.salary, :New.salary, usr, to_char(sysdate,HH:MI),sysdate); commit; End; / Above trigger makes the log of the emp table in the EMP_AUDIT table and maintains the track of updation in the table, the user name, Transaction Date, Transaction Time, All the old and new values of columns. 4 When referencing the New and Old keywords in the PL/SQL block, they are preceded by the colons(:) Using :Old and :New Values in Row Level Triggers When Row level trigger fires once per row processed by the triggering statement. Inside the trigger, you can access the row that is currently being processed. This is done through keywords :new and :old.

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Following describes what values are set to :Old and :New with the given triggering statement. Triggering Statement INSERT : Old : New UPDATE : Old : New DELETE : Old : New

Undefined all fields are NULL Values that will be inserted when the statement is complete

Original values for the row before the update New values that will be updated when the statement is complete

Original values before the row is deleted Undefined all fields are NULL

They are valid only within row level triggers and not in statement level triggers. :Old values are not available if the triggering statement is INSERT and :new values are not available if the triggering statement is DELETE. Each column is referenced by using the expression :Old.ColumnName or :New.ColumnName. if a column is not updated by the triggering update statement then :old and :new values remain the same. An Example of a Trigger with :New Suppose for a moment that you wanted to be sure that all department names were stored using uppercase letters. Perhaps you are doing this to facilitate searching on that field. Following example shows one way to do this with a trigger. Example Create or replace trigger upperdname before insert or update on dept for each row Begin :new.dname := upper(:new.dname); End; / Trigger created. Example Following trigger does not allow the user to delete any row from a Try table. Create Or Replace Trigger delete_rest_trig Before Delete On Try Begin Raise_Application_Error(-20011,UNABLE TO DELETE); End; /

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In the above example, a new Term is used i.e. Raise_Application_Error() Lets discuss it in details: Customizing Error Conditions Oracle provides a procedure named raise_application_error that allows programmers to issue userdefined error messages. Syntax : Raise_Application_Error(Error_number, Message); Where Error_number is a negative integer in the range 20000 to 20999. and Message Is a string up to 2048 bytes in length. An application can call Raise_Application_Error only from an executing stored subprogram like stored procedures and functions, database triggers. Typically Raise_Application_Error is used in database triggers. Raise_Application_Error ends the subprogram, rolls back any database changes it made, and returns a user-defined error number and message to the application. Within a single trigger, you may establish different error conditions. For each of the error conditions you define, you may select an error message that appears when the error occurs. The error numbers and messages that are displayed to the user are set via the Raise_Application_Error procedure, which may be called from within any trigger. Following example shows a statement-level BEFORE UPDATE or INSERT trigger on the Emp table. When a user attempts to Insert, modify or delete a row in the Emp table, this trigger is executed and checks two system conditions; that the day of the week is neither Saturday nor Sunday, and that the Oracle username is other than user ADMIN. Example Create or replace trigger emp_rest before insert or update or delete on Emp Declare Weekend_Error Exception; Invalid_User Exception; Begin If to_char(SysDate, DY) in (sat,sun) then Raise Weekend_Error; End if; If upper(User) != ADMIN then Raise Invalid_User; End if; Exception

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When Weekend_Error then Raise_Application_Error(-20001,No Insertion or Updation on Weekends); When Invalid_User then Raise_Application_Error(-20002,Insertion, Updation deletion only allowed to Admin Users); End; / Trigger created. Study following code and find out use of following Trigger

or

Create or replace trigger check_date_time before insert or update or delete on dept Begin If to_number(to_char(sysdate,hh24'))>not in(10,18) or to_char(sysdate, dy) not in (sun, sat) then raise_application_error(-20001,no manipulations allowed in table in non-office working hours); End if; End; Firing Triggers selectively using Trigger Predicates Problem We have a lot of tables in the database. Instead of writing three different triggers for INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE operations, we want to write one trigger for each table in the system, and that trigger should handle any DML operations on that table individually. We need to know how to create such triggers and in the trigger body how to recognize the type of DML operation that caused the trigger to fire. How to fire triggers selectively using trigger predicates? Solution You can write a single trigger to handle multiple DML operations on a table. For instance, an INSERT,DELETE or UPDATE statement can fire the same trigger with the user of the ON INSERT OR DELETE OR UPDATE OF clause while creating the trigger. The trigger body can use the conditional predicates INSERTING,DELETING, AND UPDATING to execute specific blocks of code, depending upon the triggering statement. Example Create or replace trigger find_tran before insert or update or delete on dept for each row Begin

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If Inserting then raise_application_error(-20001,Insertion Restricted); elsif updating then raise_application_error(-20002,Updation Restricted); elsif deleting then raise_application_error(-20003,Deletion Restricted); end if; End; /

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