English Grammar

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.All You Need to Know 2.Parts of Speech 3.Interjections 4.Conjunctions .Introduction to the !n"lish #er$ %.#er$ &ense '.#er$ (ood ). #er$s #oice *.Articles 1+. Adjecti,es 11.Ad,er$s 12.Prepositions 13.Pronouns 14.Plural -or. of Nouns 1 .Nouns 1%.Sentences/ Clauses and Phrases 0eware of 12ho.3 &hat ,s. 2hich &rou$le with 14id3 and 15ad3 It6s or Its7 &he 4ifference 0etween 1will3 and 1shall3 Is &hat a Noun or a #er$7 I6. Confused Can You Start Sentences with 1And3 or 10ut37 (e/ (8self/ and I 4efinitel8 use 1the3 or 1a3 (i9in" up 1la83 and 1lie3 Coordinatin" Conjunctions &en :ules for 2ritin" Nu.$ers and Nu.erals 2 11 12 12 13 14 1 1% 1' 1) 1* 1* 22 23 23 2 2% 2' 2* 3+ 3+ 32 32 33 34 3 3' 3'

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English Grammar 1. All You Need to Know

;ust as< a friend what is the role of prepositions within sentences/ or what are the four .oods of ,er$s/ and I a. sure that 8ou will see a pu==led loo< on his face. >nderstandin" the $asic "ra..ar rules is essential for co..unicatin" efficientl8/ $ut .ost of us ha,e for"otten those concepts 8ears a"o. In order to sol,e this pro$le. we decided to put to"ether all the $asic rules on a sin"le pa"e/ so that 8ou can use it as a refresher/ or print it out for future reference. !njo8? Senten es Sentences are .ade of two parts@ the su!"e t and the #redi ate. &he su$ject is the person or thin" that acts or is descri$ed in the sentence. &he predicate/ on the other hand/ is that action or description. Co.plete sentences need !oth the su$ject and the predicate. Clauses Sentences can $e $ro<en down into clauses. -or e9a.ple@ The boy is going to the school, and he is going to eat there. &his is a co.plete sentence co.posed of two clauses. &here are .ainl8 two t8pes of clauses@ independent clauses and su$ordinate clauses. $nde#endent clauses act as co.plete sentences/ while su!ordinate clauses cannot stand alone and need another clause to co.plete their .eanin". -or e9a.ple@ Independent clause e9a.ple@ The boy went to the school. Su$ordinate clause e9a.ple@ After the boy went to the school

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English Grammar
%hrases A "roup of two or .ore "ra..aticall8 lin<ed words that do not ha,e su$ject and predicate is a phrase. !9a.ple of a co.plete sentence@ The girl is at home, and tomorrow she is going to the amusement par . !9a.ple of a clause@ The girl is at home !9a.ple of a phrase@ The girl You can see that 1the "irl3 is a phrase located in the first clause of the co.plete sentence a$o,e. Phrases act li<e parts of speech inside clauses. &hat is/ the8 can act as nouns/ adjecti,es/ ad,er$s and so on. %arts o& S#ee h A word is a 1part of speech3 onl8 when it is used in a sentence. &he function the word ser,es in a sentence is what .a<es it whate,er part of speech it is. -or e9a.ple/ the word 1run3 can $e used as .ore than one part of speech@. !ammy hit a home run. "un is a noun/ direct o$ject of hit. #ou mustn$t run near the swimming pool. "un is a ,er$/ part of the ,er$ phrase must %not& run. &raditional "ra..ar classifies words $ased on ei"ht parts of speech@ the noun/ the #ronoun/ the ad"e ti'e/ the 'er!/ the ad'er!/ the #re#osition/ the on"un tion/ and the inter"e tion. 2e are "oin" to co,er the. indi,iduall8 $elow. Nouns A noun is a word used to descri$e a person/ place/ thin"/ e,ent/ idea/ and so on. Nouns represent one of the .ain ele.ents of sentences/ alon" with ,er$s/ adjecti,es/ prepositions and articles. Nouns usuall8 function as su!"e ts or o!"e ts within sentences/ althou"h the8 can also act as adjecti,es and ad,er$s. 5ere is a list with the different t8pes of nouns@ 1. %ro#er nouns ( >sed to descri$e a uniAue person or thin"/ proper nouns alwa8s start with a capital letter. !9a.ples include 'ary/ (ndia/ and 'anchester )nited. 2. Common nouns ( Co..on nouns are used to descri$e persons or thin"s in "eneral. !9a.ples include girl/ country/ and team 3. Con rete nouns ( Nouns that can $e percei,ed throu"h the fi,e senses are called concrete nouns. !9a.ples include ball/ rainbow and melody. 4. A!stra t nouns ( Nouns that cannot $e percei,ed throu"h the fi,e senses are called a$stract nouns. !9a.ples include lo*e/ courage/ and childhood.

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English Grammar
. Counta!le nouns ( Counta$le nouns can $e counted. &he8 also ha,e $oth a sin"ular and a plural for.. !9a.ples include toys/ children and boo s. %. Non( ounta!le nouns ( &hese nouns Busuall8C can not $e counted/ and the8 don6t ha,e a plural for.. !9a.ples include sympathy/ laughter and o+ygen. '. Colle ti'e nouns ( Collecti,e nouns are used to descri$e "roups of thin"s. !9a.ples include floc , committee and murder. %lural Form o& Nouns &he !n"lish lan"ua"e has $oth regular and irregular plural for.s of nouns. &he .ost co..on case is when 8ou need to add Ds to the noun. -or e9a.ple one car and two cars. &he other two cases of the re"ular plural for. are@ 1. nouns that end with s) *) h or sh/ where 8ou add (es Be."./ one $o9/ two $o9esC 2. nouns that end with onsonant + ,/ where 8ou chan"e the , with i and add (es Be."./ one ene.8/ two ene.iesC En the irre"ular plural for. of nouns there are $asicall8 ei"ht cases@ 1. 2. 3. 4. . %. '. ). nouns that end with (o/ where 8ou add (es Be."./ one potato/ two potatoesC nouns endin" with (is/ where 8ou chan"e (is to (es Be."./ one crisis/ two crisesC nouns endin" with (&/ where 8ou chan"e D& to (' and add (es Be."./ one wolf/ two wol,esC nouns endin" with (&e/ where 8ou chan"e (& to (' and add (s Be."./ one life/ two li,esC nouns endin" with (us/ where 8ou chan"e (us to (i Be."./ one fun"us/ two fun"iC nouns that contain (oo/ chan"e (oo to (ee Be."./ one foot/ two feetC nouns that end with (on/ where 8ou chan"e (on with (a Be."./ pheno.enon/ pheno.enaC nouns that don6t chan"e Be."./ sheep/ offsprin"/ seriesC

It .i"ht appear o,erwhel.in"/ $ut after usin" these nouns a couple of ti.es 8ou will $e a$le to .e.ori=e their plural for. easil8. %ronouns %ronouns are used to re#la e nouns within sentences/ .a<in" the. less repetiti,e and .echanic. -or e9a.ple/ sa8in" 1'ary didn$t go to school because 'ary was sic 3 doesn6t sound ,er8 "ood. Instead/ if 8ou sa8 1 'ary didn$t go to school because she was sic 3 it will .a<e the sentence flow $etter. &here are se,eral t8pes of pronouns/ $elow 8ou will find the .ost co..on ones@ 1. Su!"e ti'e #ersonal #ronouns. As the na.e i.plies/ su$jecti,e pronouns act as su$jects within sentences. &he8 are@ (, you, he, she, we, they/ and it. !9a.ple@ ( am going to the ban while he is going to the mar et. 2. O!"e ti'e #ersonal #ronouns. &hese pronouns act as the o$ject of ,er$s within sentences. &he8 are@ me, you, him, her, us, them and it. !9a.ple@ The ball was going to hit me in the face.

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English Grammar
3. %ossessi'e #ersonal #ronouns. &hese pronouns are used to indicate possession/ and the8 are placed after the o$ject in Auestion Bas opposed to possessi,e adjecti,es li<e my and your/ which are placed $efore the o$jectC. &he8 are@ mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs and its. !9a.ple of possessi,e adjecti,e@ This is my car. !9a.ple of possessi,e pronoun@ This car is mine. 4. -e&le*i'e #ronouns. &his special class of pronouns is used when the o$ject is the sa.e as the su$ject on the sentence. &he8 are myself, yourself, himself, herself, oursel*es, themsel*es and itself. !9a.ple@ ( managed to cut myself in the itchen. . $nterrogati'e #ronouns. As 8ou pro$a$l8 "uessed these pronouns are used to as< Auestions. &he8 are what, which, who, whom and whose. !9a.ple@ -hat are the odds. %. .emonstrati'e #ronouns. &hese pronouns are used to indicate a noun and distin"uish it fro. other entities. Notice that de.onstrati,e pronouns replace the noun Bwhile de.onstrati,e deter.iners .odif8 the.C. &he8 are@ this/ that/ these/ those. !9a.ple of a de.onstrati,e deter.iner@ This house is ugly. !9a.ple of a de.onstrati,e pronoun@ This is the right one. '. $nde&inite #ronouns. As the na.e i.plies/ indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific thin"/ place or person. &here are .an8 of the./ includin" anyone, anywhere, e*eryone, none, someone and so on. !9a.ple@ /*eryone is going to the party. Ad"e ti'es An adjecti,e is a word that descri$es a noun. &here are two <inds@ attri!uti'e and #redi ati'e. An adjecti,e is used attri!uti'el, when it stands ne9t to a noun and descri$es it. -or e9a.ple@ The black cat climbed a tree. Notice that the ,er$ participle for.s can $e used as adjecti,es@ The man felt a paralyzing fear. Flavored oatmeal tastes better than plain oatmeal. &he usual place of the adjecti,e in !n"lish is in front of the noun. You can ha,e a whole strin" of adjecti,es if 8ou li<e@ The tall thin evil-looking cowboy roped the short, fat, inoffensive calf. So.eti.es/ for rhetorical or poetic effect/ the adjecti,e can co.e after the noun@ !arah Plain and Tall B$oo< titleC This is the forest primeval. An adjecti,e is used #redi ati'el, when a ,er$ separates it fro. the noun or pronoun it descri$es@ The umpire was wrong. The crowd was furious. !he seems tired today. This soup tastes bad. The dog$s coat feels smooth.

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English Grammar
&he ,er$s that can $e co.pleted $8 #redi ate ad"e ti'es are called !eing 'er!s or o#ulati'e 'er!s. &he8 include all the for.s of to be and sensin" ,er$s li<e seem, feel/ and taste. Ad"e ti'e Classi&i ations /ualitati'e@ good, bad, happy, blue, 1rench #ossessi'e@ my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their relati'e and interrogati'e@ which, what, whate*er/ etc. numeral@ one, two, second, single/ etc. inde&inite@ some, any, much, few, e*ery/ etc. demonstrati'e@ this, that, the, a %an&, such &he de.onstrati,e adjecti,es the and a BanC are so i.portant in !n"lish that the8 ha,e a special na.e@ arti les. &he8 are discussed separatel8 $elow. Arti les &he words a/ an/ and the are "enerall8 called arti les and so.eti.es classed as a separate part of speech. In function/ howe,er/ the8 can $e "rouped with the de.onstrati,e adjecti,es that are used to point thin"s out rather than descri$e the.. .e&inite Arti le ( The is called the definite arti le $ecause it points out a particular o$ject or class. This is the boo ( was tal ing about. The dodo bird is e+tinct. $nde&inite Arti le ( A is called the inde&inite arti le $ecause it points out an o$ject/ $ut not an8 particular speci.en. a boo , a dog, a lawn mower &he indefinite article has two for.s@ A is used $efore words $e"innin" with a consonant sound or an aspirated h@ a car, a lamb, a hope, a habit, a hotel An is used $efore words $e"innin" with a ,owel sound@ an ape, an image, an untruth, an honorable man 0er!s !n"lish has three <inds of #er$s@ transiti,e/ intransiti,e/ and inco.plete. 1. Transiti'e 0er!s ( A ,er$ is transiti'e when the action is carried a ross to a recei,er@ The farmer grows potatoes. /l*is sang ballads. &he recei,er is called the direct o$ject. It answers the Auestion 12hat73 or 12ho.7 after the ,er$. Frows what7 Potatoes. San" what7 2allads. 1. $ntransiti'e 0er!s ( A ,er$ is intransiti'e when the action sta8s with the ,er$. It is not carried across to a recei,er@ 3orn grows. /l*is sang.

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English Grammar
Addin" a prepositional phrase to .odif8 the ,er$ does not chan"e the fact that the action re.ains with the su$ject@ 3orn grows in the fields. /l*is sang all o*er the world. 0oth transiti,e and intransiti,e ,er$s are a tion 'er!s. 2. $n om#lete 0er!s ( &here are three t8pes of inco.plete ,er$s@ i. !eing 'er!s D also called lin<in" or copulati,e ,er$s to be, seem, become, taste, smell, sound, feel Ti#@ So.e of these ,er$s can also $e used transiti,el8. If in dou$t/ su$stitute a for. of to $e for the ,er$. If the sentence still .a<es sense/ the ,er$ is $ein" used as a copulati,e ,er$@ 5e feels depressed. 5e is depressed. 5e feels the wall. 5e is the wall. ii. au*iliar, 'er!s D also called helpin" ,er$s be, ha*e, shall, will, do/ and may. 5e could ha*e gone earlier. iii. semi(au*iliar, 'er!s must, can, ought, dare, need. #ou must not go. #ou dare not go. 0er!s 0oi e !n"lish ,er$s are said to ha,e two ,oices@ acti,e and passi,e. A ti'e 0oi e@ the su$ject of the sentence perfor.s the action@ 5is son catches fly balls. 3reati*e children often dream in class. Note@ #er$s in the acti,e ,oice .a8 $e either transiti,e or intransiti,e. %assi'e 0oi e@ the su$ject recei,es the action@ The ball was caught by the first baseman. The duty is performed by the new recruits. The dough was beaten by the mi+er. The mailman was bitten by the dog. Enl8 transiti,e ,er$s can $e used in the passi,e ,oice. 2hat would $e the direct o$ject of the ,er$ in the acti,e ,oice $eco.es the su$ject of the ,er$ in the passi,e ,oice@ Acti,e ,oice@ The dog bit the mailman. 1$it3 is a transiti,e ,er$. &he recei,erGdirect o$ject is 1.ail.an.3 Passi,e ,oice@ The mailman was bitten by the dog. 1$it3 is now in the passi,e ,oice. &he 1recei,er3 has $eco.e the su$ject of the ,er$. A passi,e ,er$ in either present or past tense will alwa8s ha,e two parts@ so.e for. of the ,er$ to be Bam, is, are, was, wereC/ and a past participle B,er$ for. endin" in Ded/ Den/ or an8 for. used with ha,e when for.in" a perfect tenseC.

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English Grammar
Note@ &he .ere presence of the ,er$ to be does not indicate that a ,er$ is in the passi,e ,oice. &he test of a ,er$ in the passi,e ,oice is the twoDpart Auestion@ Is the su$ject perfor.in" the action of the ,er$ or is the su$ject recei,in" the action of the ,er$7 If the su$ject is recei,in" the action/ then the ,er$ is in passi,e ,oice. So.eti.es the passi,e ,oice is the $est wa8 to e9press a thou"ht. >sed carelessl8/ howe,er/ passi,e ,oice can produce a ponderous/ ine9act writin" st8le. 0er!s 3ood !n"lish ,er$s ha,e four .oods@ indicati,e/ i.perati,e/ su$juncti,e/ and infiniti,e. (ood is the for. of the ,er$ that shows the .ode or .anner in which a thou"ht is e9pressed. 1. $ndi ati'e 3ood@ e9presses an assertion/ denial/ or Auestion@ 7ittle "oc is the capital of Ar ansas. 8striches cannot fly. 5a*e you finished your homewor . 2. $m#erati'e 3ood@ e9presses co..and/ prohi$ition/ entreat8/ or ad,ice@ 9on$t smo e in this building. 2e careful: 9on$t drown that puppy: 3. Su!"un ti'e 3ood@ e9presses dou$t or so.ethin" contrar8 to fact. (odern !n"lish spea<ers use indicati,e .ood .ost of the ti.e/ resortin" to a <ind of 1.i9ed su$juncti,e3 that .a<es use of helpin" ,er$s@ (f ( should see him, ( will tell him. A.ericans are .ore li<el8 to sa8@ (f ( see him, ( will tell him. &he ,er$ may can $e used to e9press a wish@ 'ay you ha*e many more birthdays. 'ay you li*e long and prosper. &he ,er$ were can also indicate the use of the su$juncti,e@ (f ( were you, ( wouldn$t eep dri*ing on those tires. (f he were go*ernor, we$d be in better fiscal shape. 4. $n&initi'e 3ood@ e9presses an action or state without reference to an8 su$ject. It can $e the source of sentence fra".ents when the writer .ista<enl8 thin<s the infiniti,e for. is a full8D functionin" ,er$. 2hen we spea< of the !n"lish infiniti,e/ we usuall8 .ean the $asic for. of the ,er$ with 1to3 in front of it@ to go, to sing, to wal , to spea .

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English Grammar
#er$s said to $e in the infiniti,e .ood can include participle for.s endin" in Ded and Din". #er$s in the infiniti,e .ood are not $ein" used as ,er$s/ $ut as other parts of speech@ To err is human< to forgi*e, di*ine. 5ere/ to err and to forgi*e are used as nouns. 5e is a .an to be admired. 5ere/ to be admired is an adjecti,e/ the eAui,alent of admirable. It descri$es the noun man. 5e came to see you. 5ere/ to see you is used as an ad,er$ to tell wh8 he ca.e. 0er!s Tense (odern !n"lish has si9 tenses/ each of which has a correspondin" continuous tense. &he first three tenses/ #resent/ #ast/ and &uture/ present few pro$le.s. Enl8 third person sin"ular in the present tense differs in for.@ Present tense of re"ular Bwea<C ,er$s@ Today ( wal . Today he wal s. #esterday ( wal ed. Tomorrow ( shall=will wal . &he dwindlin" class of irre"ular Bstron"C ,er$s .ust $e learned indi,iduall8. Today ( go. Today he goes. #esterday ( went. Tomorrow ( shall=will go. &he other three tenses/ #er&e t/ #lu#er&e t/ and &uture #er&e t/ are for.ed with the helpin" ,er$s ha*e, has/ and had. #er&e t@ used to e9press an e,ent that has just finished/ and to descri$e an e,ent which/ althou"h in the past/ has effects that continue into the present. >ueen /li?abeth has reigned for 04 years. #lu#er&e t Bpast perfectC@ used to e9press an e,ent that too< place $efore another action/ also in the past. ( had dri*en all the way to 8 lahoma when ( reali?ed my mista e. &uture #er&e t@ used to e9press an e,ent that will ha,e ta<en place at so.e ti.e in the future. As of 1ebruary 24, ( shall ha*e been in this @ob si+ years. Ad'er!s Ad,er$s are used to des ri!e or modi&, a ,er$/ adjecti,e/ clause/ or another ad,er$. 0asicall8/ the8 .odif8 e,er8thin" e9cept nouns and pronouns Bwhich are .odified $8 adjecti,esC. !9a.ple of an ad,er$ .odif8in" a ,er$@ 5e was running fast. Bfast .odifies runningC !9a.ple of an ad,er$ .odif8in" an adjecti,e@ !he too a *ery small piece of the ca e. B*ery .odifies smallC

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English Grammar
!9a.ple of an ad,er$ .odif8in" a sentence@ !trangely, the man left the room. Bstrangely .odifies the whole sentenceC >suall8 ad,er$s answer to the Auestions 14hen53 Bad,er$s of ti.eC/ 14here53 Bad,er$s of placeC/ and 16ow53 Bad,er$s of .annerC. Ad,er$s can also $e used to connect clauses and sentences Bin this case the8 are called on"un ti'e ad'er!sC. -or e9a.ple@ (t was dar . Therefore, we needed the torch. Btherefore connects the two sentencesC %re#ositions Prepositions are used to lin7 nouns and #ronouns to other words within a sentence. &he words lin<ed to are called o!"e ts. >suall8 prepositions show a spatial or te.poral relationship $etween the noun and the o$ject/ li<e in the e9a.ple $elow@ The cat is under the table. 3at is the noun. )nder is the preposition. Table is the o$ject. 5ere is a list with the .ost co..on prepositions@ about, abo*e, after, among, around, along, at, before, behind, beneath, beside, between, by, down, from, in, into, li e, near, of, off, on, out, o*er, through, to, up, upon, under, and with. Notice that 8ou can also ha,e a prepositional phrase/ which is for.ed $8 the preposition and its o$ject. A preposition phrase can function as ad,er$/ adjecti,e or noun. -or e9a.ple@ The dog was running under the rain. &he prepositional phrase 1under the rain3 acts as an ad,er$/ specif8in" where the do" was runnin". Con"un tions A on"un tion joins words and "roups of words. &here are two classes of conjunction@ su!ordinating. o(ordinate or oordinating and su!ordinate or

Co(ordinate on"un tions@ and, but, eitheror, neithernor. Su!ordinate on"un tions@ that, as, after, before, since, when, where, unless, if. 'other and 1ather are dri*ing me to Aew 8rleans . Band is a coordinate conjunction joinin" words of eAual si"nificance in the sentence. ( painted the walls but Bac painted the woodwor . B!ut is a coordinate conjunction joinin" clauses of eAual si"nificance in the sentence. !ither clause could stand alone as a sentence.C !ince you can$t get away, we$ll go without you.

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English Grammar
BSin e is a su$ordinate conjunction joinin" a less i.portant thou"ht to a .ore i.portant thou"ht. &he .ain clause/ we$ll go without you/ can stand alone as a co.plete thou"ht. &he su$ordinate clause/ !ince you can$t get away/ is an inco.plete thou"ht. It is dependent upon the .ain clause for .eanin".C Note@ &he relati,e pronouns who, whom, which/ and that are used in the sa.e wa8 that su$ordinate conjunctions are. &he difference is that the relati,e pronouns ser,e three purposes at once@ 1C the8 stand for a noun in the .ain clause 2C the8 connect the clauses 3C the8 ser,e as a su$ject or o$ject word in the su$ordinate clause@ 5e is the man who in*ented the hula hoop. Bwho stands for man and is the su$ject of in*entedC 3harles is the boy whom the other children tease. Bwhom stands for boy and is the o$ject of teaseC Di*e me the piece of string that is wa+ed. Bthat stands for string and is the su$ject of is wa+edC There goes the horse which won the 9erby. Bwhi h refers to horse and is the su$ject of wonC &he possessi,e adjecti,e whose can also $e used to join clauses@ That$s the bird whose plumage ( admire. Bwhose refers to bird and descri$es plumageC $nter"e tions Interjection co.es fro. fro. a Hatin word that .eans 1throw $etween.3 It6s a word or phrase that is thrown into a sentence to e9press an e.otion@ Goodness, how you$*e grown: Darn, ( forgot my lunch: las, will he ne*er return. All the i.polite e9pressions that we call e9pleti,es are interjections. Strictl8 spea<in"/ an interjection is not a part of speech. It ser,es no "ra..atical function $ut is rather 1a nois8 utterance li<e the cr8 of an ani.al3 B-.;. :aht=C. Interjections e9press feelin" or e.otion/ not thou"ht and ha,e $een called 1the .isera$le refu"e of the speechless.3 If 8ou6,e e,er stood lunch dut8 on a hi"h school ca.pus/ 8ou <now just how ,apid con,ersation can $e when larded with .eanin"less interjections.

1. %arts o& S#ee h

A word is a 1part of speech3 onl8 when it is used in a sentence. &he function the word ser,es in a sentence is what .a<es it whate,er part of speech it is. -or e9a.ple/ the word 1run3 can $e used as .ore than one part of speech@

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English Grammar
!ammy hit a home run. Brun is a noun/ direct o$ject of hitC #ou mustn$t run near the swimming pool. Brun is a ,er$/ part of the ,er$ phrase must %not& runC 5ere is a si.ple o,er,iew of the !n"lish parts of speech and what the8 do. !ach part of speech is lin<ed to an 42& article that tells .ore a$out it. NO8N D Nouns are na.in" words. 2e can6t tal< a$out an8thin" until we ha,e "i,en it a na.e. %-ONO8N D A pronoun is a word that stands for a noun. 0E-BS D &he ,er$ is the .otor that runs the sentence. A ,er$ ena$les us to sa8 so.ethin" a$out a noun. A.9ECT$0E D An adjecti,e is a word that descri$es a noun. A.0E-B D An ad,er$ adds .eanin" to a ,er$/ an adjecti,e/ or another ad,er$. %-E%OS$T$ON D a preposition is a word that co.es in front of a noun or a pronoun and shows a connection $etween that noun or pronoun and so.e other word in the sentence CON98NCT$ON D a conjunction joins words and "roups of words. $NTE-9ECT$ON I An interjection is a word or phrase thrown into a sentence to e9press an e.otion/ for e9a.ple/ 5o.er Si.pson6s 14oh?3

2. $nter"e tions
Interjection co.es fro. fro. a Hatin word that .eans 1throw $etween.3 It6s a word or phrase that is thrown into a sentence to e9press an e.otion@ Goodness, how you$*e grown: Darn, ( forgot my lunch: las, will he ne*er return. All the i.polite e9pressions that we call e9pleti,es are interjections. Strictl8 spea<in"/ an interjection is not a part of speech. It ser,es no "ra..atical function $ut is rather 1a nois8 utterance li<e the cr8 of an ani.al3 B-.;. :aht=C. Interjections e9press feelin" or e.otion/ not thou"ht and ha,e $een called 1the .isera$le refu"e of the speechless.3 If 8ou6,e e,er stood lunch dut8 on a hi"h school ca.pus/ 8ou <now just how ,apid con,ersation can $e when larded with .eanin"less interjections.

:. Con"un tions

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English Grammar
A on"un tion joins words and "roups of words. &here are two classes of conjunction@ su!ordinating. o(ordinate or oordinating and su!ordinate or

Co(ordinate on"un tions@ and, but, eitheror, neithernor. Su!ordinate on"un tions@ that, as, after, before, since, when, where, unless, if. 'other and 1ather are dri*ing me to Aew 8rleans . Band is a coordinate conjunction joinin" words of eAual si"nificance in the sentence. ( painted the walls but Bac painted the woodwor . B!ut is a coordinate conjunction joinin" clauses of eAual si"nificance in the sentence. !ither clause could stand alone as a sentence.C !ince you can$t get away, we$ll go without you. BSin e is a su$ordinate conjunction joinin" a less i.portant thou"ht to a .ore i.portant thou"ht. &he .ain clause/ we$ll go without you/ can stand alone as a co.plete thou"ht. &he su$ordinate clause/ !ince you can$t get away/ is an inco.plete thou"ht. It is dependent upon the .ain clause for .eanin".C NOTE@ &he relati,e pronouns who, whom, which/ and that are used in the sa.e wa8 that su$ordinate conjunctions are. &he difference is that the relati,e pronouns ser,e three purposes at once@ 1C the8 stand for a noun in the .ain clause 2C the8 connect the clauses 3C the8 ser,e as a su$ject or o$ject word in the su$ordinate clause@ 5e is the man who in*ented the hula hoop. Bwho stands for man and is the su$ject of in*entedC 3harles is the boy whom the other children tease. Bwhom stands for boy and is the o$ject of teaseC Di*e me the piece of string that is wa+ed. Bthat stands for string and is the su$ject of is wa+edC There goes the horse which won the 9erby. Bwhi h refers to horse and is the su$ject of wonC &he possessi,e adjecti,e whose can also $e used to join clauses@ That$s the bird whose plumage ( admire. Bwhose refers to bird and descri$es plumageC

;. $ntrodu tion to the English 0er!

!n"lish has three <inds of #er$s@ transiti,e/ intransiti,e/ and inco.plete. 1. Transiti'e 0er!s A ,er$ is transiti'e when the action is carried a ross to a recei,er@

Page 13 of 39

English Grammar
The farmer grows potatoes. /l*is sang ballads. &he recei,er is called the direct o$ject. It answers the Auestion 12hat73 or 12ho.7 after the ,er$. Frows what7 Potatoes. San" what7 2allads. 1. $ntransiti'e 0er!s A ,er$ is intransiti'e when the action sta8s with the ,er$. It is not carried across to a recei,er@ 3orn grows. /l*is sang. Addin" a prepositional phrase to .odif8 the ,er$ does not chan"e the fact that the action re.ains with the su$ject@ 3orn grows in the fields. /l*is sang all o*er the world. 0oth transiti,e and intransiti,e ,er$s are a tion 'er!s. 2. $n om#lete 0er!s &here are three t8pes of inco.plete ,er$s@ i. !eing 'er!s D also called lin<in" or copulati,e ,er$s to be, seem, become, taste, smell, sound, feel &IP@ So.e of these ,er$s can also $e used transiti,el8. If in dou$t/ su$stitute a for. of to $e for the ,er$. If the sentence still .a<es sense/ the ,er$ is $ein" used as a copulati,e ,er$@ 5e feels depressed. 5e is depressed. 5e feels the wall. 5e is the wall. ii. au*iliar, 'er!s D also called helpin" ,er$s be, ha*e, shall, will, do/ and may. 5e could ha*e gone earlier. iii. semi(au*iliar, 'er!s must, can, ought, dare, need. #ou must not go. #ou dare not go.

<. 0er! Tense

(odern !n"lish has si9 tenses/ each of which has a correspondin" continuous tense. &he first three tenses/ #resent/ #ast/ and &uture/ present few pro$le.s. Enl8 third person sin"ular in the present tense differs in for.@ Present tense of re"ular Bwea<C ,er$s@ Today ( wal . Today he wal s. #esterday ( wal ed. Tomorrow ( shall=will wal . &he dwindlin" class of irre"ular Bstron"C ,er$s .ust $e learned indi,iduall8.

Page 1, of 39

English Grammar
Today ( go. Today he goes. #esterday ( went. Tomorrow ( shall=will go. &he other three tenses/ #er&e t/ #lu#er&e t/ and &uture #er&e t/ are for.ed with the helpin" ,er$s ha*e, has/ and had. #er&e t@ used to e9press an e,ent that has just finished/ and to descri$e an e,ent which/ althou"h in the past/ has effects that continue into the present. >ueen /li?abeth has reigned for 04 years. #lu#er&e t Bpast perfectC@ used to e9press an e,ent that too< place $efore another action/ also in the past. ( had dri*en all the way to 8 lahoma when ( reali?ed my mista e. &uture #er&e t@ used to e9press an e,ent that will ha,e ta<en place at so.e ti.e in the future. As of 1ebruary 24, ( shall ha*e been in this @ob si+ years.

=. 0er! 3ood
!n"lish ,er$s ha,e four .oods@ indicati,e/ i.perati,e/ su$juncti,e/ and infiniti,e. (ood is the for. of the ,er$ that shows the .ode or .anner in which a thou"ht is e9pressed. 1. $ndi ati'e 3ood@ e9presses an assertion/ denial/ or Auestion@ 7ittle "oc is the capital of Ar ansas. 8striches cannot fly. 5a*e you finished your homewor . 2. $m#erati'e 3ood@ e9presses co..and/ prohi$ition/ entreat8/ or ad,ice@ 9on$t smo e in this building. 2e careful: 9on$t drown that puppy: 3. Su!"un ti'e 3ood@ e9presses dou$t or so.ethin" contrar8 to fact. (odern !n"lish spea<ers use indicati,e .ood .ost of the ti.e/ resortin" to a <ind of 1.i9ed su$juncti,e3 that .a<es use of helpin" ,er$s@ (f ( should see him, ( will tell him. A.ericans are .ore li<el8 to sa8@ (f ( see him, ( will tell him. &he ,er$ may can $e used to e9press a wish@ 'ay you ha*e many more birthdays. 'ay you li*e long and prosper. &he ,er$ were can also indicate the use of the su$juncti,e@ (f ( were you, ( wouldn$t eep dri*ing on those tires. (f he were go*ernor, we$d be in better fiscal shape.

Page 10 of 39

English Grammar
4. $n&initi'e 3ood@ e9presses an action or state without reference to an8 su$ject. It can $e the source of sentence fra".ents when the writer .ista<enl8 thin<s the infiniti,e for. is a full8D functionin" ,er$. 2hen we spea< of the !n"lish infiniti,e/ we usuall8 .ean the $asic for. of the ,er$ with 1to3 in front of it@ to go, to sing, to wal , to spea . #er$s said to $e in the infiniti,e .ood can include participle for.s endin" in Ded and Din". #er$s in the infiniti,e .ood are not $ein" used as ,er$s/ $ut as other parts of speech@ To err is human< to forgi*e, di*ine. 5ere/ to err and to forgi*e are used as nouns. 5e is a .an to be admired. 5ere/ to be admired is an adjecti,e/ the eAui,alent of admirable. It descri$es the noun man. 5e came to see you. 5ere/ to see you is used as an ad,er$ to tell wh8 he ca.e.

>. 0er!s 0oi e

!n"lish ,er$s are said to ha,e two ,oices@ acti,e and passi,e. A ti'e 0oi e@ the su$ject of the sentence perfor.s the action@ 5is son catches fly balls. 3reati*e children often dream in class. Note@ #er$s in the acti,e ,oice .a8 $e either transiti,e or intransiti,e. %assi'e 0oi e@ the su$ject recei,es the action@ The ball was caught by the first baseman. The duty is performed by the new recruits. The dough was beaten by the mi+er. The mailman was bitten by the dog. Enl8 transiti,e ,er$s can $e used in the passi,e ,oice. 2hat would $e the direct o$ject of the ,er$ in the acti,e ,oice $eco.es the su$ject of the ,er$ in the passi,e ,oice@ Acti,e ,oice@ The dog bit the mailman. 1$it3 is a transiti,e ,er$. &he recei,erGdirect o$ject is 1.ail.an.3 Passi,e ,oice@ The mailman was bitten by the dog. 1$it3 is now in the passi,e ,oice. &he 1recei,er3 has $eco.e the su$ject of the ,er$. A passi,e ,er$ in either present or past tense will alwa8s ha,e two parts@ so.e for. of the ,er$ to be Bam, is, are, was, wereC/ and a past participle B,er$ for. endin" in Ded/ Den/ or an8 for. used with ha,e when for.in" a perfect tenseC. NE&!@ &he .ere presence of the ,er$ to be does not indicate that a ,er$ is in the passi,e ,oice. &he test of a ,er$ in the passi,e ,oice is the twoDpart Auestion@ Is the su$ject perfor.in" the action of the ,er$ or is the su$ject recei,in" the action of the ,er$7

Page 14 of 39

English Grammar
If the su$ject is recei,in" the action/ then the ,er$ is in passi,e ,oice. So.eti.es the passi,e ,oice is the $est wa8 to e9press a thou"ht. >sed carelessl8/ howe,er/ passi,e ,oice can produce a ponderous/ ine9act writin" st8le.

?. Arti les
&he words a/ an/ and the are "enerall8 called arti les and so.eti.es classed as a separate part of speech. In function/ howe,er/ the8 can $e "rouped with the de.onstrati,e adjecti,es that are used to point thin"s out rather than descri$e the.. .e&inite Arti le The is called the definite arti le $ecause it points out a particular o$ject or class. This is the boo ( was tal ing about. The dodo bird is e+tinct. $nde&inite Arti le A is called the inde&inite arti le $ecause it points out an o$ject/ $ut not an8 particular speci.en. a boo , a dog, a lawn mower &he indefinite article has two for.s@ A is used $efore words $e"innin" with a consonant sound or an aspirated h@ a car, a lamb, a hope, a habit, a hotel An is used $efore words $e"innin" with a ,owel sound@ an ape, an image, an untruth, an honorable man

8sing @aA and @anA Be&ore 4ords

-hen should ( use EaF and when should ( use EanF before the different words. 1or e+ample, should ( say Ea hourF or Ean hour.F ( stumble o*er this e*erytime and dont$t now if ($m getting it right, as ($m not spea ing and writing /nglish nati*ely.

The -ule
&he rule states that 1a3 should $e used $efore words that $e"in with consonants Be."./ $/ c /dC while 1an3 should $e used $efore words that $e"in with ,owels Be."./ a/e/iC. Notice/ howe,er/ that the usa"e is deter.ined $8 the pronunciation and not $8 the spellin"/ as .an8 people wron"l8 assu.e. You should sa8/ therefore/ 1an hour3 B$ecause hour $e"ins with a ,owel soundC and 1a histor83 B$ecause history $e"ins with a consonant soundC.

Page 16 of 39

English Grammar
Si.ilarl8 8ou should sa8 1a union3 e,en if union $e"ins with a 1u.3 &hat is $ecause the pronunciation $e"ins with 18u3/ which is a consonant sound.

A!!re'iations
4ecidin" which ,ersion 8ou should use with a$$re,iations is the tric<8 part. -irst of all 8ou need to understand if the a$$re,iation is pronounced as a sin"le word or letter $8 letter. 2hile we sa8 1a li"htDwater reactor/3 the a$$re,iation is 1an H2:.3 Si.ilarl8/ 8ou should use 1an N0C reporter3 B$ecause 1N0C3 is pronounced 1en$isi3C and 1a NA&E authorit83 B$ecause 1NA&E3 $e"ins with a 1ne3 soundC.

1B.

Ad"e ti'es

An adjecti,e is a word that descri$es a noun. &here are two <inds@ attri!uti'e and #redi ati'e. An adjecti,e is used attri!uti'el, when it stands ne9t to a noun and descri$es it@ The black cat climbed a tree. NOTE@ &he ,er$ participle for.s can $e used as adjecti,es@ The man felt a paralyzing fear. Flavored oatmeal tastes better than plain oatmeal. &he usual place of the adjecti,e in !n"lish is in front of the noun. You can ha,e a whole strin" of adjecti,es if 8ou li<e@ The tall thin evil-looking cowboy roped the short, fat, inoffensive calf. So.eti.es/ for rhetorical or poetic effect/ the adjecti,e can co.e after the noun@ !arah Plain and Tall B$oo< titleC. This is the forest primeval. An adjecti,e is used #redi ati'el, when a ,er$ separates it fro. the noun or pronoun it descri$es@ The umpire was wrong. The crowd was furious. !he seems tired today. This soup tastes bad. The dog$s coat feels smooth. &he ,er$s that can $e co.pleted $8 #redi ate ad"e ti'es are called !eing 'er!s or o#ulati'e 'er!s. &he8 include all the for.s of to be and sensin" ,er$s li<e seem, feel/ and taste. Ad"e ti'e Classi&i ations /ualitati'e@ good, bad, happy, blue, 1rench #ossessi'e@ my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their relati'e and interrogati'e@ which, what, whate*er/ etc. numeral@ one, two, second, single/ etc. inde&inite@ some, any, much, few, e*ery/ etc. demonstrati'e@ this, that, the, a %an&, such

Page 1; of 39

English Grammar
NOTE@ the de.onstrati,e adjecti,es the and a BanC are so i.portant in !n"lish that the8 ha,e a special na.e@ arti les. &he8 are discussed separatel8 Bi.e. co.in" soonC.

11.

Ad'er!s

Ad,er$s are used to descri$e or .odif8 a ,er$/ adjecti,e/ clause/ or another ad,er$. 0asicall8/ the8 .odif8 e,er8thin" e9cept nouns and pronouns Bwhich are .odified $8 adjecti,esC. !9a.ple of an ad,er$ .odif8in" a ,er$@ 5e was runnin" fast. Bfast .odifies runningC !9a.ple of an ad,er$ .odif8in" an adjecti,e@ She too< a ,er8 s.all piece of the ca<e. B*ery .odifies smallC !9a.ple of an ad,er$ .odif8in" a sentence@ Stran"el8/ the .an left the roo.. Bstrangely .odifies the whole sentenceC >suall8 ad,er$s answer to the Auestions 12hen73 Bad,er$s of ti.eC/ 12here73 Bad,er$s of placeC/ and 15ow73 Bad,er$s of .annerC. Ad,er$s can also $e used to connect clauses and sentences Bin this case the8 are called conjuncti,e ad,er$sC. -or e9a.ple@ It was dar<. &herefore/ we needed the torch. Btherefore connects the two sentencesC

11.

%re#ositions

Prepositions are used to lin< nouns and pronouns to other words within a sentence. &he words lin<ed to are called ob@ects. >suall8 prepositions show a spatial or te.poral relationship $etween the noun and the o$ject/ li<e in the e9a.ple $elow@ &he cat is under the ta$le. 3at is the noun. )nder is the preposition. Table is the o$ject. 5ere is a list with the .ost co..on prepositions@ about, abo*e, after, among, around, along, at, before, behind, beneath, beside, between, by, down, from, in, into, li e, near, of, off, on, out, o*er, through, to, up, upon, under, and with.

Page 19 of 39

English Grammar
Notice that 8ou can also ha,e a prepositional phrase/ which is for.ed $8 the preposition and its o$ject. A preposition phrase can function as ad,er$/ adjecti,e or noun. -or e9a.ple@ &he do" was runnin" under the rain. &he prepositional phrase 1under the rain3 acts as an ad,er$/ specif8in" where the do" was runnin".

4hen to use @onA and when to use @inA

-hat are the proper usages of the words EinF and EonF in a sentence. ( often confuse the two. 5ere are some e+amplesG EThe boat is in=on the water,F E-e are in=on the planet,F E-e$re going to the concert in=on Buly 1st.F &he use of prepositions in !n"lish is freAuentl8 idio.atic. Feneral "uidelines e9ist/ $ut $e prepared to learn indi,idual e9pressions in which the preposition does not adhere to the "uidelines. In the case of the prepositions in and on/ here are the .ost usual uses. In D in .ainl8 denotes 1rest at3@ PHAC!@ 5e li,es in the countr8. 5e li,es in Chica"o. B0>&/ 5e li,es at 23++ 2a$ash A,e.C &I(!@ I6ll $e there in an hour. (ANN!:@ &he child ran down the steps in tears. :!-!:!NC!@ In .8 opinion we need a referendu.. &he8 are happ8 in their .arria"e.

On ( on indicates pro9i.it8 and position a$o,e or outside@

PHAC!@ 5e sat on the fence. &I(!@ 5e was not thin<in" well on that occasion. :!-!:!NC!@ 5e as<ed .8 opinion on the .atter. CEN4I&IEN@ 2e6ll hire hi. on 8our reco..endation. &he e9a.ples "i,en in the Auestion@ 2e are on the planet. 2e are "oin" to the concert on ;ul8 1. 0ut 2e are "oin" to the concert in ;ul8. As for the e9a.ple a$out the $oat/ either is correct/ accordin" to what is .eant@ &he $oat is in the water. BAs opposed to $ein" on dr8 land for the winterC &he $oat is on the water. BHoo< at all those $oats out there on the water?C 5owe,er/ it would $e unidio.atic to sa8 The ship is in the ocean or in the sea/ unless 8ou .ean that it has sun<. The ship is on the sea.

Page 2C of 39

English Grammar
:elated to the Auestion of when to use in is that of when to use into. 2hile in denotes the state of $ein" 1at rest3 in a place/ or at least $ein" Bin a senseC surrounded $8 so.ethin"/ into denotes .otion towards@ &he do" ju.ped into the water. &he children Bwho were alread8 in the waterC ju.ped in the water. 2hen decidin" whether to use in or into/ as< 8ourself if the person or thin" 8ou are tal<in" a$out is .o,in" fro. one place to another. If so/ use into.

%re#ositions &or the %er#le*ed I wasn6t the onl8 one to "et out of school with less than a co.plete "rasp of what a preposition is or does. 2hen I was in hi"h school/ I ne,er could pic< out prepositional phrases. Eh/ I .e.ori=ed the lists of prepositions li<e in, on, up, with, to/ and from. I just couldn6t fi"ure out how the8 wor<ed in a sentence. After all/ so.e of the words in the list could also $e used as ad,er$s@ ( went to the ri*er and @umped in. A word isn6t an8thin" until it is used in a sentence. It wasn6t until I started teachin" !n"lish that I finall8 1"ot3 prepositions. Prepositions are joinin" words. &he8 join so.ethin" to a noun Bor pronounC. Deorge H was Iing of /ngland. &he preposition 1of3 joins the noun 1Kin"3 to the noun 1!n"land.3 &he joinin" adds infor.ation to the noun 1Kin".3 The boy played in the water. &he preposition 1in3 joins the ,er$ 1pla8ed3 to the noun 1water.3 &he joinin" con,e8s where the pla8in" too< place. The boy in the water is my brother. 5ere the preposition 1in3 joins the noun 1$o83 to the noun 1water.3 &his joinin" identifies a particular $o8/ distin"uishin" hi. fro. a possi$le 1$o8 on the $each3 or 1$o8 in the $oat.3 Prepositions are said to 1"o,ern3 nouns Bor pronounsC. &he usual position of a preposition is in front of the noun it "o,erns. A 1prepositional phrase3 is the preposition and its noun/ plus all the words that co.e $etween. So.eti.es a prepositional phrase consists of just the preposition and the noun Bor pronounC that it "o,erns@ This boo is by Tolstoy. Bpreposition 1$8/3 noun 1&olsto83C So.eti.es the phrase has se,eral words $etween the preposition and the noun "o,erned@ -e went to the new outlet mall. Bpreposition 1to/3 noun 1.all3C Prepositional phrases function as parts of speech. The boy in the water is my brother . B3in the water3 tells .ore a$out 1$o8.63 &he phrase functions as an adjecti,e descri$in" 1$o8.3 5e6s the inDtheDwater $o8.C

Page 21 of 39

English Grammar
&he do" is swi..in" in the water. B3in the water3 tells where the swi..in" is ta<in" place. &he phrase functions as an ad,er$ .odif8in" 1swi..in".3C Althou"h the preposition usuall8 co.es $efore the noun it "o,erns/ !n"lish per.its us to place the preposition at the end of a sentence. BPurists a$hor this construction/ $ut it is ,er8 natural in !n"lish.C !9. -hose house do you want to meet at7 B&he prepositional phrase is at whose house.C 08 the wa8/ it is this practice that is contri$utin" to the decline of 1who.3 as the o$ject for. of 1who3. &he ear reco"ni=es the need for 1who.3 when 1to3 precedes it/ $ut not when the 1to3 is far re.o,ed@ !ho do you want to spea to7 as opposed to To whom do you wish to spea 7 As for wantin" rules that will e9plain e,er8 prepositional e9pression such as in the army, on the team, at the hour/ or in a monthJsa,e 8our ener"8. &he8 don6t e9ist.

12.

%ronouns

Pronouns are used to replace nouns within sentences/ .a<in" the. less repetiti,e and .echanic. -or e9a.ple/ sa8in" 1'ary didn$t go to school because 'ary was sic 3 doesn6t sound ,er8 "ood. Instead/ if 8ou sa8 1'ary didn$t go to school because she was sic 3 it will .a<e the sentence flow $etter. &here are se,eral t8pes of pronouns/ $elow 8ou will find the .ost co..on ones@ 1. Su!"e ti'e #ersonal #ronouns. As the na.e i.plies/ su$jecti,e pronouns act as su$jects within sentences. &he8 are@ (, you, he, she, we, they/ and it. !9a.ple@ ( am going to the ban while he is going to the mar et. 2. O!"e ti'e #ersonal #ronouns. &hese pronouns act as the o$ject of ,er$s within sentences. &he8 are@ me, you, him, her, us, them and it. !9a.ple@ The ball was going to hit me in the face. 3. %ossessi'e #ersonal #ronouns. &hese pronouns are used to indicate possession/ and the8 are placed after the o$ject in Auestion Bas opposed to possessi,e adjecti,es li<e my and your/ which are placed $efore the o$jectC. &he8 are@ mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs and its. !9a.ple of possessi,e adjecti,e@ This is my car. !9a.ple of possessi,e pronoun@ This car is mine. 4. -e&le*i'e #ronouns. &his special class of pronouns is used when the o$ject is the sa.e as the su$ject on the sentence. &he8 are myself, yourself, himself, herself, oursel*es, themsel*es and itself. !9a.ple@ ( managed to cut myself in the itchen. . $nterrogati'e #ronouns. As 8ou pro$a$l8 "uessed these pronouns are used to as< Auestions. &he8 are what, which, who, whom and whose.

Page 22 of 39

English Grammar
!9a.ple@ -hat are the odds. %. .emonstrati'e #ronouns. &hese pronouns are used to indicate a noun and distin"uish it fro. other entities. Notice that de.onstrati,e pronouns replace the noun Bwhile de.onstrati,e deter.iners .odif8 the.C. &he8 are@ this/ that/ these/ those. !9a.ple of a de.onstrati,e deter.iner@ This house is ugly. !9a.ple of a de.onstrati,e pronoun@ This is the right one. '. $nde&inite #ronouns. As the na.e i.plies/ indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific thin"/ place or person. &here are .an8 of the./ includin" anyone, anywhere, e*eryone, none, someone and so on. !9a.ple@ /*eryone is going to the party.

1:.

%lural Form o& Nouns

&he !n"lish lan"ua"e has $oth re"ular and irre"ular plural for.s of nouns. &he .ost co..on case is when 8ou need to add Ds to the noun. -or e9a.ple one car and two cars. &he other two cases of the re"ular plural for. are@ nouns that end with s/ 9/ ch or sh/ where 8ou add Des Be."./ one $o9/ two $o9esC nouns that end with consonant K 8/ where 8ou chan"e the 8 with i and add Des Be."./ one ene.8/ two ene.iesC En the irre"ular plural for. of nouns there are $asicall8 ei"ht cases@ nouns that end with Do/ where 8ou add Des Be."./ one potato/ two potatoesC nouns endin" with Dis/ where 8ou chan"e Dis to Des Be."./ one crisis/ two crisesC nouns endin" with Df/ where 8ou chan"e Df to D, and add Des Be."./ one wolf/ two wol,esC nouns endin" with Dfe/ where 8ou chan"e Df to D, and add Ds Be."./ one life/ two li,esC nouns endin" with Dus/ where 8ou chan"e Dus to Di Be."./ one fun"us/ two fun"iC nouns that contain Doo/ chan"e Doo to Dee Be."./ one foot/ two feetC nouns that end with Don/ where 8ou chan"e Don with Da Be."./ pheno.enon/ pheno.enaC nouns that don6t chan"e Be."./ sheep/ offsprin"/ seriesC It .i"ht appear o,erwhel.in"/ $ut after usin" these nouns a couple of ti.es 8ou will $e a$le to .e.ori=e their plural for. easil8.

1;.

Nouns

A noun is a word used to descri$e a person/ place/ thin"/ e,ent/ idea/ and so on. Nouns represent one of the .ain ele.ents of sentences/ alon" with ,er$s/ adjecti,es/ prepositions and articles. Nouns usuall8 function as su$jects or o$jects within sentences/ althou"h the8 can also act as adjecti,es and ad,er$s.

Page 23 of 39

English Grammar
5ere is a list with the different t8pes of nouns@ 1. %ro#er nouns ( >sed to descri$e a uniAue person or thin"/ proper nouns alwa8s start with a capital letter. !9a.ples include 'ary/ (ndia/ and 'anchester )nited. 2. Common nouns ( Co..on nouns are used to descri$e persons or thin"s in "eneral. !9a.ples include girl/ country/ and team 3. Con rete nouns ( Nouns that can $e percei,ed throu"h the fi,e senses are called concrete nouns. !9a.ples include ball/ rainbow and melody. 4. A!stra t nouns ( Nouns that cannot $e percei,ed throu"h the fi,e senses are called a$stract nouns. !9a.ples include lo*e/ courage/ and childhood. . Counta!le nouns ( Counta$le nouns can $e counted. &he8 also ha,e $oth a sin"ular and a plural for.. !9a.ples include toys/ children and boo s. %. Non( ounta!le nouns ( &hese nouns Busuall8C can not $e counted/ and the8 don6t ha,e a plural for.. !9a.ples include sympathy/ laughter and o+ygen. '. Colle ti'e nouns ( Collecti,e nouns are used to descri$e "roups of thin"s. !9a.ples include floc , committee and murder.

4ords with the Su&&i*es @(an eA and @(en eA

2hen to write Den e and when to write Dan e at the ends of words such as@ a&&luen e) elo/uen e) essen e) in&luen e) insurgen e and am!ulan e) lair'o,an e) &inan e) ignoran e) nuisan e In a priorit8 list for !n"lish spellin" refor./ the spellin"s Den e and Dan e/ Dent and Dant/ surel8 deser,e a place near the top. 0oth Dan e and Den e deri,e ulti.atel8 fro. Hatin endin"s spelled Dentia and Dantia. 0efore the Si9teenth Centur8 when !n"lish scholars $usied the.sel,es tr8in" to .a<e !n"lish spellin" and "ra..ar confor. to the lo"ic of Hatin/ so.e words that had alread8 entered the lan"ua"e spelled with (an e were altered to Den e. NE&!@ &he silent ! ca.e into the word de!t at this ti.e. In (iddle !n"lish the word was usuall8 spelled det or dette/ rarel8 debte. &he refor.in" scholars decided that since the word ca.e fro. Hatin debitum/ it needed the !. As for <nowin" when to write (en e and when to write (an e/ I $elie,e that this is a case in which o$ser,ation and practice offer the $est solution. A spell chec<er can also help.

Page 2, of 39

English Grammar
A we$site called !,er8thin"2 for.ulates se,eral rules for the Den eC(an e) (entC(ant spellin"s/ $ut the .ultiplicit8 of rules and e9ceptions would see. to de.and .ore .ental e9ertion than si.pl8 .e.ori=in" the words one has trou$le with. I was tau"ht to attach what .8 teacher called a 1spellin" pronunciation3 to words that do not sound the wa8 the8 are spelled. -or e9a.ple/ I ha,e no trou$le spellin" chihuahua $ecause I thin< 1GchI hooDa hooDaG.3 &he sa.e "oes for words in D en e and Dan e/ Dent and Dant. I loo< at the word and e.phasi=e the endin" in .8 head@ de fen 4AN&/ pre, a H!N&. 4o this often enou"h and the correct spellin" will enter 8our lon" ter. .e.or8. CA>&IEN@ So.e dan"er .a8 attach to the use of .ental spellin" pronunciations@ the8 .a8 slip into 8our speech. I6,e heard .ore than one &# law8er pronounce Gde fen dentG as Gde fen 4AN&G.

1<.

Senten es) Clauses and %hrases

In this Section/ we6ll co,er sentences/ clauses and phrases.

Senten es
Sentences are .ade of two parts@ the su$ject and the predicate. &he su$ject is the person or thin" that acts or is descri$ed in the sentence. &he predicate/ on the other hand/ is that action or description. Co.plete sentences need $oth the su$ject and the predicate.

Clauses
Sentences can $e $ro<en down into clauses. -or e9a.ple@ &he $o8 is "oin" to the school/ and he is "oin" to eat there. &his is a co.plete sentence co.posed of two clauses. &here are .ainl8 two t8pes of clauses@ independent clauses and su$ordinate clauses. Independent clauses act as co.plete sentences/ while su$ordinate clauses cannot stand alone and need another clause to co.plete their .eanin". -or e9a.ple@ Independent clause@ 1&he $o8 went to the school.3 Su$ordinate clause@ 1After the $o8 went to the schoolL3

%hrases
A "roup of two or .ore "ra..aticall8 lin<ed words that do not ha,e su$ject and predicate is a phrase. -or e9a.ple@

Page 20 of 39

English Grammar
&he "irl is at ho.e/ and to.orrow she is "oin" to the a.use.ent par<. You can see that 1the a.use.ent par<3 is a phrase located in the second clause of the co.plete sentence a$o,e. Phrases act li<e parts of speech inside clauses. &hat is/ the8 can act as nouns/ adjecti,es/ ad,er$s and so on.

Beware o& @4homA

I just read a .8ster8 $8 Sue Frafton in which her character Kinse8 (illhone .entall8 corrects a .aid who responds to her phone call $8 as<in" 12ho .a8 I sa8 is callin"73 &he (illhone character thin<s 1-hom/ sweetheart/ -hom shall I sa8 is callin"L3 &his passa"e illustrates the fact that e,en an e9cellent writer can ha,e trou$le with when to use who and when to use whom. In this case/ the .aid was ri"ht and the detecti,e was wron". If 8ou want to <now wh8/ read on. Hi<e .ost pronouns/ who has two for.s@ a su$ject for./ who/ and an o$ject for./ whom. &o understand the use of pronoun pairs such as whoGwho./ heGhi./ sheGher/ IG.e/ the8Gthe./ and weGus when used with a ,er$/ one .ust reco"ni=e whether the word is $ein" used as the su$ject of the ,er$ or as its o$ject. !,er8 ,er$ has a su$ject. &he su!"e t is the doer of an action@ $ sin". 4e shop in town. 4ho <nows the secret7 So.e ,er$s ha,e o$jects. &he o!"e t recei,es the action@ &he $all hit me. 4on6t for"et us. 4hom do 8ou li<e $est7 (ost of the ti.e we ha,e little trou$le reco"ni=in" su$ject and ,er$ $ecause the su$ject usuall8 co.es $efore the ,er$ and the o$ject co.es after it. &he difficult8 with whoGwho. arises fro. the fact that in a Auestion/ word order is re,ersed. 2e sa8 12here are 8ou "oin"73 and not 1You are "oin" where73/ 12ho. do 8ou li<e $est73 and not 1You do li<e who. $est73 &hin"s "et reall8 stic<8 when a sentence contains .ore than one clause Bi.e./ .ore than one set of su$ject and ,er$C.

Page 24 of 39

English Grammar
&he .aid6s response is .ade up of two clauses. &hat is/ it has two ,er$s@ shall sa8 and is calling. &he su$ject of shall sa8 is (. &he su$ject of is callin" is who. &he clauses can $e constructed in ,arious wa8s@ -ho is calling, shall ( say. !hall ( say who is calling. -ho shall ( say is calling. &he iron8 of Frafton6s criticis. of the .aid6s use of who is that elsewhere in the no,el/ (illhone doesn6t alwa8s use whom when would $e appropriate. Con lusion &he use of whom as the o$ject for. of who is on its wa8 out of the lan"ua"e. (ore and .ore educated spea<ers and writers use who as $oth su$ject and o$ject. &here doesn6t see. to $e an8 reason not to. 12ho do 8ou want73 has $eco.e accepta$le. Indeed/ to the A.erican ear/ 12ho. do 8ou want73 sounds e9cessi,el8 proper. Personall8/ I li<e to o$ser,e the difference $etween who and whom in .8 writin"/ $ut I rarel8 do in spea<in". 2hate,er 8ou do/ don6t use whom as a su$ject? I6,e seen it done/ further proof that this particular point of "ra..ar has lost its si"nificance. If 8ou aren6t sure whether to use who or whom/ "o with who.

That 's. 4hi h

Ene of our readers recentl8 wrote to as<@ 2hen proofreadin" a peer6s article on the solar s8ste./ I reali=ed that she/ and I/ are unsure of the proper use of 1that3 and 1which3 in a sentence. 0elow is MSICN two e9a.ples of the sa.e sentence/ one usin" 1that3 and the other 1which.3

1&o our <nowled"e/ it is the onl8 $od8 in the solar s8ste. which currentl8 sustains life/ althou"h se,eral other $odies are under in,esti"ation.3 1&o our <nowled"e/ it is the onl8 $od8 in the solar s8ste. that currentl8 sustains life/ althou"h se,eral other $odies are under in,esti"ation.3

2hich is the correct sentence/ and what is the "eneral rule of thu.$7 Answer@ the second ,ersion of that sentence/ usin" that is correct. 4hen To 8se @ThatA and 4hen To 8se @4hi hA 0efore I co.e on to the @thatACAwhi hA rule/ just a re.inder that 1who3 should alwa8s $e used when referrin" to people.

&he $o8 who threw the $all. &his is the wo.an who alwa8s wears a $lac< shawl.

Page 26 of 39

English Grammar
2hen referrin" to o$jects/ thou"h/ the rule for usin" 1that3 and 1which3 correctl8 is si.ple@

T6AT should $e used to introduce a restricti,e clause. 46$C6 should $e used to introduce a nonDrestricti,e or parenthetical clause.

If that lea,es 8ou .ore confused than when 8ou $e"an this article/ read onL A restri ti'e lause is one which is essential to the .eanin" of a sentence J if it6s re.o,ed/ the .eanin" of the sentence will chan"e. -or e9a.ple@

Chairs that don$t ha*e cushions are unco.forta$le to sit on. Card "a.es that in*ol*e betting money should not $e pla8ed in school. &o our <nowled"e/ it is the onl8 $od8 in the solar s8ste. that currently sustains life

A nonDrestricti,e clause can $e left out without chan"in" the .eanin" of a sentence. NonD restricti,e clauses are either in $rac<ets or ha,e a co..a $efore and after the. Bor onl8 $efore the. if the8 co.e at the end of a sentenceC@

Chairs/ which are found in many places of wor , are often unco.forta$le to sit on. I sat on an unco.forta$le chair/ which was in my office.

4h, You Need to 8se @ThatA or @4hi hA Corre tl, Chan"in" that to whi h or ,ice ,ersa can co.pletel8 chan"e the .eanin" of a sentence. Consider the followin" e9a.ples@

(8 car that is blue "oes ,er8 fast. (8 car/ which is blue, "oes ,er8 fast.

&he first sentence uses that J su""estin" I own .ore than one car Band e,en i.pl8in" .8 other cars .i"ht not $e so fastC. &his is what happens if we lea,e out the clause and write@

(8 car that is $lue "oes ,er8 fast. (8 car "oes ,er8 fast.

&he sentence6s .eanin" has chan"ed@ the reader does not <now which one of .8 cars "oes ,er8 fast. 5owe,er/ the sentence usin" whi h si.ple infor.s the reader that .8 car is $lue. 2e can ta<e the clause out without losin" an8 essential infor.ation@

(8 car/ which is $lue/ "oes ,er8 fast. (8 car "oes ,er8 fast.

@ThatA and @4hi hA in Common 8sage It is co..on toda8 for whi h to $e used with $oth nonDrestricti,e and restricti,e clauses/ especiall8 in infor.al conte9ts@

2ho ate the ca<e that I $ou"ht this .ornin"7 2ho ate the ca<e which I $ou"ht this .ornin"7

Page 2; of 39

English Grammar
&he clause Ethat ( bought this morningF is essential to the .eanin" J I6. not as<in" a$out a ca<e which I $ou"ht 8esterda8/ or this afternoon. &herefore/ the first e9a.ple usin" 1that3 is the correct one/ $ut .an8 people would not consider the second un"ra..atical. It is/ howe,er/ incorrect e,en in infor.al conte9ts to use that for a nonDrestricti,e or parenthical clause. -or e9a.ple/ these sentences would $e considered incorrect@

&his co.puter/ that I ha,e ne,er li<ed/ is ,er8 slow. &he $lue des</ that .8 father "a,e .e.

An eas8 wa8 to watch out for these is to loo< for instances where 8ou ha,e a co..a followed $8 the word that. If I6d <now this 8ears a"o/ it would ha,e sa,ed .e a lot of frustration with (icrosoft 2ord? !,en thou"h the usa"e of which has $een rela9ed to so.e e9tent/ it is still $etter to <eep 8our writin" as clear as possi$le $8 usin" whi h for onl8 nonDrestricti,e clauses/ and that for restricti,e ones. So/ to return to ;ustin6s e9a.ple@

1&o our <nowled"e/ it is the onl8 $od8 in the solar s8ste. which currentl8 sustains life/ althou"h se,eral other $odies are under in,esti"ation.3 1&o our <nowled"e/ it is the onl8 $od8 in the solar s8ste. that currentl8 sustains life/ althou"h se,eral other $odies are under in,esti"ation.3

&he second sentence/ usin" that is correct/ $ut .an8 people would consider the first sentence per.issi$le too. In a for.al conte9t such as a scientific paper/ it is $etter to use that for total clarit8.

Trou!le with @.idA and @6adA

I6,e $e"un to notice the use of 1did3 in conte9ts that call for 1had.3 In an episode of 3!( Aew #or / the Sinese character re.ar<s@ If I didn6t do it/ he would ha,e <illed .e. 5e6s referrin" to so.ethin" $ad he did earlier in the episode. 5e wasn6t <illed/ so the act he6s referrin" to is $oth contrar8 to fact and in the past. &he state.ent is an e9a.ple of the contrar8DtoDfact past conditional. 0ecause the 1if3 clause refers to a contrar8DtoDfact past e,ent/ it reAuires the past perfect for. of the ,er$. If I hadn6t done it/ he would ha,e <illed .e. 5ere6s another e9a.ple of usin" 1did3 when 1had3 was called for@ 4id 8ou $rin" an8 $eer7 I wish I did.

Page 29 of 39

English Grammar
&he spea<er has arri,ed at a "atherin" of friends. It6s clear fro. the conte9t that he6s wishin" he6d thou"ht to $rin" so.e $eer. &he .ain ,er$ in the first sentence is 1$rin".3 &he second sentence con,e8s a re"ret that the spea<er did not carr8 out an act in the past. Since the $rin"in" of the $eer re.ained undone in the past/ the past tense of 1$rin"3 is called for in the second sentence@ 4id 8ou $rin" an8 $eer7 I wish I had B3$rou"ht so.e3 is understoodC. 2hat do 8ou thin<7 4o errors li<e these portend a further erosion of the past perfect7

$tDs or $ts5
(ost people <now that the short ,ersion of it is is spelled it$s. After all/ an apostrophe replaces a .issin" letter/ which in this case is the i in is. And we <now how to spell he6s and she6s. So we write/ 1It6s "oin" to rain/3 not 1Its "oin" to rain/3 unless we6re t8pin" too fast and lea,e out the apostrophe accidentall8. 0ut .isspellin" the possessi,e for. of it is a little .ore co..on. So/ when writin" a$out so.ethin" which $elon"s to an o$ject/ which is it@ it$s or its7 2ell/ the answer is its/ as in 15e put on the raincoat and fastened its snaps.3 &he possessi,e for. of it has no apostrophe. You can just .e.ori=e that and "et used to it/ $ut to help 8ou re.e.$er/ 8ou could <eep in .ind that other possessi,e pronouns/ such as his and hers/ do not ha,e apostrophes either. No possessi,e pronouns do.

The .i&&eren e Between @willA and @shallA

:eader !ric wonders a$out the uses of will and shall. 2hen do 8ou use 1will3 and 1shall73 I <now that Mthe8N .ean the sa.e thin"/ $ut I would li<e to <now when to use the. in the correct "ra..atical sense. In .odern !n"lish will and shall are helpin" ,er$s. &he8 are used with other ,er$s/ $ut lac< conju"ations of their own. 0oth are si"ns of the future tense. &he old 2alsh /nglish 5andboo that I used in hi"h school "i,es this rule for for.in" the future@ >se shall in the first person and will in the second and third persons for the si.ple future tense@ ( shall sing this afternoon. #ou will succeed. 5e will stay at home.

Page 3C of 39

English Grammar
(8 o$ser,ations su""est that shall is rarel8 used $8 A.erican spea<ers. &he two words e9isted as separate ,er$s in Eld !n"lish/ the for. of !n"lish spo<en fro. 4 +D 11 + C.!. &he ,er$ willan .eant 1wish/ $e willin"/ $e a$out to.3 &he ,er$ s ulan Bpronounced MshuDlanN/ had the .eanin"s 1$e o$li"ed to/ ha,e to/ .ust/ $e destined to/ $e supposed to.3 In .odern usa"e traces of the old .eanin"s persist for spea<ers who use $oth for.s. -ill can i.pl8 ,olition or intention/ while shall can i.pl8 necessit8@ ( will scale 'ount /*erest. B3and no one can stop .e?3C #ou shall ta e the garbage out before you do anything else. B3You ha,e no choice/ ;unior?3C A second ele.ent enters into the use of shall and will. As a .atter of courtes8/ a difference e9ists accordin" to whether the ,er$ is used with a first or second person su$ject. 2hich to use depends upon the relationship $etween spea<ers. Parents/ teachers/ e.plo8ers/ and staff ser"eants are within their ri"hts to tell so.eone 1You shall co.plete this assi"n.ent $8 * p...3 Such a construction offers no alternati,e. It is the sa.e as sa8in" 1You .ust co.plete this assi"n.ent.3 In spea<in" to an eAual/ howe,er/ the choice is left up to the other person@ ( shall dri*e to Tulsa today. #ou will follow on Tuesday. BIt6s still up to 8ou.C 5ere6s a freAuentl8 Auoted jo<e that illustrates the conseAuences of usin" shall and will incorrectl8@ A forei"n tourist was swi..in" in an !n"lish la<e. &a<en $8 cra.ps/ he $e"an to sin<. 5e called out for help@ 1Attention? Attention? I will drown and no one shall sa,e .e?3 (an8 people were within earshot/ $ut/ $ein" wellD$rou"ht up !n"lish.en and wo.en/ the8 honored his wishes and per.itted hi. to drown. All of which is the short answer to !ric6s Auestion. -or the lon" answer/ ta<e a loo< at -owler B'odern /nglish )sageC and the E!4. 08 the wa8/ the ,er$ will in the sense of 1$eAueath3 deri,es fro. the noun will in the sense of 1wish.3 A will e9presses the wishes of the person who writes it. &he ,er$ will B$eAueathC does possess a co.plete conju"ation.

Page 31 of 39

English Grammar $s That a Noun or a 0er!5 $Dm Con&used

&he .ain reason wh8 sentences are confusin" is that the8 are too lon". Shorten the. and 8our readers will than< 8ou. 0ut another leadin" reason for confusin" sentences@ uncertaint8 a$out what part of speech a word is@ noun/ ,er$/ ad,er$/ adjecti,e/ and so on. 2h8 should I care a$out parts of / if I6. not a teacher of !n"lish "ra..ar7 0ecause/ su$consciousl8/ we all do what our !n"lish teachers tau"ht us@ we dia"ra. sentences. &he .ore co.ple9 the sentence/ the lon"er it is/ the .ore li<el8 we are to search for su$jects and predicates/ just to .a<e sense of the sentence. 2ho is doin" what to who.7 &he pro$le. co.es when a word can $e used as either noun or ,er$ or so.ethin" else/ and we6re not sure at first "lance which it is. &he reason wh8 that$s a pro$le. is that .an8 sentences don6t "et .ore than a first "lance. 2hen we scan/ $rowse/ or speedDread/ we want to "rasp the "ist of the sentence ri"ht awa8. 2e don6t want to ha,e to read it .ore than once. 5ere are e9a.ples of the <ind of confusin" sentences I6. tal<in" a$out@ &he fear that the treasure won6t $e his trou$les hi. throu"hout the fil.. 2hen .an8 readers see the phrase 1his trou$les/3 their .inds will tr8 to turn it into either the su$ject or the o$ject of the sentence/ which it isn6t. If the8 see the phrase 1his trou$les hi./3 the8 will reall8 "et confused. 0oth phrases .isinterpret the sentence. 8ther ways to say it@ &hrou"hout the fil./ he fears that the treasure won6t $e his. &hrou"hout the fil./ he is trou$led $8 fears that the treasure won6t $e his. 0ecause of la$or stri<es the trains scheduled this afternoon will $e dela8ed. If 8ou see 1la$or stri<es the trains/3 8ou6ll interpret the sentence as an account of union unrest and riots. If 8ou see 1the trains scheduled/3 8ou6ll wonder who is in char"e now@ ,iolent la$or unions or sinister trains with a .ind of their own. 8ther ways to say it@ 0ecause of la$or stri<es/ the trains that were scheduled this afternoon will $e dela8ed. Ha$or stri<es will dela8 this afternoon6s trains. &o defuse this t8pe of confusin" sentence/ $rea< the connection $etween the words that shouldn6t $e connected. In the second e9a.ple/ a co..a .a8 $e all 8ou need to add. In the first e9a.ple/ we need to <eep 1his3 and 1trou$les3 apart. So.e words will alwa8s $e trou$leso.e. No .atter where 8ou put it in the sentence/ a word such as 1stri<es3 can $e a source of confusion for hast8 readers/ since it can $e $oth noun and ,er$. Ef course/ the shorter the sentence/ the Auic<er 8our readers can untan"le it.

Can You Start Senten es with @AndA or @ButA5

In the past/ !n"lish teachers used to preach that one should ne,er start a sentence with conjunctions li<e and or but. 4oes this rule still appl8 toda87

Page 32 of 39

English Grammar
Not entirel8. It is alread8 accepta$le to start sentences with such conjunctions. So.e authorities/ in fact/ e,en defend that for so.e cases conjunctions will do a $etter jo$ than .ore for.al constructions. 5ere is a Auotation fro. !rnest Fowers addressin" the usa"e of and on the $e"innin" of sentences@ &hat it is a solecis. to $e"in a sentence with and is a faintl8 lin"erin" superstition. &he E!4 "i,es e9a.ples ran"in" fro. the 1+th to the 1*th c.O the 0i$le is full of the.. 2hile it is accepta$le to use such conjunctions to start a sentence/ 8ou should still use the. carefull8 and efficientl8/ else 8our te9t .i"ht $eco.e chopp8. Secondl8/ .an8 people still re"ard such usa"e as infor.al. If 8ou are writin" a for.al piece or if 8ou are not sure how 8our audience .i"ht react to conjunctions at the $e"innin" of a sentence/ 8ou could su$stitute the. with .ore for.al ter.s. 0elow 8ou will find so.e e9a.ples. 0ut I a. still awaitin" his repl8. Can $e written as@ 5owe,er/ I a. still awaitin" his repl8. Althou"h I a. still awaitin" his repl8. Ne,ertheless/ I a. still awaitin" his repl8. And she was runnin" ,er8 fast. Can $e written as@ (oreo,er/ she was runnin" ,er8 fast. In addition/ she was runnin" ,er8 fast. -urther.ore/ she was runnin" ,er8 fast.

3e) 3,sel&) and $

;ust as the personal pronouns $ and me are freAuentl8 used incorrectl8Jthe su$ject for. $ used instead of the o$ject for. me/ and *ice *ersaJthe refle9i,e pronoun m,sel& so.eti.es crops up where $ or me $elon". As personal pronouns/ $ and me stand in the place of nouns/ while the refle9i,e pronouns li<e m,sel& e.phasi=e a noun or a pronoun that is alread8 in use as a su$ject or o$ject word. &he8 are 1.irror words3 which reflect a word alread8 e9pressed Bhence the na.e 1refle9i,e3C. &he refle9i,e pronoun for.s are@ Singular %lural E m,sel&) ,oursel&) himsel&) hersel&) itsel& E oursel'es) ,oursel'es) and themsel'es

&he for.s 1hisself/3 18ourselfs/3 1theirselfs3 and si.ilar ,ariations are dialect for.s. &he refle9i,e pronouns ha,e two .ain uses@

Page 33 of 39

English Grammar
1. &he8 ser,e as the o$jects of ,er$s when the o$ject is the sa.e person or thin" as the su$ject@ ( hurt myself. The baby saw herself in the mirror. -e lost oursel*es in the woods. 2. &he8 are used to restate or e.phasi=e another noun or pronoun in the sentence@ The ing himself signed the proclamation. These witnesses swear they saw it themsel*es. &he followin" constructions are incorrect@ 'yself and the others attended the concert. Bac and yourself are my best friends. !ditin" for refle9i,e pronoun usa"e is eas8. If the 1self3 word co.es after the ,er$/ 8ou can see at a "lance if it restates the su$ject. If the 1self3 word is an8where else in the sentence/ loo< to see if there is another noun or pronoun that it restates or e.phasi=es. If there is none/ 8ou pro$a$l8 need to use a personal pronoun instead of a refle9i,e one.

.e&initel, use @theA or @aA

2hen to use the indefinite article a and when to use the definite article the depends .ostl8 on how specific 8ou want to $e. 4urin" a weddin" cere.on8 the "roo. would sa8/ 1Fi,e .e the rin"? &he weddin" rin"?3 $ecause he .ust ha,e a particular rin"/ while a carpenter would sa8/ P5and .e a nail3 $ecause he doesn6t care which nail in the $o9 he uses. >suall8 the $i""er pro$le. is not whether to use a definite or indefinite article/ $ut whether to use an article at all. So .an8 choices? 2hen do 8ou use a7 2hen do 8ou use an7 2hen do 8ou use the7 0ut rela9. 2e6ll "uide the wa8. 2e alread8 tal<ed a$out when to use a when to use an in the article Fi,e .e an 1A3@ a ,s. an/ $ut we6ll "i,e 8ou a few .ore e9a.ples here.

A@ 8ou use this when 8ou6re not necessaril8 referrin" to a specific thin" Bsuch as a nail/ an8 nailC. It6s called an indefinite article/ $ecause 8ou6re not $ein" definite or particular. &here are .an8 nails in this $i" world. o She owns a cat. o I wor< on a "olf course. An@ it6s used just li<e a/ $ut when precedin" a ,owel sound. It pro$a$l8 co.es fro. Eld Fer.an/ on which Eld !n"lish was $ased. (8 theor8 is that the use of an sur,i,es after all these centuries $ecause it sounds $etter $efore ,owels. Sa8in"/ 1I want a apple3 sounds odd/ co.pared to/ 1I want an apple.3 -or the sa.e reason/ the fa<e -rench sentence/ 1Q Anne/ on en a un/3 sounds e,en .ore odd. o (a8 I $orrow an e""7 o 5e is an arro"ant critic. The@ 8ou6re tal<in" a$out a definite ite./ which is wh8 the is called a definite article. Ef course it onl8 .a<es sense if $oth 8ou and 8our listeners <now which ite. 8ou .ean. If I co..anded 8ou/ 1Fi,e .e the .one8/3 8ou would ri"htfull8 as</ 12hat .one87 I don6t owe 8ou an8 .one8.3 o &he house on that corner once $elon"ed to Charles 4ic<ens. o &he weather is ,er8 pleasant toda8.

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English Grammar

You can use the the second ti.e 8ou refer to so.ethin"/ e,en if 8ou used an the first ti.e. 2e <now what 8ou6re referrin" to/ $ecause 8ou just told us. You can do this/ $ut I wouldn6t reco..end it. :ead these e9a.ples D repeatin" the noun .i"ht sound .onotonous. o 2e ,isited a palace on our ,acation. &he palace was $uilt in 1 4%. o 2e also went to a concert. &he concert was too loud for .e. 2hen it co.es to geogra#h,/ 8ou don6t use the $efore the na.es of .ost nations/ pro,inces/ states/la<es or islands. 0ut there are .an8 e9ceptions@ the >nited States/ the ><raine/ or the Con"o. En the other hand/ the ><rainians and Con"olese people I6,e .et sa8/ 1><raine3 and 1Con"o/3 so "o fi"ure. If the na.e refers to plural ite.s/ such as the >nited States/ or the (aldi,es/ 8ou would use the definite article. You would do the sa.e for ri,ers and oceans/ such as the A.a=on/ the Nile/ and the Caspian Sea. 0a8s need the definite article. o 5e .o,ed to Nepal near (ount !,erest. o &he8 spent their hone8.oon in eastern (aine/ on Peno$scot 0a8. >nli<e so.e lan"ua"es such as -rench and Spanish/ !n"lish so.eti.es does not use an8 article at all. You don6t need one when .a<in" a "eneral state.ent/ or when tal<in" a$out .eals and transportation. o I prefer fol< .usic. o She hates .a<in" noodles. o She eats $rea<fast at ho.e. o She tra,eled to colle"e $8 train. 0ritish writers don6t use an article for so.e places that A.ericans would. o 0ritish@ I "o to uni,ersit8. o A.erican@ I "o to colle"e. o A.erican@ I transfered to the uni,ersit8 last 8ear. o 0ritish@ I felt so ill that I went to hospital. o A.erican@ I "ot so sic< I had to "o to the hospital. So.e rules appl8 all the ti.e. So.e rules appl8 onl8 in certain situations/ and onl8 e9perience and readin" can help 8ou "et the. all ri"ht. And so.e rules appl8 onl8 in certain situations in certain cultures@ 0ritish and A.erican !n"lish is so.eti.es different/ as 8ou .a8 ha,e learned $8 now.

3i*ing u# @la,A and @lieA

A reader writes@ I ha,e pro$le.s with l8in" and la8in". Is there an eas8 wa8 to .a<e sure I a. usin" the ri"ht one7 &he distinction is eas8 enou"h/ $ut this particular usa"e is on the endan"ered list and .a8 not sur,i,e into the ne9t "eneration of !n"lish spea<ers.

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English Grammar
Knowin" the difference $etween l,ing and la,ing reAuires the spea<er to reco"ni=e the difference $etween transiti,e and intransiti,e ,er$s. #er$s that descri$e actions are either transiti,e or intransiti,e. A transiti,e ,er$ ta<es a direct o$ject. &he Hatin prefi9 transJ .eans 1across.3 &he action of the transiti,e ,er$ carries across to a direct o$ject. &his direct o$ject recei,es the action of the ,er$. !9. The man dri*es a truc . &he ,er$ is dri'e. &o deter.ine whether the ,er$ has a direct o$ject/ one as<s 1dri,es what73 In this e9a.ple/ there is an answer@ dri*es a truc . &he ,er$ dri'es in this sentence is transiti,e. So.ethin"/ 1truc</3 recei,es the action. So.e ,er$s are alwa8s transiti,e. So.e are alwa8s intransiti,e. (an8/ li<e dri'e/ .a8 $e either transiti,e or intransiti,e. !9. /*ery !unday the family dri*es in the countryside. If we appl8 the Auestion 1dri,es what73 to this sentence/ we do not "et an answer. Nothin" in the sentence recei,es the action. &here is no direct o$ject so in this sentence dri'e is an intransiti,e ,er$. &he action re.ains with the ,er$. B&he phrase in the countryside tells where the fa.il8 dri,es.C &he co..on confusion $etween the ,er$s lie and la, is understanda$le $ecause the for. la, e9ists in the conju"ations of $oth ,er$s@ to lie D intransiti,e ,er$ .eanin" 1to reclineO to rest hori=ontall83 Present@ &oda8 I lie on the $ed. Past@ Yesterda8 I la8 on the $ed. Present Perfect@ I ha,e lain on the $ed all da8. Present 3ontinuous@ I a. l8in" on the $ed. to la, D transiti,e ,er$ .eanin" 1to placeO to put3 Present@ &oda8 I la8 the $oo< on the ta$le. Past@ Yesterda8 I laid the $oo< on the ta$le. Present Perfect@ I ha,e laid the $oo< on the ta$le. Present 3ontinuous@ I a. la8in" the $oo< on the ta$le. 5ere are a few .ore illustrations of correct usa"e@ 7ie down, 1ido: The accident *ictim lay in the street. The spectators lay bac in their seats to loo at the s y. Today it$s your turn to lay the table. ( laid the table yesterday. !n"lish has two other ,er$s that .a8 confuse the issue further@ to lie D 1to tell a falsehood3 D "enerall8 intransiti,e@

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English Grammar
Present@ &oda8 I lie a$out .8 a"e. Past@ Yesterda8 I lied a$out .8 a"e. Present Perfect@ I ha,e lied a$out .8 a"e. Present 3ontinuous@ I a. l8in" a$out .8 a"e. to la, D 1to produce an e""3 D .a8 $e transiti,e or intransiti,e Present D &he hens la8 e""s. Btransiti,eC &he hens la8 well. Bintransiti,eC Past D &he hen laid three e""s. Btransiti,eC Present Perfect@ &he hen has laid an e"" e,er8 da8 this wee<. Btransiti,eC Present 3ontinuous@ &he hens are la8in" well this 8ear. Bintransiti,eC 0oth for.s of la, deri,e fro. an Eld !n"lish ,er$ .eanin" 1to place on the "round3 or 1put down.3 &he two lie ,er$s co.e fro. two different Eld !n"lish ,er$s/ one .eanin" 1to spea< falsel8/3 and the other .eanin" 1to rest hori=ontall8.3

Coordinating Con"un tions

Coordinatin" conjunctions are so.e of the handiest/ dandiest words in the !n"lish lan"ua"e. !ssentiall8/ the8 help us strin" our thou"hts to"ether in a wa8 that is co.ple9 and .eanin"ful/ and without the. writin" would $e ,er8 short and chopp8. You can re.e.$er the coordinatin" conjunctions $8 .e.ori=in" the word@ FANBOYS F &or) and) nor) !ut) or) ,et) so Coordinatin" conjunctions are used $etween independent clauses/ and paired with a co..a. -or e9a.ple/ the followin" sentences can $e co.$ined with a coordinatin" conjunction@ This place has the worst food ( ha*e e*er tasted. ( will ne*er eat here again. Co.$ined with a co..a and coordinatin" conjunction@ This place has the worst food ( ha*e e*er tasted, so ( will ne*er eat here again. So.e other e9a.ples@ I lo,e 8ou) !ut I can not .arr8 8ou. I want to "o to the store) and I want to "o to her $irthda8 part8. 5e had not <nown her lon") ,et he felt ,er8 close to her. Coordinatin" conjunctions are so.e of the .ost co..onl8 used words and ,er8 easil8 misused !, lea'ing out a omma or puttin" it in the wron" place. 0e .indful that the parts 8ou join are co.plete sentences that can stand alone.

Ten -ules &or 4riting Num!ers and Numerals

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5ow do 8ou e9press nu.$ers in 8our writin"7 2hen do 8ou use fi"ures Bdi"itsC and when do 8ou write out the nu.$er in words BlettersC7 &hat is/ when do 8ou write 9 and when do 8ou write nine7 1. Num!er 'ersus numeral. -irst thin"s first/ what is the difference $etween a nu.$er and a nu.eral7 A nu.$er is an a$stract concept while a nu.eral is a s8.$ol used to e9press that nu.$er. 1&hree/3 13R and 1III3 are all s8.$ols used to e9press the sa.e nu.$er Bor the concept of 1threeness3C. Ene could sa8 that the difference $etween a nu.$er and its nu.erals is li<e the difference $etween a person and her na.e. 2. S#ell small num!ers out. &he s.all nu.$ers/ such as whole nu.$ers s.aller than ten/ should $e spelled out. &hat6s one rule 8ou can count on. If 8ou don6t spell nu.$ers out it will loo< li<e 8ou6re sendin" an instant .essa"e/ and 8ou want to $e .ore for.al than that in 8our writin". 3. No other standard rule@ !9perts don6t alwa8s a"ree on other rules. So.e e9perts sa8 that an8 oneDword nu.$er should $e written out. &woDword nu.$ers should $e e9pressed in fi"ures. &hat is/ the8 sa8 8ou should write out twel*e or twenty. 0ut not 2,. 4. 8sing the omma. In !n"lish/ the co..a is used as a thousands separator Band the period as a deci.al separatorC/ to .a<e lar"e nu.$ers easier to read. So write the si=e of Alas<a as '1/* 1 sAuare .iles instead of '1* 1 sAuare .iles. In Continental !urope the opposite is true/ periods are used to separate lar"e nu.$ers and the co..a is used for deci.als. -inall8/ the International S8ste.s of >nits BSIC reco..ends that a space should $e used to separate "roups of three di"its/ and $oth the co..a and the period should $e used onl8 to denote deci.als/ li<e S13 2++/ + Bthe co..a part is a .essL I <nowC. . .onDt start a senten e with a numeral. (a<e it 1-ourscore and se,en 8ears a"o/3 not 14 score and ' 8ears a"o.3 &hat .eans 8ou .i"ht ha,e to rewrite so.e sentences@ 1-ans $ou"ht 4++/+++ copies the first da83 instead of 14++/+++ copies were sold the first da8.3 %. Centuries and de ades should !e s#elled out. >se the /ighties or nineteenth century. '. %er entages and re i#es. 2ith e,er8da8 writin" and recipes 8ou can use di"its/ li<e 14T of the children3 or 1Add 2 cups of $rown rice.3 In for.al writin"/ howe,er/ 8ou should spell the percenta"e out li<e 112 percent of the pla8ers3 Bor 1twel,e percent of the pla8ers/3 dependin" on 8our preference as e9plained in point threeC. ). $& the num!er is rounded or estimated) s#ell it out . :ounded nu.$ers o,er a .illion are written as a nu.eral plus a word. >se 1A$out 4++ .illion people spea< Spanish nati,el8/3 instead of 1A$out 4++/+++/+++ people spea< Spanish nati,el8.F If 8ou6re usin" the e9act nu.$er/ 8ou6d write it out/ of course. *. Two num!ers ne*t to ea h other . It can $e confusin" if 8ou write 1' 13D8earDolds3/ so write one of the. as a nu.eral/ li<e 1se,en 13D8earDolds3. Pic< the nu.$er that has the fewest letters. 1+. Ordinal num!ers and onsisten ,. 4on6t sa8 15e was .8 1st true lo,e/3 $ut rather 15e was .8 first true lo,e.3 0e consistent within the sa.e sentence. If .8 teacher has 23 $e"innin" students/ she also has 1) ad,anced students/ not ei"hteen ad,anced students. UUUU

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English Grammar

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