Bob Long Part 2

15 The seismic design of ambient
temperature storage tanks

This Chapter describes the most commonly used method ofdesigning verticalcylindricalliquid storage tanks for seismic loadings- This method is taken from API 650 Appendix E. Some
indications of the origins of the various methods of calculation and the formulae used are
orovided.
The equivalentdesign sections of BS 2654 and the forthcoming Euronorm are
a
lso described.
Contents:
15.1 lntroduction 15.2 The API 650 _approach
'15.2.'1 The basic seismic data
15.2.2 The behaviour of the pmduct liquid

'15.2.3 The overtuming moment
15.2.4 Resistance to overluming '15.2.5 Shell comDression 15.2.5.1 Unanchored tanks 15.2.5.2 Anchored tanks
15.2.6 Ailowable longitudinal compressive stresses 15.2-7 Slosh height and freeboard considerations 15.2.8 Other conditions arjsing from seismic loadings
15.3 The BS 2694 approach 15.4 The prEN 14015 approach 15.5 References
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 263
15 The seismic design of ambient temperature stoftge tanks
15.1 lntroduction
The design of liquid storage tanks to resist seismic loadings is a
produce sufficient material for even the most enthusiastic student of this subject.
subject which is taken very seriously these days. Despite the collapse of a large steel water tank during the Long Beach earthquake of 1933, nothing was done to provide a framework of rules for the seismic design of liquid containing tanks until after the Alaska earthquake of 1964. This seismic event caused widespread damage and subsequent fire to a large number of petrochemical fuel tanks. The site contained a numberoftanks of different sizes, different proportions and filled to different levels with products with different specific gravities at the time that the earthquake struck. The study of the levels of damage sustained by the various tanks allowed the various theories relating to seismic design to be tested. The Alaska event is described in References 15.1 and 15.2.
Two further seismic events involving damage to storage tanks
15.2 The API 650 approach

15.2.1 The basic seismic data
Before the task ofdesigning a particular storage tank for a seismic event can start, it is necessary to have some idea of the ap-
propriate set of seismic criteria which are to be applied. The definition ofthe appropfiate seismic design datia for a particular site location and geology is a complex business. This can be seen in Chapter 26 which deals with low temperature tank de-
sign where the subject of seismic design is considered in a

greater level of detail. For ambient tanks it is usual to adopt a simpler approach and this is reflected in the rules provided in API 650 Appendix E. This Code allows tvvo aporoaches to the selection of the seismic design criteria: Firstly it takes as its starting point the American Uniform Building Code (UBC) (Reference 15.11).fhis document divides the United States of America into seismic zones ranging from zone 0 (no seismic event to be considered)to zone 4 (the most onerous seismic event). This is illustrated as Figure 15.1.ltalso provides guidance regarding the appropriate seismic zones for lo-
also contributed evidence to the discussions. These were the '1971 San Fernando and the 1974 Lima Peru eafthquakes described in References 15.3 and 15.4 The credit for the production of a workable and "user friendly" set of rules for the safe design of liquid storage tanks to enable them to resist seismic loads owes a lot to the document commonly known as TID 7024 (Reference t5.5) and to the work of Wozniakand Mitchell (Reference 15.6). The proposalsgiven in this paper by Wozniak and Mitchell were adopted with minor changes as Appendix E ofAPl 650 (Refe rence 15.7). Appendix L of API 620 (Reference 75.8) uses the same design method BS 2654 (Reference 75.9) has "borrowed" the same rules, although not the seismic zones from the UBC, (The American Uniform Building Code).
This Chapter devotes most of iis efforts to the seismic design of ground based ve(ical cylindrical tanks as these form the large
cations outside the USA. This tabulation is shown in Figure

15.2. The UBC approach is to express an earthquake event as a horizontal acceleration which can be applied to the structure
in any direction. The second approach has more in common with the practices for low temperature tanks. By agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, the horizontal accelerations may be determined from site specific response spectra produced by the purchaser. The accelerations should not be less than those derived from the use ofthe UBC. Forthe impulsive component of the liquid and the tank and roof self-weighb, the values should be based on 2% damping, and for the convective component ofthe liquid, should be based on 0.5% damping. Unless the tanks are in some way special, this more exacting approach is rarely adopted.
majority of ambient tanks. TID 7024 provides some guidance on the design of rectangular and elevated tanks.
The seismic design of liquid containing storage tanks has been
a popular subject for study over the years and there are hundreds of articles and papers covering work which has been carried out. lt is proposed to include in this Chapter only the most immediately relevant references. lf more are required, then reference to chapter 6 of Philip Myers' book ( Refercnce 15.10)will provide a list of 61 papers and reference to these in turn shou ld
-\
l''r-Tt
Figure 15.1 Selsmic zone map ofthe lJnited States From the Unifam Building Code
264 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
5 The seismic design of ambbnt temperature sto@ge tanks
t.oc6lion
AFRICA Algeria
Seismic Zone
Locaton
Mali
Banako
MaudtaDia
Sl8nlc Zone
0
Alge. Orar Bdtin
3 0 0
Nornkchott Maurillus
Pon
0
0
lruis
Port Lyautcy
I
2A
3
G8borone
0 3 0 0 0
P.abqt
B'rrundi Bujumbt'ra
Douala
Cap Verde Cantral African Rcpublic
Tangrer Mozambique Maputo
2A
Nigcr
Niamey Nigria
Iba&n
Kaduna
Batrgui Chad
0 0 0
3
llgos
Rpublic of Rwanda KiCali
Ndjrmcna
Congo
scrcd
Dakar Seychetles 0 0
Brazavillc
Djibouti
EgvPl Cair0 Pod Said Equatorial Cuinea Malabo Etbiopia
2A 2A 2A o
3 3
Sonalia
Mogadishu
South Africa Cap Town
0
3
Dulban
2A
Naral
1
Gabon
Libreville
Gatubia
0
0 Tanzania
Dar es Salaam
2A 2A 2A
2A
Banjul
Ghana
CuiDea
Zanzibtl
Bissau
Conaky
Ivory Coasl Abidjan
Kenys
t
0 0
Togo
I
Tunisia
Turis
Nairobi
Lsotho
2A 2A
'
Ugada rial|Ipal!
Uppervolta
OuSado!gou
t3
2A
0 3
Uberia
z,j,ir.
I
Libya
Tripoli
Wielirs AFB
Malagisy Rcpublh
2A 2A
0
Brkavu Ki$hasa tubumbashi
2A
ZA 3
7ar$ia
Lukasa
Thna!arive Blantyre Lilongw Zonba
Zimbrbwe Hardrc (srlisbury)

ASTA
Afghribran
3
&bd
Figure 15.2 Tabulation of tho seismic zones woddwide - pagg
Fromthe Uniform Buildino Code
15 The seismic design of
ambientlewenfiJre slorage fanks
Locttlon
Bib|3ir
MBnamr Bangladcsh
Sa|amlozone
Locellon
Lao6
SstEmlc Zdao
1
0 3 I
3 3
VllirtidD
Irbdiron Bdifill
Maley6is
.3
1
BIunei Bandu Sci Begiunn
IOah LumFrr
N.P3l
B!rmt
Mandalay
RangooD
K'btnandu
otlla!
2A
China
B6ijirg
'
Chctrgdu Guangzhou
Nenjing
'3 2A 2A
3
Pddsran
ftlth.bad
Ksncni
I
2A
.{ 0
hiorc
Qatrr
Doha Srudi Anbia
aiogdto
ShaoShi SbenB|{t|t
'tbiwm Atl
Tihrva
Al Balh
Dhr$r
2A
2A
I
I I I
3 0 3 3
xisrggang cypro6
Nicosr:a
Jiild.! Khnis Mwl|arf

Riysdh
2A
0
Sing.poi!
India
All
3 2A
Soulh Ydncn
Bor|bry Calqna
Madr3l Ncw Dclhi Indorcsh
Bendung Jakrna Medatr Sursbrya
Adr[ Cily
Sri
btrk.
Colodbo
Syri. 4 4
Aloppo
Dimrsrs
Thailand
BrIgko*
lmn
Islbiar
Shiraz Tabriz Tehmn
ChiuB irri Songlllla Tn!ftcy
I
2A
0
I'!q
aaghdad
2A 2A
lsnir
1
4 3 0 0
Bisra
lsrael
Isi'rbul
Kal"nluJsel Unild Arab En ntes Abu Dhabi Dubai Ho Chi Minh (Saigor)
llaifa
3
l
Fukuoka
Ilrzi(e AFB
Mis8v,,a
YDetr Aran Republic
AIB
Sanal
Naha, Okinewa
AT'I,ANTIC OCEAN AREA
ft*a/Kobe
Sapporo Tokyo 3 4 3
Atl
Bcrtnudt
AI AI AI
I
1
CARTBBEAN SEA hlruna Islsods
Jord!tr
3 Korca
Cubr
Kimhrc KwanAi!
I I
0
Domiricar nepublic Sanlo DoninSo

Frcndr Wbsl lndis
Ma iniquc
Grensda Geolgcs
KuNeil
Kuwiii
Sli
Figure 15.2 Tabulalion of the seismic zone6 worldwide - pags 2 From the Unltom Bulldlng Code
266 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPiIENT
5 The seismic design of ambient tempenture stgnge tanks
Locatlon
Haiti
Ssls|nlczone
Loca{on
Paris
Sabtnlc Zon
0
3
3
3 3
Kngsion lreward Islalds
stralbouB Ocrnrny, Fcdelsl Republic Bcdin

Bo
24
0
2A
0
Ait
Triridad & Tobago
Brcm.d
Dusseldorf
A[
Fnnlfurl
Halnbury
2A
0
SENTRAL AIVGRICA
Blizo
Municll sNugan
2A
2A
3
Blmopar
Caral Zon!
2A 2A
Vaihigcn
AI
Co$a Riaa
San Jo6c
Krvrlla
3
Makd
Rhodcs Sruds Bty Thessaloniki 3 4
El Sakador San Salvador Guatemala
Gualrr||ah
Honduias Tcg|rcfgrlpa
3
H!ngary Budapa{ Icebrd
2A
3
Mexico
Ciudad Jtlarcz
2A
3
Kcfla!ick Rcytiavik
Irelard Dubli'l l|aly
Avia@ AFB
cudalajffa
Hentosillo Mrzatlan Mcrida Mcrica City rijuNna
3 0
2-4,
0
3
0 3 0 0
3
Brirdisi
MiIan
Naplas
0
3 3
2A
3 3
Mcar.gra
Manrgua
2A
Sicily
3 2B
3 3
Coior Galclr
EUROPE
Tudn
24
1
Malta
Albania Tiran,
Salzbor8
2A
3
Nelherla
ZA ZA
Alt
Norway Oslo
0 ZA ZA
Bclgiun Blllss.ls
B06oia-Hcccgovina
I
2A 2A
3 3
Polmd
I
I
B.lgade
Bulgaria
Podugal
LiSon
Opporto
3
3
sofi3
Croaria
Tagnb
Czecb06lovekia
Blalislava
Prague
2A
1
Russia 0 St. Pelrlsbulg
Copenh"gcn
I I
2L
Spoin Barcelora
2L
2A 0
Fnlard
Bilbao
Madrid
Heliloti
Bordca$r
Lyon
Rott
Seville Colebo{g
2A
2A
Malseille
Nic!
3 3
Stoclhols
Figure
5,2 Tabulatlon of the selsmlc zones woddwide - pagg 3
Ftufi fie Unitom Building Code
STORAGE.TANKS & EQUIPMENT 267
15 The seismic de'ign of ambient.bnpenture storage tanks
I I
I I
I
Ldcellan
Swi@crlald
Sdanrlczona kcalloo
I
0
Carecas
SeEfilC
bn
4
0
Bir!
Zurich
Urn
Piu'"
Urugday
I I
I I
UkAin.
tricv Unilid (ingdom
B|last
Ediiburgn Edzel Classow^cnfrew
PACIFIC OCSAN AREA
I I
Haftilton Uvqpool
I.oddon
Bisbaoe Cantatra
Thu$o
NORTI{
"A I
I I
P.nh Sydmy
AMEIICA
Carolin blrrds Kolsr, Psh! ls. Frji

Suva
JohrEon Island
2A
0
GrEcnland
AII Crradr
I
I
Agcnda NAS
ZA
1
I
t
Cal$!y, Alb Cturcni4 Man Cold l,ah., Alb Bdmortoq Alb

E. ltffrnoo AIB Forr W liams, Onl frobirhr N.W. Tei
All
l,{adann Istards Guam Salpa!
I I
2A 0
0
Tirisd
Mrlsbrll Islaids
All
Nar Z.3latrd
Hrlifax
Monbeal, Qucbc.
I
1
llbliEton
Papau New Guincr
O0awe,onl
Sl,
2A
3
Joh!'sNfd
Tbronb, Ont Wimcpcg, Man SOUTII AMERICA
PliIlFh
Cbu
Porl r'roruby Islrndo
BaSuo
l,Liila
S:mot
0
Bolivia
la
Sanra
Paz Cruz
All \lblc khnd All
Blazil
BldD 0 0
0
Brasilia
The above compilation is a parial ltsriry of silmi@ zonnr for cities aod countries outside of the Unitcd Stares. Il has beetr Dr} vidd in this cod prinanly as a source of inlormario4 and iray not, i'l all cases, reflcct local ordtlances or cunent ifc in-
sic
0
0
Recife
Fio {bJanciro
Salvador Sao Paulo
0 0 0
rffhen an authority having jlrisdiction requir-! seisoic dasign forc.s tlal lre higler tha! wolld be indicsted by the above zorcs,
lhe local rcquircments shall govem. When an aulhority
havingir-
Chilt Sa
iago
risdiction requires seisrfc desjgn forces lha! arc lower lhar wduld b. indjcated by the abovE z$es, and these farces have bcer developd with cotsider8tiotr of regjooat tectoiics ard urF to-dale geologic and seismologic fufomation, th6local rcquirrl,hen no local siuic d$ign rcqldrcrlgnb cris!, prsperly dctermircd iDformarion on sitc-specifc grourd tuotiotr! olay b used to jlstify a lower seisBric zone. Such sile-spacifc grollld motiotrs siall hav bsetr dlvelopd with p4per comidcnlion of regiooal tectonias and local geologlc and seisnologic inforlDstion, rnd ihll have no Elor &atr a 10 pGrcr{ chrnce of bobg e,r. ceeded iB a SGyear period.
Colombia Bogora
3 3
Ecrador Guataquil Quito

Parrguay
Flgura 15.2 Tabulallon of the seismic zonss worldwide - page 4 From the Uniform Builditlg Code
268 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT
15 The seismic desjgn of anctea:
:a-aa.a:--=:::
=::
:: -. !
s.i\nrc
(lmm F,guE
El
FacLo.
I o. oder souroes 1A
2B
3
Seismr Zone FlcLor (horzon'3t acceierario!

0.075
'lype
A soil ponle wirh ejrher a) a !o*-tii. chemderizd by a she2J walc velocin
0.r5
0E
760
r/s
(2500
020
0.30
neds of clAlindion d.!k eit conditions wb*e lhe $il deprh is le$ da Sl n (200 fi).
52 53
ftis)
o. by or b) srjtr or
EaE ohd;!a!k
oareii
040 Figure 15.3 Seismic zone factor Fron APl650, Appendix E, table E-2
A soil prcnb wir! stiff or derse soit condfuons
*bE lire soil
depLh
exc*ds
60
i.:
I
(200 hl.
A soil profile l2 ft {4q n) or moE ir .teprh containing norc than 6 m (m n) of sofr ro mediun
stiffclnybutmoFrhd t2n({Oft)of sonclay.
The API 650 Appendix E design acceleration for the impulsive component of the liquid togetherwith the self-wejght ofthe tank shell and roof is the product of three variables. ihese are:
A soil profiic
coffai
ng
moE
ihe
12
(40
f0
. .
The zone factor (Z) from the UBC which is given in Figure
15.3.
quake service or tanks which store toxic or explosive sub_ contents would be dangerous to the safety of the general public. The lateral force coefiicient C1 which shall be 0.60. The corresponding acceleration for the convective component of the liquid is again the product of three variables which are:
The importance factor (l) which is normally 1.0 and which should not exceed 1.25. This higher value should onty be applied to tanks which are required to provide posfearth-
sne fs.ror shal be esrablsbed ftom properly substandared gcot@hnic.l dar!. ID localions wher dE soil pDPcniei aE Dor tnopn in s!frcie de6il ro dercmtue th. soil Plofiie rypq lon pro6l. S.l shal bc us.d. Soi] pofte .ta ned not be a$Med unless the builiinE ofbcial deremines rhsr soilproEte Sa nay b ar rhe e or ihe evnl ttar loit pofitc 54 $ eslablished by gmrectuij@t dau
Nor: The
pllgt
,;
Figure 15.5 Site coefficients S
Frcn API 650, Appendix E. table E-3
stances in areas where an accidental release of their 15.2.2 The behaviour of the product liquid
The way in which the liquid in a vertical cylindrical container be_ haves when subjected to an earthquake was clarified bv one of
. . .
Z as above
I
as above
the "giants" of seismic engineering. G.W. Housner. This is de_ scribed in Refere,ce 75.72. This theory which is used to this day, divides the liquid withjn the tank into two comDonents. These are termed:
The lateralforce coefficient C2 which is a function ofthe nat_ ural period ofthe first mode ofsloshing (T) and the site coef_ ficient (S).
. .
The impulsive component The convective component
T is determined from:
The impulsive component is that part of the liquid in the lower paft of the tank which moves with the tank as thouqh it were a
r = k(D05)
Note:
equ 15.1
solid. lt experiences the same accelerations
This equation requires the tank diameter to be in feet. lf
the diamete_r is in metres, then the equation becomes
T=1.811k(Do5)
Where k is taken from flgure E-4 shown in Figure 15.4
't.0
/,
o8
0.6
ments as the tank and the subgrade upon which the tank is founded. The tank is presumed to be rigid. This is not exacflv true, but for ambient tanks it is normalto make this presumotion and it provides answers ofsufficjent accuracv. The influence of tank flexibility. especially for steel tanks, is discussed further in Chapter 26 on the seismic design of low temperature tanks. The natural period of vibration associated with this component is a function ofthe size and the stiffness ofthe tank itseliand is usuallyto be found in the 0.i secto 0.4 sec range. Atypicalresponse spectrum for a seismic event is as shown in Fioure
ani
displace_
15.6. Cleady the impulsive component with its natural fre_
0.5
t,0
Figure 15.4 Factor k 650, Appendix E, figure E-4
4,0
7.0
Fron API
or can be calculated from the following equation:
o
equ 15.2
.
^.T ^
0.578
.
(s.az
LfI/H
6 ?
E
For values of T less than or equal to 4.S sec:
0.753
equ 15.3
For values of T greater than 4.5 sec:
3.3755
t-
equ 15.4
Fron Uniform Building Code
PEFTOO (SECONDS)
S is taken from Table E-3 (Figure .15.5)
Figure 15.6 Design response specAa
15 The seismic design of ambient tempemture storage tanks
1,0
I
w"tw,
{ * s *
Figurc '15.7 lt4odel ol the impuls've and conveclive componenls
o.u 0.4 o.2
X
1.O
--rI
4.0
7.0
DIH
Frcn API
Figure 15.9 Etrective masses 650, Appendix E,ligurc E-2
Tank diameier (m) Liquld n I height (m) lmpulslve mass ftorne) Convectlve mass af onne)
Ta 42
Short
OA
2A A7
52.00 18.83
16443142.7o/o)
27011 l6t 2%) 13212132 8a )
22071157.3%)
Fiqure 15
10 A comoarison belween the rmoulsve and convective masses a 40 000m3 tank of iiifferenr orooorlions
fo'
Model of the im pulsive and convective componenls, with the self-weights ofthe tank shelland roof added
Figure
l 5. S
x, nn H -'"
where:
coshl
t?471
lDHl
11 l- 1.0
/3.6?r
equ 15.8
367
quency will be subject to accelerations which are close to the maximum values shown. The convective component is that part of the liquid in the upper part ofthe iank which is free to form waves or to slosh. This part of the liquid has a much longer natural response time than the impulsive portion and is usually to be found in the 5 sec to 10 sec range, again depending upon the tank size. Reference again to Figure 15.5 shows that this portion of the liquid will be subjected to much lower accelerations. The way in which the tank contents are modelled is shown in Figure 15.7. The impulsive component is rigidly linked to the tank wallswhilstthe convective component is attached by weak springs. The complete model including the self-weighb of the tank shell and roof is shown in Figure 15.8. The proportion of the product liquid which falls into the impulsive and the convective portions is a function ofthe tank shape, and the calculation methods are different for short tanks with DiH greater than 1.333, (the majority of tanks fall into this region) and for tall tanks with D/H less than 1.333. API 650 Appendix E ignores tall tanks and gives the effective masses of the two components and the respective heights to their centres of gravity in graphicalform, shown in Figures 15.9 and 15.10.
The equations forming the basis ofthese graphs for short tanks are:
D,',H lDiH'
Wr W2 Wr Xr
= = = =
weight of the impulsive liquid component weight ofthe convective liquid component total weight of the tank liquid contents height from the tank bottom to the centroid of
the impulsive liquid

height from the tank bottom to the centroid oJ
Xz = H
Note:
that
the convective liquid
maximum liquid filling height
As long as the units used are consistent, then these for-
mulae work in both Sl and US customary unib.

lf the tank is tall (i.e. D/H less than W1 and X1 are modified to:
1
.333), then it is suggested
IL=r.o
WTH
o.zra9
equ 15.9
!HH =o.soo o.os+ I
equ 15.10
To see howthis works out in practice for a short tank (the major-
vvr
&
tanh 0.866
9
H
ity of the larger ambient tanks fall into the short category) the example ofa tank of40,000 m3 has been adopted. Two different tank proportions have been chosen and the values of W1, W2, Hj and H2 calculated.
equ 15.5
0.866q
D
The results are shown in Figure 15.11. Clearly the taller tank shows a higher proportion of its contents to be impulsive than the shorter tank where a higher proportion is convective.
,unnl w.= o.zgo H IDH'

I
&
3 67
equ 15.6
15.2.3 The overturning moment

The overturning moment due to seismic forces to be applied to the bottom ofthe tank shell shall be determined from the following equation:
!rl
'I
o.szs
equ 15.7
15 The seismic design of ambient temperaturc storage tanks

1.0 0.8
15.2.4 Resistance to overturning

Resistance to the overturning moment calculated in equation 15.11 which applies at the bottom of the tank shell mav be orovided for anchored tanks by the weightof the tank shelliogeiher with any portion ofthe tank roofwhich is supported by the tank shell and by the tank anchorage. For unanchored tanks, the re_ sistance may be provided by the weight of the tank shell to_ gether with any portion of the tank roof which is supported by the tank shell and the weight of a portion of the tank contents adjacent to the tank shell acting on the outer part of the tank bottom. The evaluation of this liquid holding down component is as follows:
i r {
o.t
0.4 0.2
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6-0 7.0

DIH
8.0
Figure 15.11 Centroids of seismic forces Fron API 650, Appendix E, figute E-s
M =
Zt(ClWsXs +C1WHr
+C1W\
rCrWrXr)
equ.15.11
In US customary units:
Where the hitherto undefined variables are:
wL = 7.gtb\EGH This is subject to a maximum value of: wL = 1 25GHD
equ 15.15
Ws = W, = Xs = Ht = C1 = Cz =
total weight of the tank shell total weight of the tank roof (fixed or floating) together with a portion of the snow load as specified by the purchaser height from the bottom of the tank shell tothe centre of gravity of the tank shell total height ofthe tank shell lateral force coefiicient for the impulsive com_ ponent and is taken as 0.60 lateral force coefficient for the convective component
equ 15.16
This maximum value of the liquid holding down effort is based on a maximum permitted radial dimension of the uplifted por-
tion of the tank bottom equivalent to about 7% of the iank

radtus.
where:
wL = tb =
maximum weight ofthe tank contents that may be used to resist the shell overturning moment in lb/ft of the shell circumference thickness ofthe bottom plate immediately be. neath the tank shell (inches) minimum specified yield strength ofthe bottom ptate immediately beneath the tank shell
(lb/in'?)
shell only plus the moment due to the self-weighiof ihe shell
and roof. lt is sometimes known as base pressure.
MEBp
This moment is the moment due to the liquid acting on the tank
or moment excludjng
Foy = G H D
In Sl units:
There is a second moment whjch is useful for the design of storage tanks known as MrBp or moment including base pres_
sure. This moment, as its name suggests, also includes the in_ fluence ofthe liquid tank contents upon the tank bottom. This is used for the tank foundation design and is calculated from the same formula as equation 15..11, but with X1 being replaced by X., andXrby Xr. These new moment arms are calculated from the following: For short tanks (i.e. D/H greater that 1.333):
= = =
design specific gravity of the product to be sloreo maximum design liquid tevel (feet) tank diameter (feet)
wL = ggtb1EycH
equ 15.17
this is subject to a maximum of:

wL = 196GHD equ 15.12 Where: is in N/m
to Fby
n ,,]] +=0.,,1,,., ...[ tanh 0.866 9

H
q 0.866
equ'15.18
For tall tanks (i.e. D/H tess than 1.333):
ts In mm
x_n IHH =0.500+0.060:

For all tanks:
is in MPa or N/mm2
equ 15.13
H D
tstnm
isinm
15,2.5 Shell compression
Y=,0
equ'15.14
15.2.5.1 Unanchored tanks

The API method divides the means of calculating the maximum compressive force in the tank shell into four methods deoend_
separate the moment applied to the tank base area only and this figure can be obtained bythe subtraction of MEBp frornM Bp. The actual distribution ofthis loading on the tank bottom js dlscribed later.
For the detailed design of tank foundations, it is often useful to
ent upon the value of:
rvy'[o'1w, +
wnere:
w,;]
15 The seismic design of ambient tempercture storage tanks
weight of the tank shell and that portion of the tank roof supported by the tank shell in N/m or lb/ft of shell circumference
stress, see Section 15.2.6), then the tank is structurally

unstable. Note that
121
.:
is the calculated longitudinal
shellcom-
Wnen rr,y'[o'?(w, +
w.)]
is tess than 0.785, there in no uplift of
pressive stress in US customary units, as is F,, i.e. lb/in2.

In this case the API Code makes the following suggestions:
the tank shell and consequently the compressive loading in the shell is distributed in a linear fashion across the tank diameter as in simpie bending. In this instance the neutralaxis ofthe tank
. .
Increase the thickness of the bottom plate under the shell. This will increase the liquid holding down efrort. Increase the shell thickness. The way in which the calculations are carried out is that the lower shell thickness arising from the basic hydrostatic conditions is checked to see if it is stable. lf it needs to be increased in thickness to meet the two criteria given above, then all ofthe upper shell courses should be increased in thickness by the same proportion, unless a more sophisticated analysis is carried out to determine the actual compressive stress at the bottom of each shell course in turn.
Change the proportions ofthe tank to increase the diameter
remains in a central position. Thus
.
where:
'D'
=
1.273M
equ'15.19
b
wnen
maximum longitudinal compressive force at the bottom of the tank shell in N/m or lb/ft of shell circumference
+
([o'?(w,
w.)]
ls greater than 0.785 but less than or

b+
. .
and reduce the liquid filling height. Anchor the tank in accordance with Section 15.2.5.2.
equal to 1.5:
b
can be calculated from the term
wL
wt+wL
the value ofwhich is
15.2.5.2 Anchored tanks Anchoring the tank shell causes the tank's neutral axis to remain at the central oosition and as for the first of the unanchored tank cases described above, the maximum longitudinal compressive force is given by:
found from Figure E-5 (Figure 15.12) using the calculated . .. ,lf , ._l varue or rv/ ^t ( wr + wL r LU l.
The bottom of the tank is lifted for a part of the circumference and a liquid holding down effort is created. The neutral axis of the tank is moved progressively away from the tank centreline and the shell compression is concentrated in a decreasing portion of the shell circumference. The explanation for this mechanism and the description ofthe derivation of the equations used is best left to the paper by Wozniak and Mitchell (Reference
15.6).
D=wr
+1.273M
D2
When tanks are anchored, it is clear that no liquid holding down can be utilised to reduce the uplifting loads as it requires the shell to lift to mobilise the term wL. The anchorage system shall be designed to provide the following minimum uplift resistance in N/m or lb/ft of shell circumference:
When the value oflvy'fo'(w, +

ing:
w.)]
is greater than
.5 but less
than or equal to 1.57 then b can be calculated from the follow-
1.273M
D+WL _
't.490
l.
-ro 5
equ 15.20
D'
w,
equ15.21
0.637M
t
When
DP(', . vv,)]
1.57 or
MlD'7(wr w.)l is greater than
*n"n .,!,
is
plus any uplift, again in either N/m or lb/ft of shell circumference, due to internal pressure. Uplifr due to wind loadings on the tank shell and roof do not need to be considered in combination with seismic loadings.
Anchorage is normally by means of bolts or straps. The points of attachment of the anchors to the tank shell must be made
greater than F" (the allowable longitudinal compressive shell
with due consideration to the local stress concentrations

caused. This part of the tank shell is already highly stressed in hoop tension and local vertical bending. An acceptable design procedure is given in Reference15.13. The design of the anchorage should consider the following:
.
t
The strength of the attachments to the tank shell shall be greaterthan the specified minimum yield ofthe anchors so that the anchors will yield before the athchments fail. The spacing of the anchors around the tank shell shall not exceed 3.0 m exceptthatfortanks of less than 15 m in diameter the spacing shall not exceed 1.8 m. Anchor bolts shall have a minimum diameter of 25 mm, excluding any corrosion allowance. The maximum allowable stresses shall be:
For the anchors an allowable tensile stress equal to 0.8
. . .
0.8 1.0
M
1.2
lID"(wt+
|9L)l
1,1
1.6
Not6: This ligure may b used 10 compL.te b when M / {d( pr + is gGal6r than 0.785 bd rhan or 6qB1 lo 1 .5 (se E.5.1 ).
bs
kJl
times the minimum specified yield stress (this is 0.60

times 1.33)
Figure 15.12 Compressive fofce b From API 650, Appendix E, figure E-5
For other parts, 1.33 times the "normal" allowable

stresses taken from section 3.10.3 of the Code.
15 The seismic design of ambient temperature storcge tanks
The maximum allowabledesign stress in the shellatthe anchor atiachment shall not exceed 170 N/lpa (25.000 lbiinr) with no increase atlowed for seismic loading.
through the numerous papers which are listed in References

15.16 and 15.16. The classical buckling strength ofa perfect cylinder is given by:
. .
The embedment of the anchor into the foundation shall be of sufficient strength to develop the specified yield strength of the anchor. The purchaser shall specify any corrosion allowance to be applied to the anchors. The uncorroded anchors shall be used to determine the design loads forthe attachments and the embedments. When specified by the purchaser, the anchors shall be designed to allow for thermal expansion of the shell arising from temperatures greater than 90 'C (200 'F).
=0.6r R
equ 15.26
The value of given by equation 15.22 above (which represents
most storage tanks of normal proportions) is one third of that given by equation 15.26.
15.2.7 Slosh height and freeboard considerations

API 650 Appendix E does not provide any specific rules for liquid sloshing. lt does give a general warning that "the purchaser shallspecify anyfreeboard desired to minimise or prevent overflow and damage to the roofand upper shellthat may be caused by sloshing of the liquid contents". lt seems curious to place this responsibility on the tank purchaser. The tank designer is, or should be in a much better place to make decisions relating to the freeboard to be allowed for seismic sloshing in any particular circumstances.
15.2.6 Allowable longitudinal compressive stress

The maximum longitudinal compressivestress in the tankshell
($ in US customary units or . in St units) shall not exceed 12t ^b ^. 1000t

the maximum allowable compressive stress Fu which is calculated from the equations given below These equations take account of the reduction in the compressive buckling stress caused by deviations from the perfect cylindrical shape due to the fabrication and erection processes and the stabiljsing effects of internal pressure due to the product liquid. desions are fill h;ight. A good presentation of the influences of these vaiables is qiven in Reference 15.14. In US customary units:
It must be borne in mind that the worst case seismic all based on a tank filled to the maximum operating
Forfixed rooftanks it is usualto arrange a freeboard sufficient to prevent the liquid sloshing wave plus any associated run up
of product liquid up the tank shell from impacting upon the tank roof itself. Refererce 75.75does indicate means of calculating
pressures on the underside of the tank roof olates in cases where insufficient freeboard has been allowed. This document is, to the author's mind, a quite excellent publication and essential reading for those interested in the seismic design of storage
NKS.
GHD,, --" is greater When
than or equal to
'106.
For floating roof tanks it is usual to allow sufflcient freeboard to ensure that the roof seals remain within the heioht of the tank shell. The presence of the floating roof is not;onsidered to modify or inhibit the sloshing behaviour of the product liqujd. equ 15.22 For fixed roof tanks with intefnal floating roofs, it is usual to allow sufficient freeboard to ensure that the internal roof and the
,D
When
1061
laHn2 is less than 106:
tank roof, or its supporting structure, do not come into direct

conlact.
To enable these decisions to be made, it is clear that the heioht
F"=r_+600JGH
In Sl units;
1n6r
equ 15.23
of the sloshing wave must be calculated for any particular
GHD,. wnen - rs greater

t2
geometry and site location. ln the absence of any means to make this calculation in API 650, it is not uncommon practice to borrow the following formula for the height of the first sloshing mode from Appendix L of API 620:
d = 1.124ztc.rzrann
t;k
than or equal to 44:
83t _ .D
fa.rzl
equ 15.24 where: is tess than 44: equ 15.25 shall not exceed 0.5
Fb/
I l"l \Dr l
equ15.27
cHn2 When :+
R?T
Fa
=ffi+7.5JcH
Fa
height ofthe sloshing wave in feet. lt is recommended that an allowance for liquid run uD the tank shell of 1 foot is added to this height
However in all cases where:
15.2,8 Other considerations arising from seismic
loadings
Fv = t =
minimum specified yield strength ofthe bottom shell course in the appropriate units (Mpa, N/mm2 or lb/in2) thickness ofthe bottom shell thickness excluding any corrosion allowance.
There are a number of other areas of tank desiqn for seismic loadings which occasionally arise for ambient tanks. These are briefly described below Some ofthese are revisited in Chapter 26 (Seismic design of low temperature storage tanks) where seismic design is considered in more detail.
The buckling of vertical cylindrical shells has been the subject of a great deal of theoretical and test work over the vears. Those interested in studying this subject in more detail could do worse than to look atthe work of Wozniak and Rotter. orto oick
The columns ofcolumn supported roof type tanks must be designed to resist the lateralforces imposed on them by the contained product liquid during the design seismic event. The work of Wozniak and Mitchell (Reference 15 6) gives a suitable and well-tried procedure for this. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 273
15 The seismic design of ambient temperaturc storcge tanks
lt is sometimes necessary to calculate the local pressures imposed on parts of the tank shell and bottom during the seismic design event. This could be for detailed design of internal fittings or for an assessment of the applied hoop stresses on the complete tank shell. Chapter 26 provides means of performing these calculations.
In extreme seismic events, there may be a tendencyfor the tank to slide off its foundation. This is an interesting subject, about which there are differing views held by those knowledgeable within the industry This is again considered in de-
for the actual specific gravity of the stored liquid which could
well be 0.8 or lower, whilst performing the seismic calculations for the same tank using the higher value of 1.00.
15.5 References 15.1 Oil Storage Tanks, Alaska EaLthquake of 1964,

Geodetic Survey, 1 967, J.E.Rinnie.
The
Prince William Sound Alaska Eafthquake of 1964, vol ume ll-A, US department of Commerce, Coast and Behaviour of Liquid Storage Tanks, The Great Alaska Eafthquake of 1964, R.D.Hanson, Engineering, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, 1973. Damage of Storage Tanks, Engineering Features ofthe San Fernando Eafthquake, February gth, 1971, PC.Jennings, Earthquake Engineering Research Laboratory Report 71-02 Cal. Tech. June 1971. The Lima Eafthquake of October 3rd, 1975. Damage distributlon, R.Huisid, A.F.Espinosa and J.de las Casas, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Volume 67, no. 5, pp 1441-1472, October 1977. Nuclear Reactors and Eafthquakes, by Lockheed Aircraft Corporation and Holmes and Narver lnc.,Chapter 6 and Appendix E ERDA, TID 7024 August 1963.
tail in Chapter 26.
15.2 15.3
15.3 The BS 2654 approach

Appendix G of BS 2654 admits in its introductory note to being based on Appendix E ofAPl 650. "Based on" is something ofan understatement. What is presented is Appendix E ofAPl 650 in metric units! There are a number of minor changes:
15.4
In line with the philosophy of BS 2654 in designing all tanks
for the maximum anticipated product specific gravity, all seismic calculations are based on an assumed product
gravity of 1.00.
15.5
1
In place of the UBC zone coefficients which at one time were only available for mainland USAand a few other locations, the laterallorce coefficients are based on the ratio of the horizontal acceleration to gravity. This seems quite dangerous as the Code gives little guidance as to exactly what this acceleration should be. Should it for example be the peak ground acceleration (PGA) which is the acceleration at time zero, or the acceleration appropriate to the natural frequency of the impulsive portion of the tank contents? These are ouite different numbers and there is often confusion as to what should be used. API 650 and the UBC used together represent a coherent design system and there is less room for confusion and error. The more recentversions of the UBC provide guidance for zone coefiicients for many locations worldwide and it may be considered wise to make reference to this data. The Code introduces the concept of the Operating Basis Earthquake (OBE) and the Safe Shutdown Earthquake
(SSE). For the OBE it suggests design seismic loads with a '10% probability of being exceeded in the structure's lifetime. ln this event the allowable stresses should not be exceeded. Forthe SSE it suggests a seismic design load with a 1% probability of being exceeded in the structure's lifetime. In this event the ultimate strength should not be exceeded. This all seems a little loose. The lifetime of the structure is controversial and the means of determining and applying the allowable stresses is not made very clear
5.6
Basisof Deslgn Provisions for Welded Steel Oil Storage Ianks, by R.S.Wozniakand W.W..Mitchell, presented at the Session on Advances in Storage Tank Design, API Refining,43rd midyear meeting, Toronto, May 1978.
650: Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, The American Petroleum Institute, Tenth Edition, November 1998 plus Addendum 1, March 2000.
15.7 API STANDARD 15.8 API
STANDARD 620: Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage lanks, The
American Petroleum Institute. Tenth Edition, Februarv 2002.
15.9
BS 2654:1989: British Standard for the Manufacture of verlical steel welded non-refrigerated storage tanks with butt-welded shells for the petroleum industry, BSI
LOnOOn.
15.10 Above Ground Storage
larks, Philip
E.lvlyers,
N,4ccraw-Hill, ISBN 0 07 044272 X.
15.11 2000 Uniforn Building Code, the International Conference of Building Officials, Whittier, California, ISBN
1 884590 94 2.
15.12 Earthquake Pressures on Fluid Containers, by

G.W.Housner, A Report on Research Conducted under Contract with the Office of Naval Research, California Institute of Technology, Pasedena, Earthquake Research Laboratory August 1954.
15.4 The prEN 14015 approach

The new Euronorm for ambient tanks (Reference 15.17\ is cut rently in draft form. lt is anticipated that the industry comments will be incorporated into this document during 2004.
15.13 AlSl E-1, Volume ll, Patl Vll, Anchor bolt chairs. 15.14 Royal Aeronautical Society Structural Data Sheet, No
04.01.01, (latet published by the Engineering Services Data Unit).
Annex G of this document is entitled Recomrrendations for seismic provisions for storage tanks.
It is almost identical to the Aooendix G of BS 2654.
15.15 Seismic desbn of storage tanks, Recommendations of

a Study Group of the New Zealand National Society for
Earthquake Engineering, December
986.
As for BS 2654 the requirement is for a specific gravity of the tank contents to be taken as 1.00 for the seismic calculations. This may well be an oversight as one of the differences between this document and BS 2654 is that the requirement for a minimum product liquid specific gravity of 1 .00 to be used in all cases for the tank shell design has been removed. lt would seem inconsistent to design the tank shell course thicknesses
15.'16 Guide linesforthe seismic design ofoitand gas pipeline sysferng Committee on gas, liquid fuel lifelines, ASCE
November 1984, ISBN
O
87 262424 5.
15.17 prEN 14015 - 1:2000, specification for the design and manufacture of site built veftical, cylindrical, flat-bottomed, above ground, welded metallictanksforthe storage of liquids at ambienttemperatures and above - Parl
1
: Steel tanks.
16 Operation of ambient temperature
tanks
This Chapter provides some outline guidance on the usage, operation and maintenance of above ground vertical cylindrical storage ianks operating at ambient temperature.
This guidance has been taken from number ot sources, the references oJ which are included to enable the reader to obtain more detailed information on the various toDics discussed.
16.1 Tank type

16.1.1 Fixed roof tanks 16.1.1.1 Fixed roof tanks with internalfloating mvers 16.1.2 Floating roof tanks
16.2 Product identification 16.3 Operation of tanks

16.3.1 Filling rates 16.3.2 Prevention of overfilling
'16.3.2.1 Procedures '16.3.2.2 Communication
16.3.2.3 Tank gauging and sampling 16.3.2.4 Internal floating covers 16.3.2.5 Mixing of products 16-3.2.6 Sloos tanks I 6.3.2.7 Rundown temoeratures
16.4 The operation of fixed roof tanks

16.4.1 Fixed roof ianks with intemal floatino covers
'16.4.2 Tank conosion '16.4.3 Hazardous atmosDheres
16.5 The operation of floating roof tanks

'16.5.1 Roof type
16.5.2 Pontoons 16.5.3 Tilting roof 16.5.4 Mtxers

'16.5.5 Access to floating roof '16.5.6 Venting
16.5.7 Managing leg supports

'l
6.5.8 Static electricity control
16.5.9 Foam dams ,16.5.10 Floating roof seals 16.5.10.1 Vapour saving
'16.5.10.2 VaDour loss
'16.5.1 1 Effects of roof type on drainage
'16.5.12 Overflow drains
16.5.13 Collection sump details 16.5.14 Roof drain plug
16.6 Static electriclty

16.6.1 Precautions to minimise or avoid static charges '16.6.2 Earthing and bonding
16.7 Heated storage 16.8 Tank and bund drainage

16.8.1 Tank drainage 16.8.2 Bund drainage
16.9 Tank maintenance

'l
6.9. 1 Permit-to-work systems
STORAOE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 275
16 Operation of ambient temperature tanks
16.9.2 Notice of issue of a permit 16.9.3 Working in tanks 16.9.4 Work on equipment in operation
16.10 Personnel and equipment requirements

16.1 1 Maintenance
16.'11.1 lsolation 16.'l '1.2 Entry to tanks
16.'1 '1.3
Gas-freeing
'l6.12 Tank cleaning

16.12.1 Tanks which contain, or have contained leaded products
16.13 Tank inspection 16.14 Operational malfunctions 16.15 Further guidance 16.16 References
16 Operation of ambient temperature tanks
16.1 Tank type

The type and nature ofthe product to be stored are the most important criteria in selecting the type oftank to use i.e. fixed roof, floating roof or fixed roof with an internal floating cover
safety and environmental reasons. There is a preference for floating roof over fixed roof tanks as the size of the tank increases, as the vapour pressure of the stored product increases and when the flash point is below the storage
temperature.
The roofconsists of an arrangement of buoyancy pontoons and floats on the stored product. lt is sealed against the shell ofthe tank by a specially designed seal arrangement, (see Chapter 6, Section 6.5.3). The roof is provided with support legs which can be adjusted to hold it in either of two positions. The upper posjtion should be high enough to allow access for tank cleaning and maintenance personnel and equipment. The loweroperating position should keep the roofjust above the inlet and outlet nozzles, the drain lines, heatingcoils, side entry mixers and any other accessories located near the tank bottom. The tank shell must be provided with an adequate earthing system and the roof and all fittings, such as the rolling access lad-
For hydrocarbon liquids, two lnstitute of petroleum oublications, Refererces 16.1 and 16.2 and NFPA 30, Reference
76.3, use systems of classification based on the closed flash point of the individual products to determine appropriate requirements. These classificatjon systems are different and it is important to define which applies when considering, for example, a Class l, ll or lll product.
16.1.1 Fixed roof tanks

Fixed roof tanks are generally used in refineries and storage terminals where the product stored does not readilV vaporise at the ambient or stored temperature conditions. Thus ihey are
used for Class
lll and unclassified products, commonlv for
Class ll (1) and rarely for Class I and ll (2). The size of theiank and the flash point of the product will atso influence the choice of tank. These tanks are operated with a vapour space above the liquid. Depending on the products to be stored, flxed rooftanks can be designed for storage at atmospheric pressure in which case
they are equipped with open vents. Alternatively, for Class I and
against lightning and static electricity. Also a internal fittings such as gauge floats, cables and mixers must be earthed to prevent the accumulation of static electricitv as djscussed in Section '16.6 and Chapter 6, Section 6.5.2.1 .
der must be electrically bonded to the shell as a protection
16.2 Product identification

lvlany of the products stored in tanks are highly inflammable, others may be corrosive or hazardous to health. These products could cause pollution of the ground, ground water, sea, rivers or the atmosphere if they are allowed to escape. There could be a threat to the health of the employees working in the area of the tanks and to the general public and also a serious risk of explosion or fire.
For these reasons, tanks should be clearly marked by a means which meets the requiremenis of NFpA 704, Reference 16.4, or an equally equivalent system. The marking should not be ap_ plied directly to the tank but should be located where it can be readily seen, such as on the shoulderofan access-way or walkway to the tank or tanks or on the piping outside the bunded area. lf more than one tank is involved, the markings should be Iocated so that the product of each individual tank can be easilv identified.
ll products, they can be designed for pressures up to a maximum of56 mbarto tank Code BS 2654. Higher pressure tanks
F,
are permitted underdesign rules to tank Codes Apl 650 Appen-
API 620 and European Code prEN 14015-1. These pressurised tanks are vented bythe use ofroof-mounted pressure and vacuum valves. (See Chapter 8.)
dix
Weak (orfrangible), shell-to-roof joints can, under certain conditions be incorporated to give structural protection to the tank in the event of an unexpected excessive build up of internal pressure. (See Chapter 3, Section 3.8). Fixed roof tanks which are built stricfly to the requirements of BS 2654 and API 650 are considered to be capable of withstanding an internal vacuum of 6 mbar and 2y2 mbat rcspectively, without the need to prove this by design. prEN .14015 will allow a vacuum rating of up to 20 mbar for the category 'very high pressure tanks" (up to 500 mbar pressure) but there will be a need to ensure by design that the shell, roof and floor are capable of withstanding the imposed loads due to this hjgher vacuum. 16.1.1.1 Fixed roof tanks with internal floating covers Such tanks are used, for example, where:
16.3 Operation of tanks

16.3.1 Filling rates
Tankfilling ratesshould be limited to minimise the aeneration of static electricity in the product. Free water dropleis or another second phasewillhavean effect by electrostatic charging ofthe product. These materials may be introduced either with the in_ going product, or by disturbing tank bottoms during filling. Thus, it is recommended that anyfree water be regularly drained from the tanks. When product is pumped into a tank which may have a flammable atmosphere, a residence time of at least 30 min_ utes should be allowed after the pumping has stopped before manually dipping or sampling.
. . . .
Snow loading on a floating roof may be a problem. Contamination by rainwaterof a product stored in a floating roof tank is unacceDtable. There is an environmental or vapour loss problem with fixed roof tanks.
Contact of the stored product with air should be avoided. Venting of these tanks is provided by means of large openings around the periphery of the roof and a centre open vent. The peripheral openings are fitted with weather cowls and bird screens with a mesh not lessthan 6mm square. The large ven! ing area so provided assists in reducing the vapour concentra_ tion in the space between the fixed roofand the internalfloatinq cover to below the lower flammabitity limit.
flammable atmosphere (vapour or mist) inside the tank. To

minimise the risk ofelectrical discharge, the filling velocity in the pipeline should be restricted to 1 m/sec. (even with a dry prod_ uct) until the outlet of the fill line in the tank is covered to a mini_ mum depth of 0.5 m for fixed roof tanks or until any floating roof or internal cover is floating when the rate mav be increased. The maximum rate, which is governed by the fiiction losses in the pipework, is in the region of 7 m/sec. Electrostatic charges can be generated when a svnthetic taoe or cord (which may be used during dipping or sampling) is alSTORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 277
Splash filling of hydrocarbons may result in the production of a
16.1,2 Floating roof tanks

Floating roof tanks are generally used for Class I and Class ll products to minimise product loss due to evaporation and for
;is
16 Operction of ambient tempeature tanks
lowed to run rapidlythrough an operator's gloved hand. In view
16.3.2.5 Mixing of products Sudden mixing of products ofdifferent vapour pressures at dif-
ofthis, only naturalfibre tapes and cords should be used. Tanks should only be manually dipped while receiving product if the
product is of high conductivity i.e.above 50 picosiemens/metre (ps/m). Forfurther information regarding static electricity, refer to Section 16.6.
ferent temperatures can cause the rapid development of

vapour, or foaming in the tank. This can occur when:
. e .
Stratified layers ofthese products are disturbed bythe use of a heating coil of the breakdown of an emulsion.
16.3.2 Prevention of overlilling

16.3.2.1 Procedures Clear formal written procedures should be established for the receipt of product into a tank installation. These will vary in accordance with the method of receipt employed i.e. cross country pipeline, marine, rail or road. These will also depend upon the quantities and grades of productto be delivered, the rates of delivery the numbers and capacities of the tanks to which deliveries are to be made, and the method of controlling the operation ofthe inlet valves to the tanks. The procedures for changeover oftank and product grade, in addition to avoiding the risk of overfilling, should ensure segregation of grades and avoid risk of contamination.
1
When hot product is added to a tank containing a high

vapour pressure prooucl. When a high vapour pressure product enters a hot tank.
16.3.2.6 sloos tanks Heating coils in operation in slops tanks should always be completely covered by the product. (Refer to Section 16.7.) Additionally, water should be regularly drained from slops tanks. Where product is discharged into a slops tank from a process vessel under gas pressure, precautions should be taken to ensurethat, in an emergency, gas cannotbe released tothe atmosphere in large quantities via the tank. 16.3.2.7 Rundown temperatures
6.3.2.2 Communication
There should be an efficient system of communication established between all personnel concerned in the operations, in order that the procedures referred to above are properly carried out, and so that immediate action can be taken in the event of an emergency. 16.3.2.3 Tank gauging and sampling A reference depth should be clearly marked near dip hatches which are used for gauging.
Dip hatchesfor manualgauging oftanks storing Class lor llpetroleum products should be opened as infrequently as possible,
Rundown temperatures should be controlled to ensure that products are delivered to tanks in a condition which will not cause a hazard due to the development of vapour or a froth-over. In the case offloating rooftanks and flxed rooftanks with internal floating covers, a check should be made to confirm that the roof seal can withstand the rundown temperature.
16.4 The operation of fixed roof tanks

There are not many moving parts on a fixed rooftank butthe fof lowing items should be periodically checked for serviceability :
Pressure and vacuum valves The weight pallets should be examined for corrosion and that they move freely within the valve. For spring loaded valves the action of the spring should be checked. Check that the mesh screen is clean and not blocked with debris.
consistentwith obtaining tank gaugings for control of inventory

and tank filling.
Dip hatches should be properly closed when not in use
lfatank
is fitted with more than one dip hatch, only one should be
opened at a time.
lManual gauging should not be carried out when atmospheric conditions are liable to cause static or other hazard to personnel engaged in operations, e.g. an electric storm, hail, flying sand.
. . .
Free vents
Check that the mesh screen is clean and not blocked with debris. Flame arrestors Check that the tube bank is clear and ensure that there are no blocked passages.
DiP hatches
No manual gauging or sampling should take place while tank
filling operations are proceeding, or for 30 minutes afier

stopprng.
lf any object is accidentally dropped into a
tank it should be re-
ported immediately. Floating roof tanks should be gauged from a gauging well, the hatch of which is at the top ofthe access stairway, thus avoiding the necessity of descending on to the roof. Automatic gauging equipment should be checked against manual dips at periodic intervals. 16.3.2.4 Internal floating covers Increasing emphasis is being placed on reducing evaporation losses byinstalling internal floating covers forlight hydrocarbon products stored in fixed roof tanks. Polyurethane (which is of low conductivity) is often included as the principal material of construction for some types of covers. lt is essential in these cases that all metal attachments fitted to the cover are electrically-bonded to the tank shell by a flexible bond to avoid the possibility of a discharge from the cover to the earthed tank shell. To prevent the build up of a charge on the polyurethane cove( the resistance to earth at any point on the cover should not exceed 103 ohms.
Check that the hinge and the screwdown closure (when fltted) operate freely. Check that the seal (when fitted) is not damaged.
. .
Emergency vents Check that the cover opens easily and that the seal and the seating is not damaged.
Float type level indicators Check via the roof inspection cover thatthe float guide wires are intact and that there are no kinks in the gauge operating
tape. Check that the gauge tape is operating correctly by actuating the float "lift and drop" mechanism on the gauge head Check that the gauge reading window is not misted over Check for corrosion or damage to the tape pipework' sheaves and housings.
Foam boxes Check for corrosion and ensure that the bursting disc is in-
16 Aperatton at
a-a e : ::- :+'2 .':. -:

c_-i
tact.
ter any outage for repairs. The compartments should be Periodic examination of the pontoons for leakage is menoeo.
16.4.1 Fixed root tanks with internal floating covers

Additionally for these tanks, the internal cover (of the contact type) when in the top position, should be visually inspected for leaks across its surface from a suitable manhole or inspection hatch in the fixed roof.
recc--
16.5.3 Tilting roof

lftilting ofthe floating roof is noted, it may indicate one or more flooded pontoons. Perform a visual check and if flooding is found,landing ofthe roofmust be donewith greatcare, and the
leakage drained ofi before landing. Problems with the rolling ladder could be another cause of the root tilting. Another cause of a tilting roof, particularly at low levels near the landing position, may be the result of accumulations of waxy deposits on the tank bottom. These sludges may build into several peaks and could cause damage to the roof if landed. lf materials are stored, which could give rise to such deposits, regular checks, should be made to determine the extent and disposition of deposits. The roof support leg sleeves are often used as access points to dip for such deposits.
Also it should be ensured that the anti-static cables and/or

shunts on the seal are intact.
In day-to-day operations the lowering
ofthe floating cover on to its supports should be avoided. lfthis does become necessary
then the filling rate should be reduced until the cover has
refloated.
16.4.2 Tank corrosion

The tank itself should be checked for corrosion especially at the joint between the shell and floor and the floor outstand beyond the shell. Also the roof-to-shelljoint is another vulnerable area. Bracketed connections to the shell and roof and access stair-
case connections also attract corrosion. Thermally insulated tanks should receive special attention and sections ofthe cladding and insulation should be removed periodically to allow inspection of the underlying steel especially at discontinuities in the cladding i.e joints between cladding sheets, roof-to-shell joints, closures at wind girders, closures around nozzles and manholes and atthe base ofthe tank. lnsulation should ideally be stopped short of the floor plating by at least 200 mm to prevent moisture being drawn up into the insulation material by wick action.
1
16.5.4 Mixers
Side entrymixers can cause severe vibrations in a floating roof. As a general rule, operators should avoid the use of mixers if the roof is within 4 m of the roof lever.
16.5.5 Access to the floating roof

Open top tanks normally have a means ofaccessto the floating roof for a variety of purposes. The rolling ladder, with level ad-
6.4.3 Hazardous atmospheres
Access to the roofofa tank should be restdcted ifa toxic risk exists (e.9. HrS, benzene), in which strict safety prccautions appropriate to the hazard, including the use of breathing apparatus, should be adopted and warning notices posted at the access points to the tank.
justing treads or simple rungs is the most usual means of access. These may be affected by high winds and need to be checked periodically. Alternatively, noaccess may be provided, except by a short, fixed ladder for use when the roof is in its highest position. Tanks without rolling ladders present a problem when the roof is out of service for maintenance. A special through-deck access way can sometimes solve this problem.
16.5 The operation of floating roof tanks

Floating roofs should be examined frequenfly to ensure that
they are functioning effectively. lnadequate drainage of rainwater, malfunctioning of roof ladders, sludge accumulation, ice formation, snow or perforated pontoons, can all result in can! ing ofthe roof. This can lead to jamming orsinking ofthe roof, with the possible generation of sparks.
Rolling ladders with self-levelling treads require the tread mechanisms to be lubricated occasionally. The wheels should of course be seen to properly engage in the tracks and any signs of wear on the flanges or track edges may point to offset loads or alignment problems, Track and ladder length are matched to maximum and minimum roof height. Any attemptto alter levels, say by reducing the roof support legs length, may cause the ladder to jam if it is too near the vertical.
Where no rolling ladder isfitted, there may be a full height vertical ladder extending through a well in the floating roof. ln such cases a fabric seal is usually the best that can be done to reduce vapour losses at this source. Check the condition of the fabric and renew as required.
Operational and maintenance procedures should cover these potential hazards. Instructions set out in the following Sections will assist in the operation of these orocedures.
16.5.1 Roof type

The general form of the floating roof will be either the double deck design, or the pontoon deck type.
16.5.6 Venting
Floating roofs have to be protected against accidental damage when on their supports. Pumping out could pull a vacuum and filling from empty may introduce pressure. In both cases, relief is automatically provided by a bleeder vent, whose simple construction shown in Figure 16.'1. Wjth the fitting of more effective sealing systems on the roofs, it is even more important that these vents function properly. The vent has a gasketto prevent vapour loss when the roofis afloat. Check the gasket and replace if necessary ensuring suitability for the product. The bleeder deck vent is actuated by a leg, which contacts the tank floorjust in advance of the roof landing. Roof support legs STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 279
Instructions may vary between the two roof designs and any points of difference will be highlighted.
16.5.2 Pontoons
Regardless ofthe roof type, the outer annulus will be divided radially to form a ring of separate compartments. Each of these pontoon compartments is fitted with an access hatch and cover. Ensure the covers are in place when access is not required. Check each pontoon atfirst "float-off' after construction and af-
16 Operction of ambient tempercture tanks
Roof on supports tank being filled

Figure 16.1 Bleedet vents
Roof Iloating
Roof on supports tank being emptied
usually have a low operating position and a high maintenance position and it is imperative that the leg and vent actuator lengths must be checked for a match, for protection to be assured.
The capacity of the vent valves is high, often around 10'000 bbl per hour; but it maybewiseto check specific capacities against current pumping rates, especially when any change of use is
shells with anti-corrosion coatings however means that an alternative method has to be used. This is more difficult than it seems for open top tanks due to wind action affecting any cabling system such as is commonplace with internal decks lf shell contiact at the seal is not possible, cabled systems can be arranged to partly follow the rolling ladder, taking precautions against snagging on the projections offered by roof legs etc. Check the condition and contact of rim seal shunts. Bend into contact if required. The pitching of rim seal shunts is typically 3 m; but sometimes less, bY request.
planned.
A few roofs may not be fitted with emergency deck valves as above, but carry P & V vents instead. Here the question of ca-
pacity is even more pertinent and maintenance must be

assureo.
The only other venting requirement likelyto be found on a floating roofconcernsthe rim ventfor mechanicalseals This vent is to guard against an unusual circumsiance; but one, which can happen. lf a large quantity of air or gas enters the tank, say during pigging, the valve prevents the metalshoeplates from being pushed against the shell, jamming the roof by pressure. lt has
16.5,9 Foam dams

Since fire hazards tend to be concentrated in the rim area' fire-fighting measures are similarly concentrated here. To reduce the amount offire-fighting foam and consequently speed
the extinction, it ls customary to limit the spread of foam by use of afoam dam, as discussed in Chapter7' Section 7.10 Thisis
vice.Thereshould beonevalveonsmalltanks, perhapstwoon

larger tanks.
happened! Only mechanical seals need such a protective de-
simply a barrier, usually of steel running circumferentially at

around one metre from the tank shell and traditionally 12" high (300 mm). lt should be noted that there is a case for extending ihe h"ight of the foam dam, to allow submergence of the tip of any secondary sealfitted, by 50 to 75 mm. The foam may be delivered to the rim zone from overhead, via fixed foam pourers or foam cannons from an external source It is also oossible to use an on-deck foam soufce, which will generate foam on a signal and deliver it to nozzles located between the primary and secondary seals. This system obviously has a limited capacity; howeverit has the advantages ofspeedy response and lowwastage since it is delivered to the seat of the
proDlem.
16.5.7 Managing leg suPports

There are many different lengths of roof support on any glven floating roof. This is becausethe floor may have been coned up or down at the time of designing. The object however is to obtain a level deck (or the desired slope in some cases) at two possible levels operating (low) and maintenance (high). The in one orotherposition (roughly760 mm simplypinned iegsare difference)
lf support legs are set in the maintenance position when the
roof is in service, the consequence may be that the roof lands more frequently than is desirable and vapour conservation is sacrificed. optimum operation will be achieved with the legs in the operating position, except during tank maintenance lt is important therefore to remember to check that the bleeder deck vent is in the corresponding pin position. Remember also that the support legs are not designed to carry the roof plus a water or product load Pontoons should be checked before landing to ensure that they are dry
Foam dams, which are integralwith the rim seal assembly, are available and these are generally of a height compatible with a secondary sealing system.
Whatever the foam dam in use, there will be mouseholes for drainage at the bottom. These tend to fillwith debris and should be clejned out as required. lf not keptclear, rainwatercan build
up behind the foam dam, leading to paint breakdown, corrosion and damage, particularly to the seal mounting zone.
16.5.10 Floating roof seals

16.5.10.1 Vapour saving Floating roof seals must of course be kept in good order The demands of looking after the seals are not severe and the investment of a few hours say twice yearly will pay dividends
16.5.8 Static electricity control

electricity to the shell and to earth. The increasing number of
Rim seals normally have a major role in safely conducting static
6 Aperaton of
amtreq
rcraE-a:-j::
.:
Specifically look at:
. .
Sagging may indicate the envelope has been penetralec

and liquid has saturated the foam fllling. Complete repiacment may be required.
Look after any weathershields. They can damage the seal if allowed to deteriorate.
Mechanical seals have a polymer fabric joining the sheet

metal shoeplate to the floating roof rim. This material has to be slack to permit roof movement and therefore it tends to collect water, corrosion products, wax etc in the loop. lf allowed to accumulate, the weight of debris can pull the shoeplate off the wall, allowing vapour loss.
. . .
With the passage of time, the rubber may deteriorate. Look fot cnzing. The joints should be checked for tightness. Take action as necessary Examine the top ofthe metal shoeplates. lfcorrosion is evident, the lower shoe may be corroded. Insert a piece of wood behind the plate and look down, next to the shell. The mechanical seal will not be tight against the shell at all points; but if a location is noted where a large gap occurs, it may indicate a problem with a pantograph hanger. This would be unusual however.
Danger: With all liquid and foam filled seals think very carefully before doing any hot work on the tank or floating roof. lt is
very easy to forget even after cleaning and gas freeing that a large quantity of kerosene or vapour-impregnated foam may be prcsent in the tank. To avoid the risk of accidenial fire, these seals should removed before commencing any hot work.
Warning: Take care when changing the product stored in
tank, that the seal materials are compatible with the new product. Be especially wary of high aromatic liquids. Secondary seals will be mainly of the compression plate type. Really there is very little to go wrong with then. There have of
course been a number of situations where compression plates have turned down where there is a large increase in rim gap. e.g. at an outwards bulge in the tank shell. This problem is now recognised and can be safeguarded.
Aweathershield is a series ofoverlapped metal plates covering the primary seal at an angle of about 50 degrees. As the name implies, it sheds off some ofthe rainwaterand corrosion products, protecting the primary seal. This will improve seal life, regardless of the primary seal type. A secondary seal does all that a weathershield does and more. There are significant savings in vapour and the primary seal well protected. lndeed, in the EU, tanks in motor
spirit service are legally obliged to be fitted with both primary and secondary seals. fluid, normally kerosene. These primary seals are usually found in service with volatile products, such as gasoline, naphtha etc. The filling fluid may be contained within a separate tube or be held in the scuff band itself. These seals should have weathershields or seconoary seats.
a
Do not be concerned if the secondarysealtip is not making contact with the shell over the entire circumference. Major gaps should not occur; but secondary seals act by interfering with the wind action and small gaps do not negate the benefits.
. . .
Liquid-filled seals have a polymer bag containing
Look out for any signs of loosening of the rim attachments and correct aS necessary Seal tip wear is unlikely to be found.
. .
Checkthe scuffband, which rubs againstthe shell, lookfor

signs of deterioration. crazing etc. Check that the bag is containing fluid. lt should be pushing against the shell. lf the bag is limp, it has lost its fluid the stored liquid will be visible. In such a case, something has punctured the bag or it has deteriorated structurally. Loose bolts can be trapped against the shell; but by far the most frequent destroyer of liquid-filled seals is the neglected weathershield, which was put there to protect the seal. The reason is that the weathershields are allowed to deteriorate to such an extent that they can be broken off when the roof is at a high level in windy conditions. The broken piece frequently falls into the rim space where it grinds away at the rubber band until a puncture occurs and the fluid is lost. Weathershields must be kept in working order. To recover a punctured seal bag, provided the polymer is not breaking down, obviously first remove the cause of the puncture then replace the existing punctured tube, or if no tube was fitted originally fit a tube in the envelope. This allows the repair to be made without removing the roof guide pole (this can be a problem with some liquidjilled seals, which are made as continuous rings). Refill with the filling fluid. lt may be necessary to repair the scuff band if the hof ang is extensive.
EU legislation requires that secondary seals be fitted to floating roofs with motor spirit contents; but says nothing about operating the roof at a maximum level which retains the secondary seal within the tank shell top. Routinely taking the secondary seal above the tank top is not recommended. lfthis is the case, it is not performing its function.
Ensure that electrostatic grounding strips are in good condi-
tion and contacting the shell. If not contacting, bend until

contact is renewed.
Double seals are much the same as the secondary seals just described. The lower, primary seal is visible ifa piece ofwood is inserted behind the secondary seal.
16.5.10.2 Vapour loss
API 2517 gives guidance on vapour losses from the roof leg sleeves and the slotted guidepole etc. Support leg losses are
individually small; however there are many of them and the potential losses look significant afterthe major step offitting a secondary seal has been taken. Leg covering socks are available to deal with leg losses and are fitted during routine maintenance. Slotted guide poles lose unexpectedly high amounts ofvapour and a number of solutions are available. However, because of ihe need to allow free movement of the roof around the guide pole and not to interfere with any internal liquid level floats, the shrouding of the guide pole presents a number of difficult problems.
Foam-filled seals may suffer scuffing against the tank shell, especially where the material may be creased. Creasing is however inevitable since seals have to be made to allow for varying rim gaps (usually plus or minus 100 mm).
Geodesic dome roofs presentan opportunityto resolve many ofthe problems associated with open top floating roofs. The all
aluminium roof can be fitted to existing open tanks with a minimum of site disruption. lsolated from the elements, the floaiing roof will no longer present painting problems, the seal losses will reduce by up to 90% and water ingress to the productwilt be eliminated.
Lookforworn, ortorn, envelope material. Dependingon the envelope material, patching may be possible, with a local wrap-around to protect the patch.
16 Opention of ambient tempercture tanks
16.5.11 Effects of roof type on drainage

The single deck, pontoon roof has a single layer of plating at its centre and this plating will be below the normal liquid level ofthe
stored product when the roof is afloat. For any type of articulated pipe or hose attached to a sump in a roof of this type the natural consequence of a leak or rupture in the conduit will be that product will enter the conduit and flood the deck plating (particularly if the shell outlet valve is closed). Obviously, this is undesirable and as a consequence, the upper end of the drainage conduit in pontoon roofsumps must be fitted with a suitable non-return valve. Check this valve occasionally to see that it is functioning. The sump top screen should be kept clear of debns.
Faults noted with these drains include decks flooding after a prolonged spell of dry weather. The pans may dry out and the essential leg ofwaterseal lost. The same result can occurfor a different reason; corrosion may perforate the water pan, allowing the product to flood onto the decK.
lf syphon drains are fitted, be aware oftheir limitations and perhaps consider using stainless steel units. At any rate at least
ensure they are primed with water after any extended dry speIs.
Syphon drains should be drained of water and plugged when the product temperature is belowfreezing, see Chapter 6, Section 6.5.8.
Rapid product movement could sweep out the waterseal and a cover is often fitted to prevent this.
Double deck roofs have the drainage sump located below the upper deck, but above the product liquid level, and therefore they do not require having non-return valves fitted in the sump.
16.5.14 Roof drain plug

Pontoon type floating roofs carry a drain plug, nearthe roof centre. This should be removed when the roofis outofservice. Any articulated roof drain which may be present will operate at its
When primary roof drains are closed in winter, measures

should be taken to prevent the freezing of rainwater.
16.5.12 Overflow drains

Double deck floating roofs can permit waterto enter the stored product ifthe roof primary drainage system is not effective or is not opened to remove rainwater before the water level on the roof exceeds the small upstand on the roofand spills down into the product. These overflow drains are incorporated on double decks which have not been designed to carry the full design condition waterload.
minimum capacity when the roof is at low level. Opening the drain plug ensures that the roof legs will be protected against damage by excessive water load whilethe roofis standing on its suooorts.
Rememberto replace the plug before re-filling commences. Attaching a prominent streamer will trigger this action.
1
6.6 Static electricity
16.5.13 Collection sump details

Before rainwater is disposed of from the roof, it has to be col lected at one or more points on the roof. Mainly the locus is the roofcentre. At this point there should be a sump, extending belowthe deck plating leveland with a screening device and cover to exclude large solids. Large roofs may have more than one sump. Pontoon type roofs bytheir nature are flexible, and are intended to be so. This has consequential effects on drainage, on paint condition and indeed on the life ofthe roof. Care must be taken in the construction ofthese roofs to ensure the centre deck is as flat and even as possible; however despite balanced welding techniques etc, inevitably such decks will be distorted to some degree and ponding will occur. Where distortion is severe, ponding tends to take place regularlyatthe same lowspots and paint condition will deteriorate at these locations. Some roofs are fitted with under-deck stiffening rings in an attempt to control deck distortion; though this is often not successful. Drainage to the central sump of pontoon type roofs is not perfect and some ponding is to be expected. Efforts to overcome ponding have been made. Auxiliary piping has been connected from low spots to the central sump. This has to be done carefully however, since it could lead to hard spots where roof flexibility is impaired, rendering the roof unable to cope with say tank floor settlement on landing of the roof. The interconnecting piping could also present problems.
Double deck roofs do not sufferfrom this problem to any degree since their structure allows one or more oositive slopes to facili-
The generation ofstatic electricity is a surface phenomenon associated with the contact and separation of dissimilar surfaces.
With hydrocarbon products, the degree of charge, generation and decay is also a function of the type and concentration of
certain trace compounds such as asphaltenes, oxidation products, naphthenic and sulphonic acids.
The unit of conductivity normally used is picosiemens/metre, (ps/m). The siemens was formally known as the mho.
Hydrocarbon distillates with a low conductivity in the range of
0.1 to 10 ps/m are strong electrostatic accumulators. Residues and crudeoils have a much higher conductivity in the range 10" to 105 ps/m and any electrostatic charge generated is rapidly dissipated. Distilled water has a conductivity of about 103 pS i
m. Unless otherwise stated the hydrocarbon products referred to in this Section will be of the first group, i.e. those of low conductivity which are capable of accumulating electrostatic
charge. The relaxation time ofa hydrocarbon product is that taken for its charge to relax to 1ie of its original value and is inversely proportionalto its conductivity. For the above mentioned hydrocarbon distillates the relaxation time would be in the ranqe 180 to 1.8 seconds. The generation of static electricity in itself does not present a hazard unless an electricfield is produced in a flammable atmosphere and that field can be discharged resulting in a spark of sufflcient energy to cause ignition. The amount of energy re-
quired depends upon the composition of the flammable

atmosphere.
For further information on this subject, see Reference 16.5,

which is to be superseded by a new Standard, see Reference 76.6. Another most useful exposition on electrostatics is given in Reference 16.7.
tate drainage to central collection sumps. Syphon drains have to be correctly designed and maintained. Their operation must be controlled thoughtfully, with a proper understanding oftheir design and limitations. Changes of product, from say gasoline storage to a high density liquid, or one which could be affected adversely by water, e.g. MTBE, could have consequences which must be considered in advance if syphon drains are present.
16.6.1 Precautions to minimise or avoid static charges

To minimise the build up of static charges when filling a tank
16 Operction of ambient
temFeai-=
=-.t
with Class I petroleum, or Class ll or lll petroleum static accumulator products, under conditions which may create a flammable atmosphere in the iank ullage space by vaporisation or formation of mist, refer to Section 16.3.1.
taken to exclude water from the bnk Regular inspections should be carried out to ensure that the vents on heated tanks do not become blocked by polymerisation, sublimation or condensed ofthe product or by icing, with the possible consequent overpressurc or collapse of the tank under vacuum.
16.6.2 Earthing and bonding

Electrical continuity must be provided on a tank to ensure that any electrostiatic charge, or lightning strike can be dissipated to
16.8 Tank and bund drainage

16.8.1 Tank drainage
Water which is introduced into storage tanks containing hydrocarbon products which have a s.g. less than that of water, will accumulate on the tank floor, and if this is not drained off it will cause corrosion ofthe tank floor plates and to the bottom part of the shell plating. lt is recommended that a water bottom should not be mainiained in a storage tank as general policy; the only exception being in the case where a tank bottom is leaking, or is suspected of leaking. Water may then be introduced on the basis that the seepage of water into the ground is preferable, rather than the stored Droduct.
a discharge of product from a ship, or pipeline which has been cleared by a water plug, a practice which is not recommended. This water should be removed as soon as Dossible after the tank contents have settled. To ensure thatthe tank drain is closed off as soon as all the water has been removed, a operator should be on stand-by
earth. The following are examples of areas where electrical

bonding is necessary:
. . . . . . .
Between the tank fittings and valves, to the tank. Between the floating roof and the shell of the bnk. Between the rolling ladder, the floating roof and the shell of the tank. Between the floating roof seal and the shell of the bnk. Between an internalfloating cover and the hnk. Between the flanged joinb of the tank service pipework. The tank shell must also be adequately earthed to earthing rods or an earthing mat in or around the bund area.
Watermaybe introduced into atankduring
a tank has a cathodic protection system in place, then the method by which the tank is bonded and earthed must take account of the type of such a system.
Cautionary note: Where
16.7 Heated storage

Tanks storing heavyorviscous products and crudeoil maycontain heating coils or unit heaters through which steam, hotwater or oilflows. Heating is applied to keep the viscosity ofthe product low enough for pumping and sometimes to prevent the for-
at the drain point, unless an automatic waterdraw-off device is fitted to the drain line. On completion ofthe operation, the water
draw-ofi valve should be closed and locked and the water draw-off connection blanked or otheMise secured.
Water drawn from tanks should be passed through an interceptor before passing to any external drainage system.
mation of wax. Suction heaters may be used if the product needs to be heated when actually being withdrawn from the
tank. Electrical tank heating has a limited application for example, to small bitumen tanks. Coking ofthe bayonet type elements can be minimised by ensuring adequate thermostatic control but can still pose problems. The Institute of Petroleum Bitumen Safety Code (Reference /6.8) should be consulted for further advice on this subject. Heating coils should be of all-welded construction. Due allowance must be made for expansion within the tank and for adequate support and location ofthe coils. The coils are usually designed in sections which can be isolated individually from outside the tank. Consideration should be given to providing facilities such as a low levelalarm to ensurethatthe heating coilorelectric heating elements are always covered by the stored product. This is to
16.8.2 Bund drainage

The probability of a major leak from a well designed and maintained storage terminal is low' particulady if the tanks are equipped with an overspill protection system. However, the consequences of a spillage of flammable liquid are potentially catastrophic. Therefore measures to contiain spillages from storage tanks are essential. Bunding is the method used to contain a liquid which has spilled or leaked from a tank, lt is recommended that bunding is provided for all flammable liquids with a flashpoint of 55'C or below and for products which are stored at temperatures above their flashpoints. Bunding for stored products with a flashpoint of 32'C and below is required by HSE regulations, (see Refer-
ence 16.9).
The purpose of bunding is to:
prevent overheating causing possible coking, froth-over or

product deterioraljon, or at the worst, spontaneous ignition occuring in the vapour space. Storage temperatures should be thermostatically controlled to ensure lhat the stored product is held at a temperature which will not cause a hazard from vapour evolution or spontaneous ignition.
. . . . . .
Prevent the flammable liquid or vapour from reaching ignition sources. Prevent the liquid entering the drainage or water systems where it may spread to uncontrolled ignition sources.
Allow the controlled recovery or treatment of the spilled

prooucl. Minimise the surface area of the product and so reduce the size of any fire that may occur, Preventthe spread of burning products which could present a hazard to other plant or personnel both on and off the tank site. Prevent contamination of land and water courses.
lf there is a possibility of water being present in the tank, the temperature of the tank contenb should be kept either
(a) below the boiling point of water, so that water bottoms will not flash to steam with a consequent violent eruDtion within the tank, or
(b) sufficiently high at alltimes to
ensurewater bottoms can-
not accumulate.
lfa tank has to be operated in a temperature range which fluctuates around the boiling point of water, measures should be
Rainwater, and water drained from the tanks which accumulates in the tank bund area may be drained from the bund by STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 283
-t.
16 Operction of ambient temperature tanks
normal gravity drainage. In this case the area within the bund should be isolated from any outside drainage system by an externally-sited valve, kept closed unless the bund area is being drained of water under controlled conditions. Alternatively, the bund may be drained by means of a manually-controlled pump, or by a syphon drain, which passes over the top ofthe bund wall, and is primed by means ofa small manually-controlled pump. Water from tank bunds should pass through a oil interceptor system before passing to any outside drainage system or watercourse. Provision may be made for a valved by-pass round the interceptor, which would allow controlled flow ofuncontaminated water in exceptional storm conditions orforthe release of fire-fighting water.
been removed and cannot be accidentally reintroduced. Care should be taken to ensure that contractors and subcontractors are also covered bythe permit or authorisation system.
16.9.2 Notice of issue of a permit

When repairs or alterations necessitate the dismanfling on site
of important items of equipment, such as valves, pumps or be conveyed to all concerned and due acknowledgement
recetved. pipelines, or entry into tanks or vessels, specific notice should
16.9.3 Working in tanks

Hot work or other hazardous work should not commence inside a tank or vessel which has stored petroleum until it has been emptied, isolated, cleaned and gas-freed. Also, it should not commence until it is confirmed that there is no oxygen deficiency and the local areas have been cleaned so that there will be no emission of product vapour on application of heat.
16.9 Tank maintenance

Health and safety law requires that plant and equipment is maintained in a safe condition. Storage tanks and all associated equipment, including walls and fences, should be properly
maintained. Only personnel who are suitably qualified and authorised, and who fully understand the hazards, should carry out inspection and maintenance.
It is good practice to list the component parts of the installation
on a preventive maintenance schedule, containing details of the scope and frequency of planned inspection and maintenance work. Attention should also be paid to periodic inspection of electrical equipment and operation of isolation valves. There
lf repair work involving hot work from the inside of the tank is necessary on welded seams or plates ofabove ground vertical tanks, holes should be carefully drilled, under cold work conditions and gas tests should be carried out. This will ensure that product or gas is not trapped between the tank plates and tank surround or foundation, before the hot work is allowed to
proceed.
should be regular inspection and cleaning of interceptors,

bunds, vents, slop tanks, loading and unloading facilities, and any buildings where flammable vapour may be present. Fire-fighting equipment should be regularly maintained and, where appropriate, tested.
16.9.4 Work on equipment in operation

Repairs or alterations to plant and equipment in operation should not be permitted except for non-hazardous cold work carried out under carefully controlled conditions, e.g. repairs or alterations to floating suctions, pressure and vacuum vents, float gauges, etc. Repairs or alterations should not be undertaken when tanks or vessels are being filled or emptied.
A competent person should carry out examination of tanks,

pipe work and fittings. This could be a specialist inspection en-
gineer employed by an insurance company or an employee with the appropriate qualifications and experience. A written
scheme of examination should be agreed between the user and the competent person, to include the scope and frequency of thorough examination. Intervals between internal examinations should bedetermined usinga risk assessment approach based on tank service, maintenance history and known corrosion rates. Intermediate external examinations should also be carried out on above ground tanks. Records should be kept of all examinations, tests, modifications and major maintenance. Schemes ofexamination should be in writing and should be reviewed regularly. Hoses normally need to be examined and pressure-tested at least annually, and visually inspected on every day they are used.
1
16.10 Personnel and equipment requirements

Persons who are to carry outwork of maintenance or construction in installations or depots, which are in operation, or which are storing petroleum products, should be fully acquainted with all relevant safety regulations.
Work of inspection, maintenance or extensions should

be-planned and progressed by experienced and responsible staff, who should ensure that all persons engaged in the work observe all relevant precautions. When maintenance or extensions are being undertaken, contractors'or casual labour is frequently employed. These persons may not befamiliarwith the normal precautions adopted in premises storing petroleum, and the necessary precautions to be taken should be confirmed before commencement of the work. When such labour is employed there should be strict supervision to ensure that all relevant precautions are observed. When mobile equipment, which is to be used for carrying out
work of maintenance or extensions, is temporarily stationed in a hazardous area, it should be ofsuch construction that it is not liable to be a source of ignition and to cause a fire.
6.9.1 Permit-to-work systems
Many accidents have occurred while storage installations were being maintained, modified or demolished. The main cause is the introduction ofa source of ignition, such as a cutting torch or an unprotected light, to pieces of equipment where flammable vapours remarn.
It is essential that any work carried out on equipment, which

may contain a flammable liquid, or vapour is covered by a permit-work or similar system of authorisation. Permit procedures are described fully in Reference 16.10. A typical permit will specify:
. . . .
the area to which the permit applies. the work to be done and the method to be used. the time limjt on the permit. the precautions to ensure that allflammable materials have
Contractors' equipment should not be allowed to be brought into use without written authority of the installation or depot
manager or his authorized representative.
16 Operation ot ambient temperatute tanks
16.11 Maintenance
16.11.1 lsolation
It ls essential, before any work is undertaken in a tank, that it is isolated. All lines and connections to the tank should be disconnected or blinded off and a blinds list should be made out. lt should be ensured that the tank is structurallv and mechanicallv safe for the proposed work and that it is isolated from ail sources of motive power and electrical supply.
spection by personnel, wearing breathing apparatus, followed by de-sludging, cleaning or similar operations. There should be externalsurveillance to ensure thatrescue can be undertaken if
necessary
At this stage any activity inside the tank should not be capable of providing a source of ignition. Ventilation of the tank and gas
testing of the almosphere inside should be continued whilst de-sludging cleaning, etc. are in prcgress, since evolution of gas vapours can be expected from the oil-wetted surfaces of the tank and from the disturbance of sludge and scale. lf gas tests give a reading above 25% of the lower flammable limit,
work should be suspended. lt should not be resumed until ventilation has sufficiently reduced the vapour concentration to make the tank safe for re-entry Lighting equipment should be without cables (battery operated or compressed air driven turbine generator type) as approved for Zone I areas or for tank
16.11.2 Entry to tanks

Tanks, which have not previously been gas-freed or tested for sufficient oxygen should not normally be entered for even non-hazardous work or inspection even when breathing apparatus is worn. When entry under such conditions has to be made for exceptional reasons, special authorization should be given and the authorizing permit should set down the safeguards to be taken, which include the wearing of breathing apparatus, safety harness and lifeline and the posting of competent persons outside the tank to ensure that rescue can be undertaken if necessary It must be recognized that in these circumsiances the vapour concentration within the tank may fall to within the flammable limits giving a further hazardous situation.
cleaning purposes by the national authority responsible for

such certiflcation. Ventilation should be continued until the tank is gas free. Atank is considered gas free when, afterthe removalofall sludge and loose scale, combustible gas indicator readings taken at five minute intervals overa 30 minute period from eductor exhaust, tank manholes, roofgauging hatches and from several internal locations, particularly areas liable to vapour concentrations (e.9. sumps, pipeline entries, pontoons, around{ube seals, tubular legs, water draw-ofi facilities) are consisten y less than 1% of the lower flammable limit.
16.11.3 Gas-ff,eeing
16.12 Tank cleaning

The gas-freeing of a tank, which has contained volatile hvdrocarbons, has two main ourposes:
1) 2)
to eliminate conditions which might lead to a fire or exploston. to eliminate possible toxic ef{ects and asphyxiation of personnel entering the tank.
Cleaning oftanks which are not completely gas free should be carried out only under the direct supervision of a comDetent person. Such tanks should be kept as well ventjlated as possible and all personnel entering should be equipped with suitable breathing apparatus and protective clothing appropriate to the nature of the product and condition of the bnk. These factors will also determine the time for which personnel may be permitted to remain inside, but it is recommended that in no case should this exceed 1.5 hours with a half-hour break before re-entry The time in the tank must not exceed the safe limit for the breathing apparatus being used. While work is in progress there should be a competent person stationed outside the tank to ensure that rescue can be undertaken ifnecessary ln the cleaning of floating roof tanks, it is important to ensure that pockets of flammable material are not trapDed in the tubular roof support legs owing to blockage ofdrain holes by scale or
sruoge.
In all cases appropriate tests should be carried out and work progressed under the direct supervision of a competent per-
son. Gas-freeing and cleaning of tanks are interrelated and no
work of either gas-freeing or cleaning should start without an

overall plan. Precautions must be taken to protect personnelfrom asphyxiation and the effects oftoxic materials. After removalofthe product, the tank must be isolated and then ventilated.
Naturalventilation is slow and purging oflarge tanks bythe use of steam is not practicable because of the large condensing surface afforded by the tank shell and hence the difficulty of
raising the temperature in the tank space sufficienfly forthe effective removal of vapour. Furthermore, with steaminq there is also a risk of static accumulation on anv insulated co;ductors that may be in the tank. Ventilation by an air or flameproof electric motor-driven fan or an air or steam-operated eductor sited at a suitable manhole is recommended for reducing the vapour concentration within a tank to a low figure relatively quickly (see R eference 16.11). All equipment used for the venting of a tank must be correcfly bonded and earthed. During the gas-freeing of a tank which has contained volatile products, escaping flammable vapours may cause a hazatdous atmosphere outside the tank. In still atmosDheric conditions these vapours may travel beyond the limits of the usual safety distances. For this reason, rapid dispersal of vapour is desirable. With ventilation by an air orflameproof electric motor, combustible gas indicator tests show that its atmosphere contains a minimum of hydrocarbon vapour but, in any case, below25% of the lower flammable limit. The tank may then be entered for in-
essary provided that they are suitably isolated and adequately ventilated during cleaning operations, and that personnelwear
For Class lll petroleum tanks, special precautions are not nec-
suitable protective clothing. However, ifhotwork is to be undertaken, appropriate precautions should be observed. During subsequentwork, tanks, which have been cleaned and declared free of gas, should be checked frequenfly (not less than twice daily) by an accurately calibrated combustible gas indicator. Effective ventilation should be maintained throuqhout the tank whilst work is in progress.
16.12.1 Tanks which contain, or have contained leaded products

Tanks, which have at any time contained leaded products, re_ quire special precautions. and the recommendations of the manufacturers ofthe lead compound regarding procedure and safety regulations should be rigidly ooserved.
The accumulation ofrust, scaleand sludgefrom a cleaning op-
eration should be handled only in a wet state both in the tank and after removal. Disposal should be in accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturers of the lead comoound. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 285
16 ODe@tion of ambient temDerature tanks
IIISPECT('{ FREQUETCY
6ROUP
sEivtcE
@rDmofls
EXIERIIAL ROUNilE
VISUAL
o.t lhd vlrull lmludlnE ulh&nlc

lhiclmaar
EXTERIIAI
NTEN
A!
O.ldl.d vl3u.l
Inclrdhg ulraaoruc
thhtt|..
bdor'
a
3
lmootFl
.to! .nd
E
?ool
bolb|n
|rd.irI
CULATE OOIE fre
cn6fi-rcab, ias !vdr. bfi6 (not iolernaly p|oldd)
Sbpr,
cdfldte
or agEssslv
slr.r!
Crud
oaidt prctdod ar h Aro.rdh C.5.3

Rfigtglld Sto.aga
S6e
Sl|L ai Gllrp I
axcapl
7
App*dr
7
Ol
8
12
10
Fid
oa
oil,
gr dl t !o oil,
..u.8
ra(b. lnrl
3 5 a
dlld ol.
alrimrn lhuil
Jsl
rF|l.alE|tr*a chcnhal!,
Al fiilly i{.maly
to
15
1A
!|eded)
l0
't0
t5
I
12
Liolt prodocb. t.osim. gsolkE, c..d(.d rtdllh.., lrbdod $/atar (nol

7
i srEly
7 6
t0
'loleded) Haled and i|3{latad LrJG, l'loi!: Ext mal UT maaclr+ me.|b or ysrorrd b.do ol .h.x d et aalscad locdbta
rourd
rool d6rlot!6.y.
Climat cod63: A ' Wann ..d
g=
humid, o.g rqical rnd subtlphsl.lel8 Temotalo dlmale wftn fquenl taln and |Nlnd Watrn and &v. e-s. d6n kEalixls
'
Commenta' Th insDdbn freauencies indicated above ar for guidan@ only. After eadl detailed extomal or intemql ingpedioo, tho Tenk Inlegrity Aeeeesor (nA) should detennlrE lhe date for the nxi hspedion. This datr should ensure hat the rsjeclion limit EtatEd
ekewt|elt in thb publicalion arc nol sxceedd. lf lhe insDec{ion resultts indk:ale a more pid deteriofation due to corosion or settement,
other sinilar tanks may need to be inspeded earliet. On the other hand, if the inspeclion rssults arg tavourabl. an extension of the lr6peclion InteNal may be conBldered'
Figure 16.2 Inspection frequencies Fram EEMUA publication 159
and preferably either by means ofincineration under conditions or by chemical treatment. Care should be taken to avoid:
controlled
Reference should be made to the two principal Codes which deal with this subject and are given in References 16.12 and 16.13
Both Codes give clear advice and recommendations for the inspection and maintenance of storage tanks and guidance on the frequency for inspections is also given. Figure 16.2 gives details of inspection frequencies in EEMUA publication 159.
. . .
skin contiact with products containing lead alkyls. inhalation of vapour from products containing lead alkyls.
ingestion through contactofhands and finger nails with lead
sruoge. Any tank which contains or has contained leaded products, including leaded slops, should have notices permanently fixed adjacent to all manholes reading: .THIS TANK CONTAINS OR HAS CONTAINED LEADED
PRODUCT. IT MUST NOT BE ENTERED WITHOUT

COMPLYING WITH THE PRESCRIBED REGULATIONS' This notice should only be removed when the appropriate decontamination procedures, as required by the lead alkyl manufacturers, have been implemented.
Total segregation of leaded slops is also recommended
16.13 Tank inspection

Every tank installation should have an inspection regime in place to ensure that the integrity of the tanks is maintained
Tanks suffer from internaland externalcorrosion and it is impor-
tant to monitor this to ensure that a maintenance programme can be put in place to rectify any serious corrosion problems
Figure 16.3 Intemalexplosion due lo hot work being performed
16 uperation of ambient temperature tanks
Figu
re l 6.6 Resull of intehal vacuum condition
Figure 16.4 Roof plate conoson
The Storage of Flammable Liquids in lanks, The Health & Safety Executive, HSE 176.
Tank maintenance, The Health & Safety Executive, HSE 176,
page 18, Section 9.

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, Ch Z7 HMSO 1974 lsBN 010 543774 3.
Aguide to the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, L'l HSE Books 1992 ISBN 071 760441 l.
st '1989/1903, HMSO 1989, |SBN
The Health and Safety (Enforcing Authoity) Regulations 1989, 011 097903 6. The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1992, 01.1 025849 5.
st 1992t2932, HMSO 1992, |SBN
16.16 References
Figu re 'l 6.5 Effects of over-pressurisation
16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5
Refining Safety Code Paft 3,lnstitute of petroleum.

European Model Code of Safe practice in the Handlina of Petroleum Products - Paft : Design. Layout anid Construction, Institute of Petroleum.
6.14 Operational malfunctions
Figures 16.3 to 16,6 demonstrate whatcan happen when a tank is mistreated. Figure 16.3 showsthe result ofan explosion inside a tank due to hot work being performed on the tankwithoutthe correct safetv precautions being observed. Severe corrosion of the roof plates, found after the cladding and
Flammable and Combustible Liqui?s Code. National Fire Protection Association. NFpA 30.
Sfandard System for the ldentification of Hazards of Material for Emergency Response, National Fire protection Association, NFPA 704. Code of Practice on the Control of Undesirabte Static Electricity, The British Standards Institution, BS 5958.
thermal insulation was removed from the roof of a tank. is

shown in Figure 16.4.
16.6
'16.7
Electricv The British Standards Institution No. pD

cLC/TR 50404.
Code of Practice on the Control of tJndesirable Static
Figure 16.5 shows the result of a severe over-Dressurisation. the roof-to-shell joint has ruptured and a roofstructure bracket
has punctured the shell. The result ofan internalvacuum condition, is illustrated in Figure 16.6. This 29 m diameter tank was beinq steam cleaned. The operatives had covered up the roof vendto keep the heat in the tank and when they left the tank for a tea-break, thev closed the shell manhole again, to keep the heat in the tank,
The lnternational Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Term/nals, (ISGOTT), www.seamanship.co.uk.
16.8 Bitumen Safety Code, Institute of petroleum 16.9 The Highly Flammabte Liquidsand Liquefied petroleum
casses Regu/ations 7922, HSE booklet HS(G) 51.
'16.10 Guidance on permit-to-work systems in the petroleum
rndustry, HSE Books 1997, |SBN 07.1 761281 3. 16.11 Marketing Safety Code, Patt 2, lnstituteof petroleum.
Of course, during the tea-break, the iank atmosDhere cooled down, the residualsteam condensed and the resultino vacuum
sucked the tank in!
16.12
of Aboueground Veftical Cylindricat Sfee/ Slorage
Users guide to the lnspection, Maintenance and
Relair
16.15 Further guidance

The following publications provide useful guidance on iank op-
ers Association (EEMUA), No. 159: 2003.
Ianks, The Engineering Equipment and Nlaterials U!-
eralton.
16.13 Tank lnspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstrucflons, API 653 3rd Edition, December 2O0l
.
17 Low temperature storage tanks

gases stored in this way are risted and the significant properties described. pressurised systems for the storage of these gases which can be liquefied bv the imposition of oressure alone are described and their advantages, disadvantages and'economics are discusseo. Semi-refrigerated storage is an intermediate means of itoring certain types of gases failing between fully pressurised ambient temperature systems and fu[y refrigeriied storige at orius-t above atmospheric pressure. Lasfly the most popular system of fuliy refrigerated'storag'e is
described.
This chapter ranges widely overthe subject ofthe storage of industriargases in riquid fonn. The
tangled web of factors and incidents involving the increasing understanding of the low temperature behaviour of various metals, increasing demands for improved safdty of storage facilities, the developments in the design codes and otherregulatory requirements, the reaction to various accidents and incidents and, particurarry for LNG and to a re;ser extent for LpG and ethylene, a dramatic increase in the overall capacity of terminals and the corresponding increase in unit tank capacities. The various factors influencing the capacities oftanks leads to a brjef review of what is currently common practice.
The development ofthe design codes, especia[y in Europe, has red to the cateqorisation of row temperature storage lanks into single, double and full containment. The devel6pment of these categories emanated from increasing awareness of safety considerations both ior the terminal
The history ofthe development of lowtemperature storage systems is interesting. ltcombinesa
sites themselves and forthe surrounding areas. These three main categories relate to above ground vedical cyiindrical storage tanks. The various codes provide quite specific definitions of what is.required for each category. The membrane type oftank which was developed in France 0y technrglz and which has its origjns in the marine transport of products such as LNG is described. This type of tank is applicable to above ground and in_ground storage systems. spherical designs of tanks for rand-based, fu||y-refrigerated storage of products such as LNG have been proposed for many years but have not tet been utiriied d;spite the attraction of tactory-based construction and transport to the job site in one piece. These arso have their te_chnicalroots again in the marine transport of LNG. A smafl numberof rowtemperature tanks ofabove ground, vertical cylindricalform have been constructed with both inner and outertanks constructed from prestressed concrete. These designs were developed by the preload Company in the USA,(now.kading as Cryocrete lnc.). Th;se use a nu mbei of interesting design teatures, which are described. ln-ground ljquefied gas storage systems divide themselves into two groups. The first group is tanks, usuafly incorporating a membrane typiof riner, a rigid iniuraiion system and a concrete caisson wall are expensive, when compared with their a-bove ground equivalents, but in certain circumstances provide attractive advantages in that their incieased perceived safety arrows croser tank spacing, which in turn makes bet'ier use of the area of rand available This is especiarry important for areas where expensive recraimed rand in or crose to urban areas is involved. This type of tank is usuafly confined to the storage of LNG at marine terminals.
the vertical,cylindricar
The second type of in-ground storage ls the cavern type. unlined caverns are constructed in rock at depths where the static waterpressure from a carefully controlled ground watersystem slightlyexceedsthe pressure required to maintain the stored p;oduct (usuaiiy LpG) in riquid form at ambient pressure. A number of novel liquid gas storage systems involving floaiing or gravity based structures most usually directed at LNG are alsodescribed.
Contents: 17.1 The low temperature gases 17.2 General
17.3 Historical background

17.4 Tank sizing considerations 17,5 Storage systems and containment categories 17.6 Single containment systems
17.7 Double containment systems 17.8 Full containment systems 17.9 Membrane tanks
17.9. 1 Development history '17.9.2 Detailed description of land-based membrane system
17 Low temperaturc storcge tanks
17.9.2.1 The metallic membrane 17.9.2.2 The insulation system 17.9.2.3 The outer tank 17.9.3 Comparison of above ground membrane tanks and conventional tanks 17 .9.4 fhe lined mined rock cavern initiative for future LNG storage
17.10 Spherical tanks 17.11 Concrete/concrete tanks

17.11.1 History of cryogenic concrete tanks 17.'11.2 Details of concrete/concrete tanks 17.1 1.3 Arguments for and against concrete/concrete tanks
17.12 In-ground tanks

17.12.1 In-ground membrane tanks 17.12.2 Cavern slorage systems 17.12.3 Ftozen ground systems
17.13 Novel solutions

17.14 References
17 Low temperaturc
storage tanks
17.1 The low temperature gases

The gases commonly stored in liquefied form are listed in Figure '17.1 together with their significant properties. The commonly used term Liquefied Petroleum cas (LPG) refers to a mixture of normal butane, jso butane and propane in any proportion. In some ofthe American Codes (i.e. NFpA 58) LPG is referred to as LP-Gas. This isjust a quirk ofthese American Codes and does not have any other significance. Similarly the term Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) refers to a mixture of methane with smaller proportions of ethane and smaller
Figure 17.2 Typical LNG composiiions
again proportions of LPG gases. Small quantities of other gases are also found in LNG, in particular nitrogen. The
makeup of an LNG is not constant, but varies within relatively close limits from a single geographic source and varies more widely between diferent geographic sources. An example is given in Figure 17.2 which compares the different compositions of LNG from sources in Trinidad, Algeria and Oman.
For a while semi-refrigerated systems were considered and many were constructed. These eased the problems by reducing the design pressures but were an unsatisfactory half way house for a variety of reasons.
Eventually, partly driven by cost, safety and increasing storage unit capacity requirements, the standard solution for the storage of large quantities of these products was as fully refrigerated liquids in vertical cylindrical hnks. Initiallythese tanks followed the oil industry practices, being essentially oiltanks with insulation. This is perhaps a litfle simplistic. These new tanks had to contend with the low temperature
17.2 General
The various low temperature products listed above can be
stored in a number of different ways. Products such as buiane, butadiene, propane, propylene and ammonia can be mainiained in liquid form bythe application of pressure alone. Consequently in the early days of the petrochemical and chemical industry when these products were required in relatively modest quantities, the favoured means of storage was by using pressure vessels. As the quanfities became larger, the pressure vessels became larger and because of the pressures required (i.e. for propane storage a design pressure of around 15 bar is required) more expensive. A typical LPG storage facility using spherical vessels is shown in Figure 17.3. Spherical pressure vessels commonly used forthese products began to become problematic at around 5000 m3 capacity. A spherical vessel for this capacity would be some 22 m in diameter and for propane seryice would have a shell thickness of around 50 mm. This is an expensive construction and clearly other storage systems were required.
I'lame
metallurgical requirements together with new problems of avoidingfrost heave in the underlying ground and coping witha higher design pressures (usually from 70 mbar upwards) than had been the case for ambient tanks. The first tanks were ofsingle containment type. As time progressed and safety requirements increased, there was a move to superior forms of containment and this subject will be discussed in later Chapters.
would be untrue to say that pressurised storage ofthese products has ended. In certain quarters spherjcal vessels for the
It
storage of modest volumes of LPG are still being constructed. However increased safety standards togetherwith the memory of some spectacular and very public accidents make this form of storage unpopular and in many instances a prohibited pracItce.
To accommodate the requirement for the storage of modest quantities ofthese products, an alternative arranoement known
Latent
heat
ChemlBl
lormula
MoI.
iryeight
Bolling point
ot
Liquid denslty
Gas
Vol, of
d6nsity
gas
liberated
l;quid
byl
msot liquld
(exP.
to 15"Crt
1 bar)
g/mol
N-Butane
CrHro
kcarkg
-
kdm'
601.40 593.40 682.00 650.40 502.00
613.90
546.r19
kdm'
2.7@ 2.420
0.905 2.550 239
58.123 58.123 17.030 54.091

,14.096
0,50
92.100 87.600
327.1o..c
lso Butane
Ammonia
Butadiene Propane Propylene Ethane
CrHro
NHg CrHo CsHa
- 11.70
- 33.35 -
236
910
4.50
99.800 101.750 104.600 116-74n 115.330 121.860
279
- 42,05
. 47.72 - 88.6
2.423
2.365
3ll
388
QHa
42.080 30.069
qH6
czHr
2.054
2.08s 1.819
432 442 630 854

691
Efrylene
Methan6 Oxygen Nitrogen
28,0t{
16.043
31.SS9
to3.72
567.92
- |61.52
- 1A2.97 - 19s.80 - 185.86
o,
N2
'
422-62
1,141.00 808.61
50.869
4,475 4.614 5.8s3
28.013 39.94a
47.459
38.409
Argon NOTE NOTE

NOTE
'I,392.80
835
1
2
3
Uquld petroleum gass (LPG) is a general
tem for commercjal
butiane, pFpane and thek
mlxtJre in any proposition. Commercial butano is a mixture in N-Bulan6 and isobuiane with smallcontenl of propano and Commercial pFpan is propane whh small content of ethane and bltane. Denlane.
Fron prEN
Figurc 17.1 Gases commonly stored in liquefied form 14620 - 1,Iabl6 A.1
17 Low tempercture storage tanks
Figure 17.3 Atypical fully-pressu sed LPG storage facility
Figure 17.5 An example ofa semi-refrigerated and fully-refrigeraled ethylene
slorage
Courtesy of whessoe
as "mounded storage" was developed. This consists essentially of horizontal pressure vessels installed on a bed of sand and backfllled with sand. An example ofsuch a facility ls shown in Figure 17.4. This system seems to meet with approval from even the most safety conscious operators.
7.3 Historical background
The first thoughts regarding the liquefaction and transport of

gases go some way back in time. In 1915 Godfrey Cabot proposed the shipment of LNG by means of river barges. In 1937 SirAlfred Egerton proposed thatthe British gas industry which was at that time based on the carbonisation ofcoal, should extract a fraction ofthe methane contentfrom the coal gas, liquefy it and store itforsubsequent evaporation for peak shaving purooses.
The firstattempt to store liquefied naturalgas in bulkon a com-
mercial scale was not promising.

The facility at Cleveland, ohio, was the first LNG peak shaving
Figurc 17.4 l,lounded storage Coutlesv of Whessoe
A further development, most usually applied to the storage of propane, is "cavern storage". In this system a series of unlined horizontial tunnels or caverns are constructed at a depth which
plant ever built. It was constructed to provide an economical and reliable energy source during the winter months for the local industry Much of this local industry was related to World War ll munitions manufacture. The LNG storage part ofthe facility consisted of one vertical cylindrical tank of 4,100 m3 capacity and three 2,000 m3 sphericaltanks and had been in service for some four years with no apparentoperating problems. The tanks had been filled to their full capacity in readiness for the iorthcoming winter when, on the afternoon of October 20'i 1944, the cylindricaltank suddenlyfailed releasing all of its contents into the nearby streets and sewers of Cleveland. The resultant gas cloud ignited immediately and a fire ensued which engulfed the nearby tanks, residences and commercial establishments. After about 20 minutes, with the initial fire having nearly died down, the spherical tank closest to the cylind cal tank toppled over and released its contents. The 2,000m3 of LNG immediately evaporated and ignited. In all 130 people
depends to some extent on the level of the local water table The principle of the system is that the vapour pressure of the propane is slightly over balanced bythe ground water pressure. Hence no propane leaks out ofthe system and modest quantities of water leak into the caverns. This water is continuously pumped out and used to prime a series of header pipes which ensure the continuous and constant ground water pressure. This system is again the subject of later Chapters. Products such as ethane and ethylene cannot be maintained in liquid form bythe application ofpressure alone, but can be successfully subjected to a combination of pressure and low temDerature. There are some examples of this form ofstorage but in generalthese products are stored in fully refrigerated form. An example ofethylene stored in both the fully refrigerated form and the semi-refrigerated form is shown in Figure 17.5. The
were killed and 225 injured. The area directly involved was about 2 square kilometres of which an area ofaround 120 hectares was completely devasbted.
Although sabotage was first suspected, a thorough investigation showed that the accident was due to the low temperature embrittlement of the 3.5% nickel steel inner tank shell. 3.5% nickel steel is now known to be susceptible to brittle fracture at LNG temperatures (around -160 "C). In addition the tianks were situated close to a heavily used railroad and a bomb body stamping plant. ltwas considered that excessivevibration emanating from the railroad engines and the stamping plant probablyaccelerated the crack propagation from some smalloriginal defect in the innertank shell. The outercarbon steeltankwould have cracked on contact with the emerging LNG
semi refrigerated storage is in the spherical vessel which is

double walled, i.e. an aluminium alloy sphere suspended within an outercarbon steelsphere. This solution posed some serious
design and construction problems.

The remaining products (LNG oxygen, nitrogen and argon) are always stored as liquids in the fully refrigerated form.
17 Low temperature
storage tanks
The accident was aggravated by the lack of adequate diking

around the tanks, the ability of the LNG to enter the local sewage system and the proximity ofthe plant to nearby residential areas. The reason for the second release of liquid from the spherical vessel was found to be due to the fact that the supporting legs of the sphere were not fitted with fire protection. The prolonged exposure to the fire weakened the legs of the sphere to the pointwhen they buckled causing it to topple over.
This event cast a blight overthe storage of bulk refrigerated liquids and of LNG in particular, until '1958 when the bulk storage
of the technical advances and served as a model for the LNG imporuexDort terminals to follow.
Two further significant accidents played their part in determining the nature of future low lemperature storage facilities. The first was the explosion in the LNG tank for Texas Eastern at Staten lsland in the IJSA. This tank was of a novel design. The new design evolved from original work carried out in 1958 and
of LNG was re-examined as a part of the beginning of the world's LNG trade. Over the intervening years a great deal of research work was carried out on the low temperature behaviour of various metals and the lessons of this sad event gave rase to serious considerations ofplant layout, fire protection and
other safety related sub.iecb. The next step in the development ofthe LNG storywas the pioneering scheme to transport gas in liquid form from Lake Charles, Louisiana, USA, to Canvey lsland in the United Kingdom. A liquefaction plant built for an eadier barge transport investigation wasiaken to Lake Charleswherea 2000tonne LNG tank was constructed. An ex-liberty ship, The Normafti, was procured, converted into an LNG carrier of 5000m3 capacity
1959. A new research and test programme was implemented between 1960 and 1966. A test tank of 6.1 m in diameter and 8.5 m in height was constructed and successfully tested. Most LNG tanks up to that time were of the single containment type
with aluminium alloy or 9% nickel steel inner tanks within a perlite insulated carbon steelouter tank. The Staten lsland tank
had a aluminised mylar layer in contact with the product liquid, supported by polyurethane foam thermal insulation which was in turn supported by a thick concrete wall mounded with gravel and earth. The details are shown in Figure 17.6. The tank, which entered service in March 1970 and which was also for storing LNG from Algeria, was found to be suffering from leakage of LNG through the mylar liner into the supporting PUF, concrete wall and the supporting earth beam. Despite this, the tank remained in service until January 1972. It was gas-purging period. The tank was under repair when the accident happened. lt is thoughtthat residual heavy ends (propane) had accumulated behind the liner either within the PUF or behind the concrete wall and that some of this liquid suddenly made its way back into the tank and was ignited by various non-explosion proof tools being used for the repair work. The explosion caused the concrete roof to fall killing the 40 men working insidethetank. This event brought to a haltalldevelop-
and renamed The Methane Pioneer. Al Canvey lsland two 1000 tonne capacity perlite insulated aluminjum alloy LNG
tanks were constructed. On 20th February 1959 The Methane Ploneerdelivered a cargo of 2020 tonnes of LNG to Canvey lsland after a voyage from Lake Charles of22 days and 18 hours duration.
As Dennis Rooke, whowas a crew member on that originalvoy-
then decommissioned and there followed a protracted
age and who rose to become Chairman of British Gas, remarked, "thus was the LNG industry born". The Methane pioneerwas to make a further seven voyages carrying a technical team between Lake Charles and Canvey lsland, and a great deal of data and experience was gained which was pivotal to the further development of this industry This part of the history
is described in considerable detail in Refe rences 17.1 and 17.2.
Following thls pioneering work, the first commercial LNG scheme was set up. A liquefactjon plant and loading terminal were constructed at the port of Azew in Algeria. British Gas ordercd, The Methane Princess from Vickers Armstrong (Shipbuilding) Ltd at Barrow-in-Furness and The Methane progress from Hadand and Wolff in Belfast. The carriers were 27,000m3 in capacity designed to deliver 12,000 tonnes of LNG per vovage. So successful was The Methane Pioneer that only modest changes in deiail were required to be made for the larger new ships. The Methane Pflncess, built in 1964, remained in service until 1997, delivering cargoes of LNG (and two of Lpc) from Arzew to Canvey lsland. Le Havre (the French equivalent of Canvey lsland), Barcelona, Cartagena, Huelva, Fos sur lvler and Staten lsland. The old ship sadly ended its days being cut up for scrap on an Indian beach.
The original contract was for 700,000 tonnes of LNG Der vear for 15 years. At the receiving end of the chain, five new 4000 tonne perlite insulated tanks were built to add to the two 1000 tonne tanks constructed earlier. The intention was that gas in
?
l
ll
liquid form would be transported by road to regional distribution centres where it would be regasified and delivered to consum-
t
3
ers.
One such distribution centre was built at Ambergate,
in
Derbyshire. Unfortunately for the new LNG industry in the UK, the discovery of large amounts of oil and gas in the North Sea meant that the development was not continued and direct transmission of the newly discovered gas into the National Transmission System at Bacton and St Fergus took its place. Despite this, theAzeW/ Canvey lsland project pioneered many
Figure 17.6 The Texas Eastern LNG tank at Staten tstand
17 Low tempercture storage tanks
ments using this form of liquid containment and this is still the case looay. Secondly an accident occurred at the Qatar Lpc terminal. On the 3 April 1977 an explosion and subsequent fire totally destroyed the $43 million plant for the processing and storage of liquefied propane, butane and pentane at Umm Said in Qatar. Seven people were killed and 13 injured. Apart from an emotive report entilled "Frozen Fire" (Reference /23), litfle has been published about this event, which is strange given the tremendous effect that it had on the future development of low temperature storage systems. The protracted legal process which followed the accident also did little to help identifl/ the central cause for the failure, only that a sudden and catastrophic failure of the shell of the propane tank occurred which in turn led to the failure of the other tanks on the site. Amongst the main suspects were: BS 4741:1971(Reference 17.4) The British Standard for the storage of liquids down to -50'C, which was in place at that time. This Standard included a new and complex method of material selection together wjth a partial rather than full height hydrostatic test requirement. Incorrect operation possibly involving over filling or over pressurising of the iank.
There are a few mounded LPG storage facilities with total capacities ranging up to 20,000 m3 (involving a numberofsmaller pressure vessels) and some spherical vessels with individual capacities up to 4,000-5,000 m3, but these are comparatively unusual. Fully refrigerated storage tanks for these products come into their own (depending upon local circumstances) around 5000 m3 and become increasinglythe onlyviable option as the volume to be stored increases. The maximum size of refrigerated tank for these products is established by a combination of the following: The maximum lower shell course thickness Dermitted bv the design Codes Seismic design considerations The relative economics of larger storage units
Operating flexibility consideration (i.e. two smaller tanks may be preferred to a single larger tank for reasons connected with malfunction or majntenance etc.) Safety considerations Local and international regulations
Poor fabrication and inspection Standards Sabotage
Current practice suggests that 80,000 m3 is large for an LPG tank with 50,000 m3 being a more usual size. For ammonia 60,000 m3 is a big tank with 30,000 m3 being a more normal chotce.
For the gases which cannot be maintained in liquid form by the
Despite the failure to isolate the prime cause of the failure, a numberof major operating companies led by Shell (References 17.5 and 17.6) began to give further thought to designs which would reduce the possibility of brittle fracture and reduce the consequences ofa failure if it did occur. The earth berm remote from the Qatar propane tank had singularly failed to serve its purpose ofcontaining the spilled liquid following the failure. The Gas Research Institute sponsored a programme of research into materials better able to resist initiation or propagation of brittle failure. Much of this work was presented at the Brugges Conference (Reference 17.7) in 1984 and at the TWI Seminar in Newcastle (Reference ?7.8) in 1986. BS 4741 was amended shortly afrer the Qatar accident to enhance the fracture toughness requirements of the steel materials and to institute a full heioht hvdrostatic test for the tanks. The desire of the industry to move away from single containment systems towards double and full containment was hampered by the lack of a suitable Standard. The existing American and European Standards were all based of the philosophy of single containment for both LPG and the colder products such as LNG. Consequentlythe Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association (EEMUA) in London was approached to form a committee to consider rules for the full range of coniainment options and in 1986 oublished EEMUA Publication 147 (Reference tZ9). After a suitable period of time this document was passed to the British Standards Institution, BSl, who in 1993 published BS 777711993 (Reference 77.70). This is more fully discussed in Section 17.5.
application
groups:
of pressure alone, the field divides into three
Oxygen, nitrogen and argon Ethane and ethylene LNG
Oxygen, nitrogen and argon are not required by industry and other users in the same quantities as the other liquefied gas products. An air separation plant will commonly have refrigerated tanks with capacities of 500-2,000 m3 for liquid oxygen (LOX) and liquid nitrogen (LlN) storage and smallerfor argon if it is involved. Atthe consumer end ofthe supplychain, factorymanufactured vertical cylindrical double-walled and vacuuminsulated vessels of a few hundred cubic metres are commonlv installed. For ethane and ethylene a big tank would be 50,000 m3 with 20,000-30,000 m3 being a more common size. LNG is in a class of its own when tank capacity is concerned. Because of the volumes of LNG traded around the world and the size of carriers involved, (several currently being constructed of around 145,000m3 capacity), the trend has been to build biggerand bigger storage tanks. The unitstorage costper m3 of LNG tends to decrease as the tank capacity increases and this is illustrated by Figure 17.7, the resultofa studyforsingle and full containment type tanks. The basis of this comparison is given in Reference 17.11. Currently, the biggest above ground free-standing LNG tank is in Senboku in Japan. This is of 180,000m3 capacity and is described in detail in Reference 17.12. In-ground membrane type tanks have also been constructed at 200,000m3 in Korea and Japan and one of these at the Ohgishima LNG Terminal of Tokyo Gas in Yokohama is the subject oI Reference 17.13. A smaller number of large above ground tanks tend to make better use of the available site area when compared with a larger number of smaller tanks. Comparisons using the tank spacing rules from NFPA 59A willfeature elsewhere in Storage Tanks & Equipment, to makethis point. Factors influencing the maximum size of the free standing, above ground type of LNG tanks are:
17.4
ank sizing considerations
Forthe gaseswhich can be maintained in liquid form bythe imposition of pressure alone, the maximum size of refrigerated
tank is established by a combination of the following: The practicalities of pressure vessel design The relative costs of pressure versus iiquefied storage Safety considerations Local and international regulations
17 Low temperature
storcge (anks
r.60
l
E
zO
down to -50 "C and 8S5387 (Reference down to -196 "C in the UK.
tZt5) for products
These Codes only consjdered single containment systems. There were no Codes or regulatory guides which provided a framework for the design of other containment systems. The
formation of the EEMUA committee, largely at the instigation of Shelland chaired byJohn deWitof Shell, was aimed at providing a document which filled this void.
9 P
0.60 o.qo 0.20 0.00
ln 1986 the EEMUA recommendations were published and at lastthe industryhad some rulesforthe design and construction ofotherforms ofconiainment. As has been mentioned earlier.
50
rm
150
Capacity x 1000 cuM
2@
250
Fjgure 17.7 Unitstorage cosl per m3 of LNG
the EEMUA recommendations were passed to BSI after a suif able period of time during which the opinions ofthe industry regarding the suitability of the document were sought and found to be generally favourable. BSI converted the EEMUA recommendations into BS 7777, a Code which closely followed the spirit of the EEMUA document.
The maximum inner tank lower shell plate thickness oermitted by the design Codes Foundation considerations Seismic design considerations
The definitions of the various categories of containment systems for conventional vertical cylindrical tanks are given below and are those developed by EENIUAand repeated in BS 7777. EN1473 (Reference tZ 76) also made an attemptto define the various storage systems and followed the spirit ofthe EEMUA definitions but added definitions for systems not considered by EEMUA. i.e. membrane and concrete/concrete tanks. The early designs of double and full containment systems for both LPG and LNG considered a sudden or unzipping failure of the inner liquid containing tank. The loadings on the inner surfaces of the outer iank were considerable and were evaluated as a result of test work caried out by N.J. Cuperus, again of Shell (Reference 17.1n. fhe apprcximately six-fold increase in the static liquid pressures caused by the sudden failure ofthe primary container was an onerous design condition and as a result, the early full containment tanks had outertanks which consisted of reinforced concrete walls whjch were supported by an external earthen embankment. This arranqement is illustrated in Figure 17.9.
Economic considerations Operating flexibility constrainb
The reference list of LNG tanks designed and constructed by Whessoe, given in Figure 17.8 clearly shows the changes of
tank capacity with the passage of time. lt is also interesting as it
shows the changes in the materials used and in the storage containment categories adopted. This subject is further discussed in Sections 17.6, 17 .7 and 17 .8.
17.5 Storage systems and containment categories

This Section relates to vertical cylindrical tanks of the conven-
tionaltype (i-e. those with a metallic self-supporting innertank).

As has been described earlier, the Qatar incident gave the industry cause to reconsider its practices regarding the use of single containment systems for the storage of lowtemperature products. The design Codes in force at the time ofthis incident we re AP | 620 (Refe rence 1 7 .1 4) (Append ix R for prod ucts with storage temperatures down to -60 oF and Appendix e for products down to -260 oF) in the USA, and 854741 for products
Whjlst this system provided admirable protection for the tank

arising from external incidents such as missiles and fire scenarios, it was expensive. lt required a Iarge site area to accommodate the slope of the embankment and gave rise to complications with the base heatjng system which had to be extended to
cover the tank walls as well as the bnk base. Research and testing programmes coordinated as descrjbed earlier by the Gas Research Institute were undertaken to look at the abilities ofvarious steels in their prevention offracture initiaOUIER
lr{B)
1
col{cRtE
ALUMNIJM CARAONSTEE! CARBO'.ISTEEL ALUMNUM CARBON STEEI CARBON'sTEEI
N N N N N N N N N N N N
EflELL UAU|D OUTLEI

N N
2390 9000
SINGIE SNGTE
CANvEYSLAND
AMBERGATE
1
1
":*
12000 50000 50000 50000 2
1
SNGIE
N N
SINGLE
PARTIIGION
CAREONSTEEL CARBON SIEEL ALUIIII{IUM CARBONSTEEL CARBONSTEEL CARBONSTEEL

PRESTRESSED CONCRE'E PRESTRESSEO
StIGLE
DOUALE
PARTNGTON 2 AVONMOUTH
1
DOUBIE
DOUBLE
EIE
OF GRAIN 1 & 2
50@0 50000 65000 1020@ 105000 160000
9% NEKEL 9% N'CKEL 9%
NTCKET
N N
AVONMOUTH 3
DOUBI.E
DEPA
2
2
1
NPII
N N N
IRI{DAD
9% NEKET
9% NPKI
CONCRETE
PRESTRESSD CONCRETE
PRESTRESSEO CONCRETE
N
DABHOL
9% NICKEL
Figure 17.8 List of LNG ianks designed and built by Whessoe Couftesy of Whessoe
Low temperaturc storage tanks
covered in much deiail in References 17.20. 17.21, 17.22and

17.23. An essential element of the reasoning which led up to the introduction ofdouble and full containment systems was the consideration oflire scenarios which could occurfollowinq the failure
of the primary liquid containment. Presuming that the low remote bund wall served its purpose in containing the leaked liquid, a single coniainment systems as ilIustrated in Figure 17.10 would give dse to a large diameter shallowpoolof litiuid at localgrade levelin the event offailure of the primary container. The subsequent, almost inevitable, pool fire would be large in area, low in elevation and heat from the large area ofground within the remote bund wallwould ensure rapid evaporation of the liquid product, an altogether undesirable event.
ln the case ofa double coniainment system again as illustrated in Figure '17.10, the outer tank would contain the leaked liquid. Again the probability is that the pool of liquid would catch fire, but in this casethe poolfire is smallin diameter, is elevated well above local grade and the liquid evaporation rate is slower, a much less dangerous sltuation is that pertaining to single con-
I
I
Figure 17.9 Typical early full containment tank
courtesy of Whessoe
tion and fracture arrest aspec6. The result was that sudden failure ofthe inner liquid containerswas considered a non-credible event and the difiicult design condition was removed. This
meant that the outer tank could become a prestressed concrete
structure without the embankment, with consequent mst and other savings.
Acontributoryfactor to this reduction in the design requirement wasworkcarried out on the damping influence ofthe perlite and glassfibre blanket matedalswhich made up the shellinsulation of most LNG storage systems and some other lowtemperature systems. This work is described in References 17.18 and t7.t9. The story of the gradual evolution of the low temperature storage systems has been told a number of times and is
tiainment.
Forfull containment systems as illustrated in Figure 17.10 the

leakage of the primary contiainment resulG in the liquid being contained by the outertank and the vapour being contained and disposed of to a safe location (i.e. a flare stack). This eventcan
Sne boundary
Single conlalnmenl lank
DolbL co.hint|.rn bnk
Fullconlalnmsnl lank
Full conlanrnenl
l.nl
Figure 17.10 Postfailure fire scenarios for single, double and fullcontainment
ianks
Fgure 17.11 Postfailure vapour dispersion scenarios for single. double and fullcontainmenl tanks
7 Low temperature storage tanks
not result in a poolfife. Atworsta relief valve tailpipefire could be considered. Fire scenarios of this type have a considerable
influence on other equipment on the site (for example neighbouri-ng storage tanks, vaporising equipment etc.) and on the layout ofthe site itselfto ensure that risks from fire exposure to people and property outside the site boundaries is kept to a minimum.
partment of Transport (DOT) and the European Committee for Standardisation (CEN). These will be discussed in some detail in later Sections of Sforage Tanks & Equipment.
17.6 Single containment systems

The deflnition taken from BS 7777 is
Aseparate but related subject which plays a part in safety and plant layoutdiscussions, is vapour dilution. lt is clearly sensible to arrange for the mixture of product vapour and air which crosses the site boundary to be at a concentration below the lower flammable limit of the parlicular mixture. In this way the vapour cloud can not be ignited as it passes across the site boundary into the uncontrolled area outside. The influences thatthe differenttypes of containment have on this matter are illustrated in Figure 17.11. These topics are the subject of various regulatory documents and Codes from such bodies as The Institute of Petroleum (lP), The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), The US De-
Single containment tank

Eithera singletank or a tank comprising an innertiank and an outer container designed and constructed so that only the inneriank is required to meet the low temperature ductility requirements for storage of the product.
The outer contiainer (if any) of a single containment storage tank is primarilyfor the retention and protection of insulation and to constrain the vapour purge gas pressure,
but is not designed to contain refrigerated liquid in the

event of leakage from the inner tank.
Asingle containment tank is normally surrounded by a low bund wall (see below) to conhin any leakage.
Figure 17.12 is a reproduction offigure 1, taken from BS 7777.
The parallel deflnition from EN 1473 (Refe rence 17 -21), whichit should be remembered is only relevant to the storage ofLNG is:
Single containment tank Asingle primary container and generally an outer shell designed and constructed so that only the primary container is required to meet the low temperature ductility requirements for storage of the product. The outer shell (if any) of a single containment storage
tank is primarily for the retention and protection of insulation and to contain the purge gas pressure, but is not designed to contain refrigerated liquid in the eventofleakage from the primary container.
An above ground single containment tank shall be surrounded by a bund wall to conbin any leakage.
d)
Figure
7.1 2 A single containment

1
lank
Figure 17.13 A single coniainmeni tank From EN 1473,figure
Frcm 857777, figure
Hl STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 297
Low tempercturc storage tanks
Blast loadings
Provisions required to protect single containment tanks from these loadings such as active flre protection, increased tank spacing, structural modification and enhanced pressure relief valve system capacity must be taken into accountwhen considering the overall costs of single containment systems.
The most commonly accepted rules concerning the capacity,

height and distance of bunding systems are given in NFPA 59 (Reference 17.24) for LPG and NFPA 59A (Refere nce 17.25) for LNG storage systems. Figure 17.15 shows the bund heighvdistance relationship from References 17.24 and 7225. This criteria is also usually followed for double and full coniainment svstems as described in Sections 17.7 and 17.8.
Figu 17.14 Typical single coniainment LNG tanks Courtesy of Pift4es Moines, lnc
Figure 17.1 3 is a reproduction of figure H l taken from EN 1473. It is clearthatthe two documents are in close aqreement on this
matter.
17.7 Double containment systems

The definition taken from BS 7777 is
Double containment tank

Adouble coniainmenttank is designed and constructed so that both the inner self-supporting primary container and the secondary container are capable of independenfly containing the refrigerated liquid stored. To minimise the poolof escaping liquid, the outertank orwall is located at a distance not exceeding 6m from the inner tank. The inner tank contains the refrigerated liquid under nor-
Figure 17.14 shows typical single conbinment LNG tanks. interesting that EN 1473 makes ita mandatory requirement for all categories of containment that there shall be no penetrations ofthe primary and secondary (where provided) container walls or bottoms. This makes the use of in-tank DumDs a mandatory requirement for these tanks.
It is
The American storage tank design Codes have never tried to define the containment categories in the same way as the British or European Codes. API 620 in both its low temperature Appendices R and Q deals with what are essentially single containment systems. The rules from the API Code are commonly used to design the metallic components ofstorage tanks which fall into other containment categories Similarlythe American Codeswhich coverthe land-based storageand handling of LPG and LNG do not consider containment in the same way. Single containment storage systems are the cheapest from of storage for refrigerated liquids. In addition to the potentially disastrous consequences of a failure of the primary liquid containment, they are also vulnerableto damage from a numberof other loadings including:
mal operating conditions. The outer tank or wall is intended to contain the refrigerated liquid product leakage
Radiation from adjacent tanks or equipment fires Inplant generated missiles Explant generated missiles
Nob$ .oirEnslon Xshal oqlal o. qcd h qlmof drnensloo yplrg trg eqtvalnt tFad In LNG ol lh prcsg|r h dr6 y{or space abovg
tho fouH.
Whdl tl' holgfn ot tto.{k or htrDltrtV wrtt b aqrftl to, or gleeler lha4 tl?e fir&nrm frqdd btol, X nay ltsw arv . ohpnsion X b hs dshnco ft!.n f|e hnsr wall ot fio contalnr b t|g do6t froe ol he dko or lnpoundk|g wall . otrcrFbn l.b t|e &tmco tom tls mdlnnm teld lsvl h he conhlnsr b th6 lop ot thg dlka oa lrpoundrg vrarl.
ea@l:
r&E
Figure 17.15 Bund/distance relationship
Figure 17.16 Double containment tank From BS 7777 :1993, figurc 2
ftom
NFPA 59 and 59A
17
Loq
tengate
gd4E 7E
from the inner iank, but it is not intended to contain any vapour resulting from product leakagefrom the innertank.
Figure '17.16 is a reproduction offigure
2
The primary container coniains the reftilecated
taken from BS 7777.
der normal operating conditions. The seconday cs> tainer is intended to contain any leakage of the refrigerated liquid, but it is not intended to contain y
vapour resulting from this leakage.
lilil l'}-
The'parallel definition from EN 1473 (LNG only) is;
Double containment tank

Adouble containmenttiank is designed and constructed so that both the inner self-supporting primary coniainer and the secondary container are capable of independently containing the refrigerated liquid stored. To minimise the poolofescaping liquid, the secondarycontainer should be located at a distance not exceeding 6m from the primary
conGtrner.
Note:
Examples of double containmenttanks are given in figure H3. Figure H3 does not imply that the secondary containr is necessarily as high as the primary conbiner.
Note:
Figure 17.17 is a reproduction offigure H3 taken from EN 1473Again it is clear that the two documents are in close accord on this matter. lt is interesting that the Codes have decided that the point where single containment becomes double containmentwhen the remote bund wall moves towards the liquid container and becomes taller in accordance with the NFPA59 and 59A rules, is reached when the spacing between the bund and liquid containing tank is 6m. This seems a sensible choice and the tank shown in Figure 17.18, which is one of a series of 50,000 m3 capacity LNG ianks builtfor British Gasas partofthe UK peak shaving system, uses 6 m for this spacing. Figure 17.19 shows two LPG tanks with prestressed concrete outer tanks. The spacing between the steeland concretetanks is less that 6 m in this case. The design of the bund wall, which for the single containment types oftanks was a low structure made from earth, reinforced earth or reinforced concrete, has now become a more demanding task. As has been mentioned in Reference 77.5, it is now not usualto require the bundwallto be designed forthe sudden failureofthe liquid container. Despite this, the gradualiilling of the bund resulting from a slow leakfrom the innertankwhich is considered fullto capacity at the time ofthe incident is still a demanding criteria. Some bund walls are of metallic construction. The majority of bund walls are of prestressed concrete. The "Preload" externally wire-wound type of wallwas a popular choice for this mmponent for many years. The circumferential prestressing was applied to the concrete wall by an externalwinding of a single strand whilstthe vertical prestressing was applied by macalloy bars cast into the wall. Figure 17.20 shows the wire winding in progress for such a wall.
(r8ulatd)
liq'rd
Figure 17.17 Double containment tank From EN 1473, tlgue H3
The alternative arrangement for bund walls uses embedded tendons for the circumferential prestressing. lt is not usual to apply a vapour linerto the innersurfaces ofthis concretewallso that in the event ofthe inner tank failure, the permeability of the concrete wall would allow small volumes of product vapour to escape. This is not viewed as posing a problem. The construction of thejoint between the base slab (usually reinforced con-
isi cas
Figuro 17.18 A 50.000 m3 capacity double conbinment type LNG tank for Britat the lsleof Grain Courtesy of Advantica
Figure 17.'19 Two 50,000 m'double containment tank for LPG Courtesv of Antwen Gas Terminal
Nv
STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 299
7 Low
tempemture stomge tanks
FiguE 17.20 Wire winding of a concrete bund

Courtesy of Preload lnc.
Figti.e 17.2'la Double containment type tank
crete) and the bund wall has been the subject of debate and
controve rsy for a numberofyears. The prime contenders being
the siiding, pinned and fixed joints. This is the subject of more deiailed comment in Chapter 18.
The space between the bund walland the liquid containing tank (Figure 17.1 7) or the insulation protection outer tiank can either be lefr open to the atmosphere or be closed off by the application ofsome type ofweathersealing roof. The open topped wall alternative must be fiUed with a suitable means ofremoving the
rainwater or the flre water which could accumulate in this interspace and which could cause problems of corrosion or
floatiation. This water removal system should not prejudice the ability of the outerwallto perform its product liquid containment
duties in the event of an inner tank leak or failure.
Consequentlythe tank illustrated in Figure 17.18 had a system
which mllected the interspace rainwater into a substiantial
sump and pumped it out over the 19m high bund wallto a suitable external drain. The closed top alternative must be fitted with a suitable wealherproof and long lasting roof whilst still having provision for removal of any water accumulation in the interspace. This solution has been used most frequenflyfor liquid ammonia storage and the problems associated with the provision of a suitable roof are discussed in Chapter 21.
lf double contiainment systems are to be used
Figure 17.21b Full containment lype tank
better value for money, i.e- better containment at the same

once.
17.8 Full containment systems

The definition taken from BS 7777 is:
producb whosevapour is heavierthan air at ambient temperatures (i.e. LPG), careful consideration must be given to the
monitoring of the space between the tank and the outerwallfor the potentially dangerous accumulatons of product vapoul: Double containment systems are quite unusual these days. This may wellbe due to the relative costs ofdouble vs full containment systems. lf the two tanks shown in Figure 17.21 are comDareo:
forthe storage of
Full containment tank

A double tank designed and constructed so that both the innertank and the outertank are capable of independenfly
containingthe refrigeratedliquidstored. Theoutertankof wall should be 1m to 2m dishnce from the inner iank.
The inner tank contains the refrigerated liquid under normal operating conditions. The outer roof is supported by the outer tank. The outer tank is intended to be caDable both of coniaining the reffigerated liquid and of conholled venting ofthe vapour resulting from product leakage after a credible event. Examples of fufl containment tanks are given in Figure ,17.22, which is a reproduction of flgure 3frcmBS 7777. The parallel definition taken from EN 1473 is:
The inner 9% nickel steel tanks are the same The insulation systems are the same The concrete walls are similar The base slabs/base heating are similar The outershell in 17.21a is deleted The wall and base liner in 17.21b is added The in-tank pumping system/fittings/pipework are similar The roof/suspended decks are similar
Full containment tank A tank designed and constructed so that both self-supporting primarycontiainerand the secondarycontainerare capable of independentlycontaining the refrigerated liguid
stored and forone ofthem its vapour Thesecondarycontainer can be lm to 2m distiance from the Drimarv con-
The overall result is that both solutions willcost aboutthe same and iake similartimes to construct. Consequently itwould seem
the obvious choice to choose the full containment oDtion as

3OO STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
tainer.
der normal operating condilions. The outer.3c' s s-:_

container shall be capable both of contarning re .e-::jated liquid and ofcontrolled venting ofthe vapou..es_: -.: from product leakage after a credible event.
"= "t ::: ---= :-' The primary container contains the retrigeraie.3 :, : ,-17
LgLt
ported by the secondary container. The seca-::-.
Figure 17.23 is a reproduction of figure H4 from EN 1473.

Full containment represents the final step in the
transfomato-
ofthe bund wall. Initially a low and distant bund of earth or reiiforced concrete impounding a shallow pool of product liquicj ci large d iameter open to the atmosphere (single contarn merr . : has moved inwards to become a tall bund wall constructec pounding a much deeper pool of product liquid of much smaller diameter, again essentially open to the atmosphere (doubie containment), and now it has further moved inwards to become the outer tank itself, spaced between .1 and 2 m from the primary liquid containment, and impounding a deep pool of product liquid of small diameter which is no longer open to the atmosphere (full contiainment). As has been mentioned eadier this change brings about significant improvements in safety. The post leakage tank fire is no longer considered a credible event. Most storage facilities or terminals house a number of storage tanks and the adjacent tank fire has always been one ofthe maJor tank spacing criteria. This is explici y recognised by EN '1473 which in Tables 1 and 5, shown in Figure 17.24, indicates the maximum radiation exposure figures and failure scenarios for difierent types of storage tanks. lt should be noted that to get into the full containment category this Code will require the tank to have a concrete roof.
close (i.e. < 6m) to the primary liquid contajnment, and
ir-
Fron BS 7777 :
Figufe 17.22 Examples offull containment tanks 1993, figure 3
It is generally agreed that the elimination of Denetrations through the inner and outer tank walls and bottoms is a orereouisite of full containment systems. These connections would represent points ofweakness in the containment from the point of view of mechanical and structural design, as well as providing the undesirable possibility of bypassing the containment system via local damage to liquid connections outside the outer containment envelope and before the first isolation valve in the connected pipeline. This in turn requires the use of roof pene_ trations for all connections to the tank and the use of in.tank pumps for liquid removal. These pumps and their associated equipment are discussed further in Chapter 19.
For LNG storage in particular, where the outercontainer is constructed from concrete, two further safety enhancing elements have become very much de rigueur.
ter 18.
The first is the secondary bottom. This is laid beneath the inner containment bottom, eitherabove orwithin the thickness of the base insulation. lts function is to prevent possible leakage from the inner tank bottom from penetrating the base thermil insulation and causing a cold spot on the reinforced concrete base slab, be this ofthe on-ground or elevated tvpe. A localised cold spot in an otherwise ambient temperature base slab of this type brings the possibility of through-thickness crackinq and consequent product leakage. This is discussed further in ahap_
Figure 17.23 Examples of full containmenl ianks
Fron EN
1743, tigurc H4
The second is the bottom corner protection system. Leak_ age of product from the prlmary container may well result in a warm outertank base slab and a cold outerwall. This combination of events, partjcularly for tanks of the fixed bottom corner design (the majority of tanks currenfly in service or under con_ struction), will result in shear stresses in the lower part of the concrete outer wall which cannot be adequatelv catered for in the design without the creation of through thickness cracking. The application of a Section of thermal insulation to the lower3 to 5m of the inner face of the outer wall, impermeable to the leaking product liquid, will convert some of ihe shear to local bending and provide a designable situation. Thjs is also dis_ cussed in Chapter'18.
7 Low temperature
storcge tanks
Eqolpmc tDrtdcbourdory
UirluoD
tharod rrdhtlon tlur (tw/E2)

32
Concrete outr surface of adiacent storage tar {9: unpnrtectedl) 3) or behind thermal protectionz) Metat outr surface of a4iacent storage tanlG: unprptectedu, or bhind thennal protectironz), (see P3) The outer sudaces of a4iacent prssue siorage vessls and process facilities (see P.3) C,onhol room, Maintnance workshops, laboratories, warchouss, etc. (see P.2)
15
Adninistative buildings (see P.2)

'r For prestressed concrete tanks, maximum radianon nuxes may be determined by the requirements given in ]{.6.2.
2) Such
facilitjes are protFctFd by means of walcr sprays, fire proofing, radiation screens or similar sysiems. 3l Prolaction is pmvided by spacinA alone.
lypc of
tlrt
All metdllc or only wlth metdllc roof
PreatrGs3ed
(lnclurtlnS corcrcte roo0
Single contalment Double containnnt
l)
3)
F\ll contaiuneni
Membrane Clyogenic conqete Sphedcal
2)
r)
2) 3)
Figure'17.25 Examples of membrane tanks From EN 1473, figure H5
Ingtomd
Scensaio to be conddercd r) ln ctse of collrpse of rh

2)
brane tanks as a separate category and gives the following

definition:
t r* pdnEry contaimr, fue pool
size conspon& to dre lrnpounding area.
"Amembranetank should be designed and constructed so

that the primary container, constituted by a membrane, is capable of containing both the liquefied gas and its vapour under normal operating conditions and the concrete sec-
In crs of cotlqe of the tank rcot, the 6re pool size concsponds to the secondsy taintr
3)
No colap6e lB considerd for
thee tank b?es.
ondary container, which supports the primary contiainer,

should be capable of containing all the liquefied gas stored in the primary container and of controlled venting of the vapour resulting from product leakage ofthe innertank. The vapour of the primary container is coniained by a steel roof liner, which forms with the membrane an integral gas tight containment. The action of the liquefied gas acting on the primary container (the metal membrane) is transferred di-
Figure 17.24 Exposufe figures and failure scenariosfor differcntlypes of From EN 1473. tables 1 and 5
17.9 Membrane tanks

The membrane solution for low temperature liquid storage is widelyused in the fields of marine transport, above ground land
based systems and in-ground land based systems. lt also has excellent prospects ofapplications in floating storage and gravity based storage systems, a number of which are being actively considered at this time.
A further potent'al area of application is in below ground lined mined rock caverns. A pilot scheme is currently underway in South Korea and this is described;n Section 17.9.5.
rectly to the pre-stressed concrete secondary container

through the load bearing insulation.'
Examples of membrane tanks from EN 1473, figure H5 are

shown in Figure 17.25. The Japanese RPIS Code considers membrane typetanks but is only applicable within Japan.
The forthcoming Eurocode on low temperature tanks (prEN 14620) which will replace BS 7777 has also chosen to recognise membrane tanks and provides detailed rules forthe design
and construction of such tanks.
It is interesting just how similar the developments of the marine transport (i.e. liquid gas carriers) and the land based storage
The essential difference between the membrane system and

the conventional systems for liquid storage lie in the separation
of the structural support function for the product liquid and the liquid tightness function. This separation and how it is achieved is discussed in 17.9.3 below. The relative merits ofthe conven-
systems are. In gas carrier design there are two main

philosophies: The use of rigid tanks supported within the structure ofthe ship. Spheres of the Moss Rosenburg type or prismatic tanks such as those designed and manufactured by lHl. A tanker of the spherical liquid contiainertype is illustrated in Figure 17.26. The protrusion ofthe spherical tanks through the deck of the ship is clear to see. The spherical tanks require support at or close to
tional and the membrane systems are discussed in

below
'17.9.5
lvlembrane tanks forabove ground use are notwithin the scope
of codes such as API 620 ot BS 7777. NFPA 59A includes

membrane containers in its definition section but provides little more information on the subject. EN 1473 recognises mem-
17
Low temperature storage tanks
tural support for the liquid could cleady not be supplied by the flexible membrane itself, but came from the structure ofthe ship itself by way of the load bearing insulation system. This insulation was in the form of panels consisting of two layers of plywood sandwiching a layer of a suitable insulation material. The initial patents for this liquid storage system were filed in 1964.
During the same period of time, a second French company was busy developing a different membrane concept. The company was Gaz Transport and its solution to the problem was to use a membrane made from a 36% nickel-64% iron alloy which was originally patented by lmphy in 1896 and is more commonly known as Invar. As well as being physically strong and capable of being welded, this material has the added merit of possessing an almost zero coefficient of thermal contraction across a wide range oftemperatures. This makes it idealfor ihis purpose in thatalmost no thermal contraction stresseswould be present and consequently no corrugations would be required. This liner again needed structural support from the ship's structure via the load bearing insulation. The original patents for this system were filed in 1963 and 1965. The technology for both of these liner concepts was licensed to
Figufe 17.26 A carrier ofthe sphedcal iank type
a number of shipbuilding companies around the world. Up to date the LNG tanker fleet consists of 141 shiDS. 68 of the two
membrane types, 71 using the Moss spheres and two using a different rigid self-supporting tank concept. There are 54 ships under construction of which 38 are of the membrane type and 16 ofthe Moss sphere type. Options existfor a further 25 ships of which 20 are ofthe membrane type and 5 ofthe moss sphere type. The first move to adopt the membrane system for land based storage systems was taken by SN Technigaz in the early '1970s with two above ground liquid ethylene tanks of relatively modest capacity being completed in France in 1972. Technigaz continFigute 17.27 A carrier oflhe membrane tank type
Courtesy of Universal Shipbuilding Corporation
ued to develop its system and completed two 120,000 m3 above ground LNG tanks for Gaz de France at Montoir de
Bretagne in 1980 and ten 100,000 m3 above ground LNG tanks at Pyeong Taek in South Korea from 1986 to 1998. The move from marine to land-based storage systems for the Invartype of membrane did not come about and the reasons for this failure to move into whatwould seem to be attractive alternative markets is something ofa mystery There appears to be no technical reason whythis transition was not made. Perhaps it comes down to no one being interested in pursuing the matter The French Code for lowtemperature above or semi-buried tanks (Reference 77.26) clearly suggests that the Invar membrane system is suitable for this purpose and indeed provides specific rules and requirements for the design and construction of this type of membrane. The Technigaz membrane system was the subject of a number of improvements around 1990. These improvements addressed amongst other things various concerns of its customers and costs of the system. These are described in Section 17.9.3. The next move in the historical develooment of the membrane system was its adoption for use in in-ground storage tanks. Again the system chosen was the Technigaz membrane. The technologywas licensed to various Japanese and Korean companies. One of the Japanese licensees (NKK) has completed 20 in-ground membrane tanks up to the end of2002. Other Japanese companies (l\y'H1, lH I and KHI) have developed their own membrane systems for land-based in,ground use.
their equator and are relatively inefficient in making use of the available space within the ship's hull. The use of membrane technology supported bythe structure of the ship. This solution is much more efficient in terms of space
utilisation. The liquid containing tanks can be tailored to the

shape of the ship's hull. The distribution of loads from the tanks to the (usually double hulled) ship's structure is more efficient than is the case for spherical or prismatic rigid tanks. Atanker of the membrane type is illustrated in Figurc 17 .27 .
These two philosophies are very much reflected in the land

based storage systems where the conventional self supported tanks and the membrane solutions compete for territory Usually both are confined to the vertical cylindrical form for structural reasons. The ability ofthe membrane system to take other shapes will bring possible advantages in the floating and GBS areas of future activity.
17.9.1 Development history

The early work on membrane systems was directed towards marine gas carriers, and in particular to LNG carriers. The first
liquid gas carriers had self supporting tanks and it was considered that this did not represent an ootimal solution in terms oJ space utilisation. Starting from a Norwegian patent, the French company SN Technigaz developed a stainless steel membrane system. This membrane had two sets ofcorrugations running at right angles to one another. These corrugations acted like bellows allowing the membrane to accept the thermal contraction stresses, which would cause tensile failure in a flat membrane. The struc-
Currently the biggest LNG tanks in the world are
of the in-ground membrane type at Negishi and Ohgishima terminals in Japan. In-ground membrane tanks are described in more detail in Section 17.12.
STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 303
Low temperature storage tanks
17.9.2 Detailed description of the land-based membrane system

17.9.2.1 The metallic membrane
The material used forthe stainless steelcorrugated membrane is generally 1.2 mm thick ASTM A 240 type 304. The corrugations are of two different sizes and are created at right angles to
3ru@fuc^no'|'Mu
one another. The manufacturing techniques to produce this complex component are cold forming or stamping. The cold forming method is considered to have certain advantages in terms of residual stress and plate thinning.
Figure'17.28 shows a typicalabove ground tank wall panel after manufacture and indicated the sizes ofthe large and small cor-
KNOT OEIAIIs
rugations. A wall panel would be approximately 3280 mm x 1150 mm in size. The seriously clever element ofthe syslem is the detailed design and configuration ofthe area where the corrugations cross. This is termed "the knof'. The pitch between the largersized corrugations is 560 mm. These run verticallyon the tank shell and radially on the tank bottom. For the smaller
size of corrugations the pitch is 650 mm. These run circumferentially on both the tank shell and bottom. The design method-
ology for the membranes of above ground tanks will appear publically in a code ior the first time in the forthcoming
Euronorm for low temperature tanks. For in-ground tanks, most of which are either located in Japan, Korea and Taiwan and have been designed and constructed by Japanese contractors, the details ofthe system is slighfly modified. The membrane is 2.0 mm thick at the behest ofthe Japanese utility companies and the national regulaiory authorities. The corrugationsare of similarform butare biggerand pitched at 1360 mm in eitherdirection and areformed using thestamping method instead of the cold forming technique. For marlne service the membrane is again 1.2 mm thick, but due to the more onerous fatigue environment caused by cyclic elongation due to the ships hull deforming, the corrugations are more closely pitched at 340 mm x 340 mm. Quite recently the Technigaz membrane has undergone some improvements as mentioned above. The main change relating specifically to the metallic membrane is that the corrugations are now pitched at 680 mm in both directions and advantage has been taken of the stainless steel manufacturers ability to produce largersheets. Fora large tankthis latterchange willreduce the number of sheets in the tank wall by some 23% and the lengths of welded seam by 8%. The bottom of the tank where the layout of the corrugations was previously radial and circumferential, has now been modified such that the standard square pitch panels can be used for the majority of the base with transition pieces derived from marine practice used at the bottom corner. For a large tank this will reduce the length of welded seam by some 39%. The method of securing the membrane sheets to the supporting thermal insulation js by way of stainless steel inserts which are anchored jnto the plwood inner facing of the insulation panels. The membrane is then welded to these inserts through holes in the membrane itself. This is illustrated in Figure 17.29. The wall-to-base detail of the membrane system involves the
Figure 1/.28 Typicl above ground tank wail panel, indicating lhe targe and smaI corrugatons
Coutesy of SN Technigaz
use of special panel components and the top of the wall is

sealed to the concrete wallor its liner by a suitable detail. Figures 17.30 and 1 7.31 show typical details ofthe bottom and top corner of an LNG tank. The membrane system has a limited ability to cater for local loads such as may be caused by the need to support or guide pump columns or stilling wells. This necessitates special details such as that illustrated in Figure
17.32.
Figure 17.29 N,{ethod ofsecuring the membrane sheets lo supporting thermal Courtesy of SN Technigaz
Figure 17.33 shows a viewinside a large LNG tankof the membrane type and Figure 17.34 shows details ofthe corrugations and "the knot'. The joining of the membrane sheets is by lap
welding. The development ofthe automated welding system for the installation of membrane sheets is an essential part of the overall system. lt is based on a TIG method with no added filler metal. The welding system is supported by ra'ls which attach to the membrane liner surface at the knots using a specially designed clamping device. Post weld inspection is carried out after installation of the complete membrane by conducting an
17 Low
tempenturc storage tanks
--l
Figure 17.30 The wall-to-base detail of lhe membrane system Coulesy of SN Technigaz
Figure 17.32 Special quirements forsupportng tocal toads Courtesy of SN Technigaz
Figu.e 17.31 Containment sysiem bottom-to-wa junction

Courtesy of SN Technigaz
ammonia test. This is a technique commonly used in the nuclear industry and consists of introducing a mixture of 20% ammonia vapour and 80% nitrogen into the insulation space. Any leakage is detected on the inner surface of the weld seams by the application of a sensitive paint which changes colour from yellowto blue in the presence of ammonia vapour. Helium leak testing is also used as an overall leakage test for the Invar type LNG carriers and for repair testing on the stainless steel membrane type of LNG carriers.
Figure 17.33 Aview inside a large LNG membrane type tank Courlesy of JFE Engineeing Corpontion
Unlike the free sianding types of primary containers, the membrane which serves as the primary tightness barrierfor the liquid but not as its structural support, is not subject to a hydrostatic test. A hydrosbtic test of the prestressed concrete outer tank is required and this can be to a water equivalent to 1.25 times the weight ofthe innertank levelcontents up to the full liquid height in addition to a pneumatic test of 1.2S tifles the design pressure. This test is obviously carried out prior to the installation of the insulation and of the membrane ibelf.
Figure 17.34 Details ofthe corrugations and 'the knot',
Coulesy of JFE Engineeing Corporation
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
305
17 Low
tempenturc storcge tanks
During service the insulation space behind the membrane is filledwith nitrogen gas. This insulation space is constantly monitored for the lifetime of the tank for traces of the stored product a leak in the membrane liner. In the event that such an indication were found, the nitrogen flow rate, which in normal operation is very low, would be increased to
The roofinsulation is glassfibre laid on and supported by a suspended deck of either the flat plate type or the corrugated sheet and structural section type.
vaoourwhichwould indicate
For a 100,000m3 LNG tank, a typical design heat leak for a

membrane type tank intended for an import terminal would be between 0.08% and 0.1% ofthe full tank contents per day. For an exportterminal heat leaks ofbetvveen 0.05% and 0.08% are possible.
sweep the insulation space to attempt to ensure that the gas concentration is maintained below30% oJthe lowerflammable limit for the oroduct in question. 17.9.2.2 The insulation system
As is the case for the membrane itself various other improvements have been made to the system:
Forthe tank base and the tank wallthe basic insulation materials are either polyvinyl chloride foam (PVC) or polyurethane
foam (PUF). The densities of the materials used vary depending upon the liquid and vapour loading in the different parts of the tank. For PVC foam densities of between 65 and 90 kg/mJ are typical whilst for PUF densities of between 65 and '120 kg/m3 are used. This insulation is supplied to the site in factory made panels with the insulating material sandwiched between layers of plywood. The liquid side face plywood is generally 12 mm thick and the concrete side may be of the same thickness or thinner (typically I mm). A typical wall insulation panel would be 1930 mm x 540 mm. The thickness of the insulation componentwould depend on the service and the required heat leak, but a typicalvalues using PVC foam for LNG service would be 210 mm to 350 mm depending on the heat leak reouirements. The wall insulation panels are attached to the inner surface of the concrete by two means. Firstly 10 mm stainless steel studs are fitted into the concrete priortothe panelerection. There are usuallytvvo studs per panel. Secondly a bonding mastic is used. The holes where the studs penetrate the panels are filled with plugs of PUF The gaps between the adjacent panels are filled with PUF or compressed glass wool. To ensure that the concrete wall is resistant to the ingress of moisture from the atmosphere, the internalsurface is coated with a suitable primerand moisture barrier prior to the hydrostatic test. Atypical arrangement ofthe wallinsulation erection sequence is shown in Figure
17
The vaDour barrieron the innersurface ofthe concrete tank was improved in its crack bridging abilities bythe addition of a glass cloth layerand in its applicability by an improvement
in formulation.
The insulation panelsize hasbeen increased in linewiththe
increase in the membrane sheet size. The standard wall panel is now 2020 mm x 1340 mm instead of 1930 mm x
540 mm.
The ability of the membrane system to resist the effects of liquid leakage better into the insulation space have been made. The possibility of through thickness cracking at the base ofthe ore-stressed concrete wallwhere built in bottom corners are used has been discussed in Section 17.8. To avoid the harmful effects of the low product temperatures on the inner surface of the concrete tank, the insulation of the base and lower 5 m of the wall is modified. A liquid-tight material is provided on the insulation paneljoints and on the inner plywood face. This liquid{ight barrier is very much equivalent in function to the secondary bottom and the lowershell protection used for the free standing types offull containment tanks described above.
17.9.2.3 The outer tank The outer tank base slab is constructed of reinforced concrete, most usually ground-based, but occasionally elevated on piles or stub piles. The ground-based alternative would incorporate base heating ofthe electrical or other types. The outertankwall is ofthe post tensioned type and the joint between the walland the base slab is of the fixed or encastre type. The vertical pre-stress is applied by tendons in U-shaped ducts. The horizontal pre-stress is applied by tendons in ducts within the wall running between a number (usually four) of stressing buttresses. Traditionaltyconcretes ofthe 40 - 50 MPa compressive strength grades are used. The roof is most usuallyofthe reinforced concrete type. Asteel sheeting supported by a structural framework is erected at the fulltank height, or on the tank base slab and airor mechanically lifted into place. With the assistance ofinternal air pressure, this supports the newly placed concrete (either in one or two pours) until it becomes self-supporting.
.34.
lmprovements have been made in this area too. These are

mainly in the use of stronger concretes giving in addition to in-
creased strength, advantages in improved permeability and

faster curing times.
One of the membrane tanks at the Pyeong Taek LNG terminal, is shown in Figure 17.36, with an outer bund, which would now
be considered redundant.
17.9.3 Comparison of above ground membrane tanks and conventional tanks

As mentioned previously, this discussion has been ongoing for a considerable period of time. lt would not seem helpful to exFigure 17.35 A typical arrangement of the wall inslllallon erection sequence Couftesy of SN Technigaz
press a view on this complex and multifaceted argurnent, but rather to indicate where the differing views can be found exoressed in full in various references.
17 Low temperature
storcge tanks
Figure 17.36 Membrane tank with redundant bund at the Peyong Taek LNG Cowlesy of SN Technigaz
Figure '17.37 A view inside the test tank Courtesy of SN Technigaz
The argumentsfor parity of containment betweenthe two types of tanks can be found in References 17.27 and 17.28.
The French AGT Code (Reference 17.26) appears to express a view in one of its tigures that above ground membrane tanks constitute single containment whereas in-ground membrane tanks are full containment. This document has rather been left
bythewayside jn recentyearsand is notas

was.
infl uential as
itonce
References 17.10 and 7Z 76 require the primary and secondary containment storage components for both double and full containment ianks to be "capable of independently containing the product liquid". The membrane system's separation of liq-
uid tightness function from the structural support function is perceived by the "inequality" camp as not fulfilling this "independent' requirement. One difference which should be aired in this discussion of
equivalence is the fact that the outer concrete tank forthe membrane type is hydrostiatically tested and that for the 9% nickel steel/preslressed concrete type is not. This test can be expected to reveal any major construction defects in the outer tank. Notwithstanding this long, and occasionally acrimonious discussion, it would seem that most users of these two types of storage tank are coming to accept their equivalence.
Figure 17.38 Shows the overall Counesy of LNG Joumal
facilit
17.9.4 The lined mined rock cavern initiative tor future LNG storage The possibility of storing LNG in below ground cavems has
been discussed for many years. The early attempls to use unlined vertical cylindrical holes in the ground were not a success, and all but one have now been decommissioned and filled in. The main problem lay in the extensive fissuring ofthesunounding ground giving rise to excessive heat leaks and an ever-extending area of frozen ground around the bnks. The use of a suitable impervious barrier would solve some of these problems, but the behaviour of the water, ice and rock surrounding a mined cavern was alwaysan area of u ncertajnty. Recently, a group of companies has joined together to design and construct a pilotfacilityto investigate the possible problem areas. G6ostock Co., Saipem.Technigaz of France and S.K. Engineering & Conshuction Ltd of South Korea, have come together to pool their considerable skills in in-ground and membrane storage systems. They are constructing a I IO m3 pilot tank at Deajon in South Korea. This will be a mined cavern some 20 m belowground. The rock faces will be faced with reinforced concrete and the Technigaz membrane and insulation syslem will be applied to this lining.
Figure 17.39 Asimple P & | D of the facility Couftesy of LNG Journal
Provision will be made to drain the surrounding rock and the facility will be heavily supplied with inskumentation. The tank wi be cooled with liquid nitrogen at -196 'C.
Figure 17.37 shows a view inside the test tank, Figure 17.38 shows the overall facility and Figure 17.39 is a simple piping & illustration drawing, (P & | D) of the facitity. (See Reference 17.17.)
17 Low temperaturc storage tanks
17.10 Spherical tanks

In addition to the spherical tanks discussed above being used for the storage ofthose products which can be maintained in liquid form at ambient temperature by the imposition of pressure alone, or at semi-refrigerated temperatures bya combination of
low temperature and pressure, there have been proposals to store various lowtemperature liquids in spherical vessels under fully-refrigerated conditions- These schemes have been almost exclusively aimed at the storage of LNG
Some 50% of the world's LNG carriers are of the skirt-supported spherical vessel type, so it is no surprise that these schemes to use land-based spheres come from the world of
ship building.
one such scheme is the subject of Refere nce 17.29.J|1is papel proposed spherical vessels of80,000 m3 capacity, which gives
diameter of around 54 m. The spherical vessel was to be constructed from either 9% nickel steel to ASTIV1 A 553 or of aluminium alloy to ASTM B 209 type 5083-0. The design codes were a mixtufe of the ship design IMO Codes and the established pressure vessel Code ASIVE section Vlll. Briefly the design conditions were:
a
Figure 17.40 A cross-section oflhe proposed scheme for spherical skirt-suDooded tanks
. . . . . .
Design temperature -163 "C lnternal design pressure 0.25 bar Vacuum design pressure -0.10 bar Product density 450 kg/m3 Boil off 0.054% of the full contents/day Hydrotest - partial to 66% liquid fill capacity
The vesselwas to be supported at its equatoras is the case for conventional ships'tanks and to have a thermal insulation system consisting of polystyrene foam of 500 mm thickness. To reduce the heat in leakage at the skirt support, a stainless steel
Figure 17.41 Examples of self-delivering anangements
plate some 2500 mm in height was to be placed between the stiffened supporton the vesselitselfand the concrete supports. Thus the heat leak at this pointwas reduced to 10% ofthe total. The only connections to the sphere were to be in the top cap where liquid inlet and vapour outlet connections would be located. Liquid removal was to be by the use of in{ank pumps which would also penetrate the vesselthrough the top cap. The outerconcrete protection was notto be designed to provide liquid containment in the event of an inner tank failure as this was declared impossible due to good understanding of the design and behaviour of the spherical vessel, much better by implication than would be the case for a vertical cylindrical bnk. This argument would attract little support today. The evidence for the need to design this concrete structure for the effects of adjacent tank fires was, by modern viewpoints, similarly suspect. As presented the scheme represented single containment by today's standards. A cross-section of the proposed scheme is shown in Figure 17.40. Three alternative construction proposalswere suggested in the paper:
tanks ofthe same capacity, and thiswas its main attraction. The final costs would be expected to be similarto or greaterthan its
comparable conventional rivals. Despite the volume of effort put intothisscheme, itdid notgetoffthe ground and none have
been built to date.
A variation on this proposal was to use the facilities which had
been set up around the world to manufacture the spherical tanks used in the LNG carriers. These are highly sophisticated semi-automated factories which were a necessary part of the tanker building industry. The obvious advantage was that they could construct spherical vessels quickly, cheaply and to high standards. The disadvantage was that the spherical vessels used in the carrierswere ofa smaller unitsize than the 100,000 m3 plus which would normally be required on land-based storage facilities.
A "normal" ship's tank would be some 35,000 m3 in useable capacity. Stretching the production facilities to their maximum size
. .
Prefabrication ofsections ofthe sphericalvessel in a shipyard for normal assembly on the job site into the concrete outer vessel.
limit and adding an equator parallel course could perhaps increase this to 45,000 m3. In recent years, for LNG facilities in particular, construction time is ofren equally, and on occasions, more imDortantthan finished cost. The extra revenue, which an early plant commissioning can earn during the time saved, may well outweigh additional costs of such novel storage solutions
The spheres and their supporting structure to be assembled inthe shipyard and skidded onto transport to site (probably suitable barges) and skidding off to be united with the
Self-delivering arrangements such as integrated barges

(placed into the final position by a dry docking procedure) and attention to superior containment systems would seem to present an attractive option for the industry Summarising the advantages and disadvantages;
part constructed outer concrete vessel.
The comolete structure is fabricated and assembled at a ship or offshore yard suitable for deliveryto site as self-floa!
ing units or by heavy lifr ships (Figure 17.41).
Advanbges:
The orooosed construction schedule of 30 months or better was arguably a little better than for equivalent conventional 308 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
Factory production ensures fast delivery. cheapness and high quality
7 Low temperature
storage tanks
. . . . . .
Site civil work and vessel production are parallel activities System is pre-designed Units could be moved to another site if reouired Units could be pre-ordered and stockpiled to further save further time
Disadvantages:
Unit size too small More sets of pumps and instrumentation required
Despite the apparent attractions, this scheme also failed to

bear fruit. The reasons why are not immediately apparent.
17.1 1
Concrete/concrete tanks
Figure 17.42 Construction of a peak shaving LNG tank
Prestressed concrete has become the most commonly used materialforthe outercontainers of full containment lowtemperature tanks, both ofthe conventional 9% nickel steel innertank type and the membrane type. lt is no surprise that the question was asked "Why not use pre-stressed concrete for the inner tanks?" What is surprising is just how long ago this question was asked and how early the flrst development and test work aimed at determining the lowtemperature properties of this material were carried oul.
Coutesy of Preload Inc.
blemished record of service, this type of tank has not enjoyed the success that it deserved. Some years ago MW Kellogg, who in the eyes of many in the LNG field, is a major league arbiter of what is technically acceptiable, gave the concrete/concrete concept its seal of approval. The technology for this concept was owned by preload Inc. in the USAand is now in the hands ofa newcompany called Cryocrete. Since 1998, Whessoe, (formerly Whessoe International Skanska), has had a license agreement with Cryocrete and a number of changes to the basic design have been proposed which will perhaps see a change in the fortunes for this particular type of tank. 17.1 1.2 Details
17.11.1 History of cryogenic concrete tanks

For many years, especially in the USA, water storage tanks
have been constructed using reinforced concrete. The reinforcing to resistthe dominanthoop loadings was frequently applied
by the wire winding method. This consists of winding a large number of high tensile steel wires around the outside of a concrete cylindrical tank. The wires pass through a die which increases the tensile load in the wire whilst increasing its strength due to the cold forming which takes place. The wires are frequently protected from corrosion and othersources ofpotential
of concrete/concrete tanks
damage by the application of

"Shotcrete" type.
a sprayed concrete of
the
Any vertical prestressing is applied using internal tendons located in the centre of the concrete wall.
The Preload type ofvertical cylindricalwall has been described in some detail in Section 17.8 where it has been used as liquid containing high bunds for double containment systems of the conventional type. This type of wall is used for both the inner and outer tanks.
The base insulation in the central area ofthe tank bottom is usu-
ln 1950, the Linde division of the Union Carbide Corporation began an investigation into the possible use of pre-stressed concrete for the storage of lowtemperature liquids such as liquid oxygen. By January 1951 test reports were available which showed thatthe thermaland mechanical properties of wire reinforced concrete improved down to -196 'C. Based on this data, Preload Inc., a company who specialised in pre-stressed concrete structures, desi gned and constructed for Linde, a double-walled tank of 2,650 m3 capacity, for the storage of liquid oxygen. This tank remained in service until 1985 when it was decommissioned and demolished. ln the late
ally PVC foam. Under the inner wall the insulation consists of prefabricated blocks made from plywood and balsa wood, which are subsequently sealed into a fibreglass shell. These blocks are designed for the compressive loads arising from self-weight and seismic conditions.
To
allowthe innertank to contract radially durlng cooldown and
to accommodate shear loadings from seismic events, shear

keys are fitted to the underside of the annular plate and to the topside ofthe secondary bottom. This arrangement is shown in
Figure 17.43.
The insulation between the two walls is site-exoanded Derlite. A
'1960s the American Gas Association initiated
programme. This work was conducted jointly by the Institute of Gas Technology and the Portland CementAssociation and was reported in Reference 77.30.
Esso Research and Engineering produced technical specificationsiortwo40,000 m3 double wallconcrete LNG tanksfor GAz
test
conventional steel plate and section roof is provided which could form the outer roof in its own right, or provides the supporting formwork for a reinforced concrete roof. The inner roof is a suspended deck of one ofthe usual designs, which willsupport the glass fibre insulation. The outer wall has a carbon steel vapour barrier which is installed close to the outer face and compressed vertically by the vertical internal pre-stressing tendons and circumferentially by the wire winding. This arrangement is protected from the weather and other extemalevents bya shotcrete layer. The slidingjoint between the outerwblland the base.slab precludes the need for the bottom corner thermal protection measures required to control the shear stresses in the case of a built in corner detail described above.
The annularand bottom plates are made from g% nickelsteel.
Natural (now Enagas). These tanks were constructed at the LNG import terminal in Barcelona and went into service in
1968. These tanks have been in continuous successful service since that date. ln 1981 a similarLNG tank of80.000 m3caoacitywas constructed on the same site and has given similarly un-
troubled service.
In 1974 the Philadelphia Gas Works in the USAcommissioned two peakshaving LNG ianks each of92,500 m3 capacity. These
too have been in uninterrupted trouble-free service. Figure

17.42 shows these tanks during construction. Despite the un-
7 Low tempetature storage
tanks
PRESTR:SSED COXCREI
toms well below the local grade levels, in the former case by around one half of the shell height and in the latter case by almost the full shell height. In both cases the reason behind this unusual and very expensive departure from normal practice was because of planning restrictions on the elevations of the tank profiles. Consequently what was constructed were conventional full containment 9% nickel steel/pre-stressed concrete above ground tanks located in a purpose-built pit. The additional containment and protection provided by the pit was a bonus and not the maln objective of the exercise. This type of tank is frequently described as the "in pit" type. Aphoto ofthe "in pit" tanks at Revithoussa is shown in Figure 17.44.
Figure 17.43 Arangemenl for radial contraclion ofinnertank cooldown, using
17.11,3 Arguments for and against concrete/
concrete tanks
As was the case for the similar discussions relating to conventionaland membrane tanks, a greatdeal has been written about the subject, some of it objective and some less so emanating from entrenched or self-interested view points. Ratherthan enter into this ongoing fray, it is proposed to list the subject areas
with hopefully simple and non-partisan comments:
Figure 17.44 The "in pil" LNG tanks at Revilhoussa lsland, Greece
For:
Coutesy of Whessoe
o . . .
Cost Enables largertanks to be constructed. Current designs are available uo to 250,000m3. lnner wall is stable under seismic axial compressive loadings. Concrete and concrete placing skills may provide advantages in certain geographic areas over 9% nickel steel and the metalworking skills required. lt mayforexample serve to maximise the "in country" content work content The inner wall is better able to resist the external loadings from the thermal insulation and may not require a resilient blanket.
17.12.1 In-ground membrane tanks

ln-ground membrane tanks are closely related to the above ground membrane tanks described in Section 17 9- There are a number oftanks ofthis design to be found in Japan, Korea and Taiwan. The first in-ground LNG tank was built in Japan at the Negeshi Terminal in Yokohama using the 1-2 mm thick stainless steel membrane technology licensed from SN Technigaz. Later NKK had to develop a 2.0 mm thick membrane to comply with new Japanese regulations.
A number ofother Japanese contractors (MHl, lHl and KHI) developed theirown membrane designs, which were similarto the original SN Technigaz design. These companies have also designed and constructed in-ground LNG tanks. The world's big-
Against:
. . .
Unfamiliar technology despite track record of satisfactory service. Vulnerability of outer tank wire windlng to damage from external missiles, fire and corrosion.
g;st tank at 200,000
m3 capacity has been constructed in Ja-
pan and is the subject of Reference t7 73 These tanks are both expensive and time consuming to construct. In-ground storage onlybecomes aviable option wheresome combination
of the following circumstances apply
The space required for the wire winding machine means

that a wide interspace is required if simulianeous construction of the tvvo tanks is to be achieved, otherwise the inner tank must be built and pre-stressed before the outertank is constructed. This clearly has programme implications.
. . .
Reclaimed or very expensive land requiring optimisation of effective use of the area available Abnormally high safety standards perhaps due to congestion, adjacent industrial plant or high risk locations such as Dort areas Highly seismic areas
. .
Concerns relating to the ability of the shear keys to withstand high seismic loadings Concerns relating to the time required to decommission the tank for internal insoection, should this be needed.
Apart from the changes to the membrane thickness and the size and spacing ofthe corrugations, the metiallic membrane is
as described in Section 17.9The civil engineering works associated with this design are interesting and to the mind of the author quite remarkable. These tanks are frequently built in areas of reclaimed land where soil close to grade.
To constructthe tank it is necessaryto
17.12 In-ground tanks

The three categories of in-ground tanks described in this Section are what could be described as "true" in-ground systems. There are a few examples of tanks, which at first glance would seem to be candidates for this category, buton closerexamination prove not to be suitable.
conditions are poor and ground water table levels are at or de-waterthe area. To accomplish this, a slurry wall is built of a thickness (some 1.2 m) sufficientto resistthe external pressures from the ground water and to a depth where competent rock is to be found (up to 100
The LNG storage tanks at both the Zeebrugge and the

Revithoussa import terminals are constructed with their bot-
17 Low tempercture storage
tanks
Figure 17 45 Asection lhrough a lypical in,ground tank
Cauiesy af SN Technigaz
m). When this slurry wall is completed, the excavation work can commence and a reinforced concrete wall is built from the top down on the innerface ofthe slurry wall. This can be up to 2.0 m in thickness for a large tank. The base slab of reinforced concrete must be of sufficient strength and thickness to resjst the ground water pressure and can be up to 7.0 m in thickness. Within this inner wall and base, the conventional insulation panel and metallic membrane is installed.
Fig!re 17.46 A simplifed sectlon through a cavefn
the problems associated with soilfreezing, this type of tank will require heating for both the base slab and the cylindricalwall. The roof will be of the plate and section type and rnay
To avoid
Pipework connections into the caverns are via vertical tunnels carrying liquid inlet, liquid outlet using deep-well or submerged pumps, water removal pumps and the necessary instrumentation. Asimplified section through such a cavern is shown in Figure 17.46.
be sub-sequentially covered with reinforced concrete.
lt
is
The advantages of cavern storage over conventional above

ground tanks from a safety point of view are self-evident. Further advantages come from the area of land used. lt is possible to locate caverns beneath othet surface plant and in some circumstances, beneath the sea for a large part of the system.
usual to employ a suspended ceiling supporting glass flbfe insulation in these tanks, although recent developments have involved the elimination ofthe suspended ceiling and the attachment of the roof insulation directly to the underside of the roof
structure itself. A section through a typical tank of this type is shown in Figure 17.45.
'17.12.3 Frczen grou nd systems

The development ofthe frozen ground tank was an effort to provide cheap and safe storage for low temperature liquids. Sadly itwas not a great success. There is only one iank ofthis type still
Reference 77.37 provides guidance for the design and construction of such tanks, applicable in Japan.
17.12.2 Cavern storage systems

The storage of LPG in unlined mined rock caverns has been available for a number ofyears. The LPG is stored in liquid form at a pressure appropriate to the temperature of the rock at the depth of the cavern. The pressure from the local groundwater exceeds the pressure of the stored LPG such that water leaks into the cavern rather than LPG leaking out. This water collects in a sump in the bottom ofthe cavern and is pumped out and fed into a water curtain arrangement which maintains the ground water pressure at a constant level in the area of the caverns. lt is clearly necessary to have suitable rock for mining of the caverns at a suitable depth appropriate to the product pressure. Thus propane would be stored in caverns located at a greater depth than would be necessary for the storage of bubne. Cavern storage systems depend upon the appropriate subsoil
in service. This is locaied in Algeria at the Arzew liquefaction and export site. These tanks bear some similarities to ihe in-ground membrane type in that they consist of a vertical cylindrical excavation with the roof at local grade level. To enable the excavation to take place, the ground is frozen to allow the walls of the excavation to be self-supporting. This is done by drilling a series of holes in a circle to the full depth of the excavation. lnto these holes double concentric pipes are inserted into which liquid nitrogen or re-
frigerated brine is circulated to freeze a vertical cylinder of ground. This circulation must be maintained untilthe tanks are commissioned. There is no lining or thermal insulation provided. Based on small-scale tests, the assumption was that the frozen ground would give sufficient liquid tightness and supply the required thermal insulation. At the local grade level a reinforced concrete ring wall was provided around the top of the excavation.
conditions being available at the chosen location. lt is more

common to find the necessary conditions at greater depths and aS a consequence Some facilities store propane in cavernS and butane in above ground conventional tanks. The caverns themselves are of a constant cross-seciion, the size of which is dependent upon the local rock characteristics, and are often ofconsiderable length (some 100s of metres). lt is common to have a series of parallel caverns with total storage capacities well in excess of 200.000 m3.
At Arzew the 38,000 m3 LNG tank had a carbon steel roof

framework which was not plated over in the conventjonal manner and supported an aluminium suspended ceiling. This ceiling in turn supported the thermal insulation and a series of con-
crete weights whose function was to counterbalance the internal pressure. This tank is described in a paper given at
LNG 4 in 1974 (Reference 17.32) and is said to have been in seryice for some B years at that time and to have taken two STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 311
17
Low tempercturc storcge tanks
years to construct, which makes the date ofthe originalconcept and design around 1964. The four 50,000 m3 LN G tanks of this
Temperatures down to -50 'C, British Standards lnstitution, London, (Now superseded by BS 7777:1993).
type built at Canvey lsland were similar except that the roof framework was plated over
The failure of these tanks to perform in a satisfactory manner was due to a number of problem areas:
17.5 17.6
17
Cryogenic Storage Facilities for LNG and NGL, N.J. Cuperus (Shell), 1oth World Petroleum Congress, Bucharest 1979. Developmentsin Cryogenic Storage lanks,6th International Conference on LNG, Kyoto, 1980.
Transport and Storage of LNG and LPG, Royal Flemish Society of Engineers' International Conference, Brugge May 1984.
. .
Thefrozen soilwas notastighta barriertothe liquid andthe

vapour as had been anticipated.
.7
The soil fissured and cracked allowing the area of frozen

soil to extend much further from the tanks than was anticipated. This was a particular problem at Canvey lsland where the region of frozen soil threatened to pass beyond the site boundary
17.8 17.9
Fracture Safe Deslgrs for Large Storage lanks, The Welding Institute International Symposium, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, April 1986. EEMUA Publication No. 147, Recommendations forthe Design and Construction of Refrigerated Liquefied Gas Storage Tanks, Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association. London. 1986.
for Low Temperature Servlce, British Standards Institution, London.
Frost heave gave rise to significant ground movements

making the connection between the frozen soil and the concrete ring beam and between the ring beam and the roof structure difficult to seal against vapour escape.
The frozen ground did not provide the thermal insulation that had been hoped for, resulting in a higher than anticipated heat in leak with the consequent practical and economic Problems.
17.10 BS 7777 : 1993 Flat Bottomed Veftical Storage Tanks
17.11 Bigger and Cheaper LNG lanks, Bob Long, LNG 12

Perth, Australia, May 1988.
The tanks at Canvey lsland were decommissioned. This was no easy task. The integrity of the excavation had to be maintained. and heat had to be supplied to warm upthe bynowvast volume of frozen soil. Safety had to be maintained in the face of LNG and in particular the warmerfractions leaking from the soil over a large area. The filling in of these pits with warm purged sand is an interesting tale in its own right.
17.12 Development of above ground Storage Tank Designs in Japan, HitoshiHiose - Toyo Kanetsu K.K, LNG Journal
November/December 1998.
17.13 Construction
of an underground Storage
Tank,
Yanagiya and Ogawa - Kaiima Corporation, LNG Journal November/December 1999.
17.13 Novel systems

There have been a number of novel systems proposed which have a large element of low temperature liquid storage, usually
17.14
API 620 Tenth edition February 2002, Design and construction of large, welded, low-pressure storage tanks, American Petroleum Institute
for use with LNG.

Many of these schemes are aimed at LNG import terminals and
'17.15 BS 5387 : 1976 Veftical cylindrical welded storage tanks for low-temperature Service: double walltanks for tem'
peratures down to -196 'C, British Standards lnstitution.
involve floating or gravity-based systems (GBS). The advantage ofthese over conventional land-based terminals is that the
17.16 BS EN 1473: 1997 lnsta ation of equipmentfor lique'

fied naturalgas -design of On-shore instal/aflons, Euro-
owner is freed from the need to find a suitably protected and deep harbour close to the market for the product being imported. This is often a major stumbling block for a terminal pro-
pean Committee for Standardisation and British

Standards Institution.
ject.
There are also advantagesto be had from moving the construction from the job site, as is the case with conventional terminals, to a ship or offshore rig yard where productivity rates may be
higher.
17.17 Developments
Cuperus - SIPM, LNG 6 Session ll, paper 13, Kyoto' Aoril 1980. Vater
in cryogenic storage fanks, N
J.
17.18 Dynamic load attenuation for double wal/ tarks, R A
Pittsburgh-Des-Moines Corporation, Gastech
84. Amsterdam. November 1984.
It had been hoped to describe some of these interesting schemes in some detail, but at this moment in time, the owners and designers of the various schemes are concerned with the confidentiality of their proposals and have not given their permission to discuss the details and merits.
Atrawl through the proceedings of the LNG and Gastech conferences and the LNG Journals will reveal outlines of some of
these schemes and hopefully in the near future some facilities will be constructed and the technical dehils published
17.19 Experimental dynamic compaction of perlite insulation,

T. Kauos - CBI Industries Inc., Gastech 84, Amsterdam,
November 1984.
17.20 tntroduction of the EEMUA recommendations for the design & construction of liquefied gas storage tanks,
John de Wit - SIPM, Chairman EEMUA Tank Committee, Chairman BSI Tank Committee, API/BSI Conference, San Diego, May 1986.
17
.21
17.14 References
LNG storage tanks : Developments & key elements, C. B. van Liere - SIPM, LNG owners' seminar, Session lV : 1988.
17.1
17
J.A.Ward and R.S.HildreW LNG 1 Chicago 1968.

LNG tndustry-A retrospecfive, Sir Dennis Rooke, LNG 9. Nice 1989.
17.22 Developments in the standardisation of single, double
.2
17.3
17.4
Frozen Fire - Where willit happen next?, Friends of the earth, San Francisco, 1979, ISBN 0-913890-30-8.
BS 4741 : 1971 VerticalCylindicalWelded
and fult containment tanks for the storage of refrigerated liquef,ed gases, D. Dickie - Motherwell Bridge Projects Ltd, R. Long - Whessoe Pfojects Ltd, Gas Engineering & l\.4anagement, Vol 24, September 1989.
17
for Low Temperature Service: Single 312 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT ^
Wa
SteelTanks
Tanks for
.23 Cryogenic storage of liquefied gases (Pafts 1' 2 & 3)' Fritz Papmahl - Noell LGA, Hydrocarbon Asia, April,
Mav. June 1996.
te mqe
ntu rc storage
tan
ks
17
.24
NFPA 59, Utility LP-Gas Plant Code, 2001 Edition, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachu-
PGenoud (SN Technigaz) and N.Ketchell, R.G.A.Robinson (AEA Technology), LNG 12, Perth, May 1998.
setts.
17.25 NFPA 59A, Standard for the production, sforage &

handling of liquefied natural gas (LNG), 2001 Edition,
Nationalfire ProtectionAssociation, Quincy, l\4assachusefis.
17.29 Spherical skitt suppofted tanks for onshore LNG storage, lEinstabland (Selmer), E.H.Hektoen (Kvaerner
Brug), R.Schrader, (l\.4oss Rosenburg Verft), LNG 7 Jakarta May 1983.
17.26 French LT tank Code above-ground or semi-buried tanks for low pressure liquefied gases, guidelines for design and construction, Association technique de
I'industrie du gaz en France (AGT), Publication date unknown.
17
17.30 Preslressed concrete at cryogenic temperatures,

Eighth Congress of the Federation lnternational de la
Precontrainte, London
1
978.
.27 Comparative SafetyAssessment
of Large LNG Storage
17.31 Recommended practice for LNG in-ground storage, Japanese Gas Association, First published March
1979.
Ianks, R.Giribone (Bureau Veritas) and J.Claude (SN

Technigaz), LNG 11, Birmingham, July 1995.
17.32 Huit ans d'activite d'un stockage souterrain de GNL,

A.Benadi Chef du Service Camel Algeria, LNG 4, Algiers Juin 1974.
17.28 Quantifaction and Comparison ofthe Risks ofLNG Storage Concepts- Membrane and Full Containment,
314 STORAGE TANKS & EAUIPMEN+
18 The design of low temperature
tanks
A considerable part ofthe design procedure for low temperature tanks is based on the practices used for storage tanks for the containment offluids at ambient temperatures. These practices have been described in earlier Chapters. Where the different containment arrangements, lower
temperatures and higher pressures cause these procedures to require modification, these changes are discussed in this Chapter.
The Chapter is restricted to consideration of the following design Codes: API 620 Aopendix R API 620 Aooendix Q
BS 7777
prEN'14620
Contents:
18.1 General 18.2 Tank capacity 18.3 Shell design
18.3.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach 18.3.1.1 Hoop tension - liquid containing tanks 18.3.1.2 Nonliquid containing tanks 18.3.1.3 Axial comoression 18.3.1.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening 18.3.1.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings 18.3.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach 18.3.2.1 Hoop tension liquid containing tanks 18.3.2.2 NonJiquid containing tanks 18.3.2.3 Axial compression 18.3.2.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening 18.3.2.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings '18.3.3 The BS 7777 aooroach 18.3.3.'l Hoop tension liquid containing tanks 8.3.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks 18.3.3.3 Axial compression
1
18.3.3.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening 18.3.3.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings 18.3.3,6 Addendum to BS 7777 on partial height hydrostatic testing 18.3.4 The prEN 14620 approach 18.3.4.1 Hoop tension liquid containing metallic tanks 8.3.4.2 NonJiquid containing tanks 18.3.4.3 Wind and vacuum stiffening
1
18.3.4.4 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
18,4 Bottom and annular design

18.4.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach 18.4.'1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
18.4.'1.2 Nonliquid containing metallictanks '18.4.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach
18.4.2.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks 'l 8.4.2.2 Nonliquid containing metallic tanks
'18.4.3 The BS 7777 aDDroach
18.4.3.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks 8.4.3.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
18.4.4 The prEN '14620 approach
18 The design of low tempeftture tanks
18.5 Compression areas , 18.5.1Thd API 620 appRiddi

18.5.2 The BS 7777 approach 18.5.3 The prEN 14620 approach
18.6 Roof sheeting

18.6.1 The API approach (Appendices R and Q) 18.6.2 The BS 7777 approach 18.6.3 The prEN 14620 approach
18.7 Roof franreworks

18.7.1 The API approach (Appendiees R and Q) 18.7.afhe BS 7777 approach
'18.7.3 The prEN '14620 approach
18.8 Tank anchorage

18.8.1 The requirements ofAPl 620 Appendix R
18.8.1. 1 Liquid containing tanki q8.8.1.2 Non liquid containing lanks
18.8.2 The requirements ofAPl 620 Appendix Q 18.8.2.1 Liquid containing tanks 18.8.2.2 Nonliquid containing tanks 18.8.3 The BS 7777 reouirements 18.8.4 The prEN 14620 approach
18.9 Tank fittings

18.9.1 The requirements ofAPl 620 18.9.1.1 General reouirements of API 620 section 5 18.9.1.2 The particular requirements of API 620 Appendix R 18.9.1.3 The particular requirerhents of API 620 Appendix Q 18.9.1.4 The design of heat breaks 18.9.2 The reouireiTents of BS 7777 18.9.2.1 Outer container mountings 18.9.2.2 Inner tank and outer liqriid containing tank mounlings 18.9.2.3 Connecting pipework between inner and outer tank connections 18.9.3 The prEN 14620 approach
i
18.10 Suspended decks

18.'10.1 The requirements ofAPl 620
18.10.2 The requirements of BS 7777 18.10.3 The prEN 14620 approach
18.11 Secondary bottoms 18.12 Bottom corner protection systems 18.13 Outer tank concrete wall and bottom liners
I 8.14 Connected pipework 18.15 Access arrangeinents
18d6 Spillage collection systems

'18.17 Reinforced and prestrbsseu concrete Component design
'18.17.1 General 18.'17.2 Tank bases 18.'17.3 Tank walls
18.17.3.1 Above ground tanks 18.17.3.2 In{round tanks 18.17.4 Bottoni comor details
'18.17.5 The toD comer details
18.17.6 Tank roofs
18.18 References
1B The design of low temperature tanks
18.1 General
The design of low temperature tanks has evolved from the de-
. . . . . . .
Allowable subgrade loadings. Seigmic design criteria dictating tank proportions and slosh height. Site space constraints.
sign of tanks for ambient temperature service. In many areas the design methods are the same or very similar to the ambient practices. In these cases reference will be made to the earlier Chapters concerning the origins ofthe design methods and the derivations of the formulae used for ambient tanks. Where the low temperature practice differs from the ambient design methods, this will be described in ful There are a number of different codes covering the design of low temperature tanks in force around the world. The following documents will be considered:
The tank contractor's views on the most economical tank

aspect ratio. The performance limitations of the chosen in-tank pump (if useo). The elevation ofthe suction outlet connection (if used). Operational considerations concerning pumping rates and required response time intervals related to the various level alarms.
. . . r
API 620 Appendix R (for products down to -60 'F) API 620 Appendix Q (for products down to -260'F)
In order to help in sorting out this multifaceted problem, it is of-
B57777 (fot products down to -196'C)

prEN 14620 (for products down to -165 "C)
ten helpful to produce a sketch illustrating the various significant liquid levels. Such a sketch for the inner tank of a full containment LNG tank is illustrated in Figure 18.1. When the tank diameter is chosen, it is necessary to make allowances for the thermal contraction of the liquid containing tank. For metallic tanks the data provided in Figure 18.2 should prove helpful. For double-walled tanks, the diameter and height of the outer tank will be based on the chosen dimensions of the inner tank and consideration of the following:
There are Codes from other European countries (DlN and

AFNOR for example) but for reasons of simplicity and because these documents will shortly be replaced by the new European Code, they have not been discussed in dehil here.
There are also Codes which are no longer curreni, but have been important in the development process which has given rise to the existing regulatory documents. BS 4741, BS 5387 and EEN/UA 147 allfall into this category and will be mentioned
where appropriate.
The interspace width required. This willin turn be related to:
18.2 Tank capacity

Before the real calculations start, it is necessary to determine the main dimensions ofthe tank. The initial estimate ofthe tank geometry for a particular storage facility, is arrived at by considering a large numberofdifferentvariables. Amongst these are:
. . .
The wall insulation thickness required. Access for personnel to work in this area.
Access for resilient blanket and wall liner installation from suspended cradles.
The insulation hopper volume where loose fill insulants like perlite are used. Any requirements for the total impoundment volu me arising from regulatory Standards. Physicalspace requirements in the top corner ofthe tankfor roof insulation, internal runway beam access, etc.
. . .
The operating volume required.
Any planning constrainb on the tank height.

Any limitations related to the maximum discharge pressure of the pumps of ships discharging into the tank.
600 Tm min
n"Jn
B=400mm
I
)
provded by rhe choser rr-ranh purp sLpprel
C =Coresponds lo the lullopeEting volume (Volume between lowsl levelatfulllow pump down and maximum nomalopeEting level) D = Conespondsto X minutes flN at maimlm liquid import rate E = corespondsto Y mnltesflowat maxinum liqlid import te
F = CoffespondsioZ mnutesflowat maxirnum iquid inpoir rale G = min mum ireeboad (commony500 mm) D+E+F+G = height requ red to contain product wave due to arlhquake
Flgure 18.1 Miscellaneous innertank levels
1B The design of low
temperaturc tanks
l
)
,"1
Flgure 18.2 The thermal contraclion of lhe liquid conlaining lank
18.3 Shell design

This Section confines its attention to the design of the metallic shells of vertical cylindrical tanks. The material selection criteria are mentioned in passing in this Chapter, but are discussed more fully in Chapter 21. The design of concrete tanks of this form are dealt with in a later part ofthis Chapter As discussed in Chapter 16, these steel tanks may be single-skinned tanks or the inner and outer shells of double-walled tanks. These shells are the subject of combinations of the following loadings:
inner tank, the interspace purge gas pressure).
With the passage of time, tanks of double or full containment categories came to be required bythe industry Despitethe fact thatthe API Codes do not considerthese forms of containment within theirscope, the rules ofthe lowtemperature appendices are commonly used to design the metallic tanks ofdouble orfull
containment systems. API 620 Appendix R divides the various tank components into three different categories. The Code goes into some detail to ensure that the various components are categorised correctly. The categories are:
. . . . . .
Hoop tension caused by the maximum head of product liq-
uid together with any associated internal operating pressu re.
Hoop tension caused by the maximum test water head together with any associated internal test pressure.
Primary components. In general primary components include those components whose failure would result in leak-
age of the liquid being stored, those exposed to the

refrigerated temperature, and those subject to thermal shock. The primary components shall include, but not be limited to, the following parts of a single walltank orthe inner tank of a double wall tank: shell plates, bottom plates, knuckle plates, compression rings, shell manholes and
nozzles including reinforcement, shell anchors, piping, tubing, forgings and bolting. Roof nozzles in contact with the refrigerated liquid shall be considered primary components. Primary components shall also include those parts of a single wallor an innertank that are not in contact with the refrigerated liquid but are subjectto the refrigerated temperature. Such components include roof plates, roof manways and nozzles with their reinforcement, roof supporting structural members and shell stiffeners when the combined tensile and primary bending stresses in those components under design conditions are greater than 6000 lb/in2.
Axial compressive loadings caused by combinations of

self-weight, internal vacuum, external (i.e. interspace) pressure, wind loadings, snow loadings and insulation loadings. Axial tension loads caused by combinations of internal tank pressure and wind loadings (this is usually of little conseouence). Shell buckling loadings caused by wind loadings. Inner tank buckling loadings caused by external loadings arising from loose fill insulation systems, occasionally in
combination with internal vacuum and external (i.e.

interspace) pressures.
Various loadings arising from seismic events and their impact on the tank structure. These are dealt with separately in Chapter 26.
.
18.3.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach
When this Appendix was originally written, refrigerated tanks for the storage of products down to -60'F were only ofthe single containment category These would be either single wall tanks in contact with the product fluid or double-walled tanks where
the inner tank would contain the low temperature product (and in the case of flxed roof inner tanks, the vapour pressure as well). The outer tank would contain or supp@rt the insulation and contain the vapour pressure (or in the case of a fixed roof
Secondary componenls. Secondary components are

those whose failure would not result in leakage of the liquid being stored. Secondary components also include those components which are not in touch with the refrigerated liquid but are subiect to the refrigerated temperature vapours and have a combined tensile and primary bending stress under the design conditions which does not exceed 6000 lb/in2. Secondary components which could be designed within this reduced stress are roof plates, including roof manways and nozzles with their reinforcement, roof supporting structural members and shell stiffeners.
18 The design of low tempercturc tanks
Basic components. Basic comoonents are those that contain the vaporised liquefied gas from the stored refrigerated gas but primarily operate at atmospheric temperature because of insulation system design and natural ambient heating. These components shall comply with the basic rules ofthis Standard (API 620). Examples ofsuch components are the outer wall and roof of double wall tanks and roof components above an internally insulated suspended
decl(.
suggested that the Table 3-2 footnote 2 rules are followed, i.e. the lesser of 30% of the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength or 60% of the specified minimum yield point using the 0.92 quality factor where appropflate.
6. The allowabletest stress limits can be taken from Ta-
ble Q-3 or be based on the lesser of 85% ofthe specified minimum yield skength or 55% of the minimum specified tensile strength of the material.
The design point is at the bottom edge ofthe course under consideration and not 0.3m (or one foot) abovethis levelas permitted by BS 2654, API 650, BS 7777 and the new EN. The minimum thickness requirements are as usuala function of the tank diameter and are reproduced in Figure 18.5.
of the distinction between the various types of components is concerned with the material selection and the impact iest requirements. This subject is covered in detail in Chapter
l\.4uch
22.
18.3.1.1 Hoop tension
The following applies to liquid containing tanks, i.e. single-walled tanks, the inner tank of double-walled tanks where the outer tank is non-liquid containing and the inner and outer tanks of double-walled tanks where both the inner and outer tanks are designed to contain the product liquid. The basic formulae used are derived in the same way as has been described in Chapter 4, Section 4.7 for ambient tanks. lt is convenient to express them in the same form. Hence in metric units they become: alnararin^
to = nt ct
liquid containing metallic tanks
The radiographic inspection requirements given in paragraph R.7.6.1 for '! 00% radiography of all shell plate joints where the actual operating stress across the welded joint is greater than 0.1 times the specifled minimum tensile strength of the plate material (i.e. all vertical seams of liquid containing tanks), means that a joint factor of unity allowed by Table 5-2 ofAPl 620
(Figure 18.6) will always be applied. Forthe inner shells ofdouble-walled tanks, the addition ofa corrosion allowance is quite unusual. The combination of the low temperature and products which are benign from a corrosion Doint of view make the inclusion of additional metal unneces-
^.ea.
D
ZUDO
lgSwoHo +
Po
l+ ca
equ 18.1
sary. Ammonia tanks where stress corrosion cracking is a

proven hazard are a possible exception. The addition of material to the minimum calculated thickness to allow for future dressing out of surface cracking may be seen as money well spent. This is discussed further in Chapter 20.
Test case:
1,
Il
to to
L ' =20sr 196*, '

= = = =
11,
o, 1
equ 18.2
For single-walled tanks or the outer shells of double-walled

tanks the addition of a corrosion allowance to cater for the pos-
where:
''l-
to tj D Ho
shell thickness due to operating case (mm)
shellthickness due to test case (mm)

tank diameter (m) height from the bottom of the course under consideration to the highesi product liquid level (m) height from the bottom of the course under consideration to the highest test water level (m) lnote 1] maximum anticipated SG of product liquid but not less than 0.577 (equivalent to 36 lb/ff) SG of test water [note 2] maximum vapour pressure above the product liquid (mbar) lnote 3] test pressure (mbar) lnote 4] corrosion allowance (mbar) allowable stress for the operating case (N/mm'z) [note 5] allowable stress in the test case (Nmm'?) lnote 6l
sibility of external corrosion is not unusual. Un-insulated outer shells are particularly vulnerable atthe shell-to-bottom junction where rain water rnay pond and in the vicinity of external shell stiffeners. Good housekeeping in terms of regular external inspection and the maintenance of protective paint systems is self evidently a sensible precaution. 18.3.1.2 Non-liquid containing tanks
k)e )e
Hr = wo = wt = po = pi = ca = So = q =
3r
S,
)te s.
't-
)3.
rd
Paragraph R.5.3.2 allows single lap-welded or single-sided butt-welded shells wherethe thicknessdoes notexceed %" and double-sided buttwelds not having complete penetration orfusion, at any thickness for tanks not in contact with the vaporised liquefied gas. Clearlythe single-sided lap and butt welds should be made from the outside surface for reasons ofcorrosion prevention. Such tanks having fixed inner roofs are quite unusual these days. Paragraph R.5.3.1 requires a minimum shellthickness of %6" in this case. This is appropriate for very small tanks, but may lead to axial stability problems as the tank size increases. lt would seem wise to apply the methods described in Section 18.3.1.3 to ensure that a safe structure is specified.
Where the tank shell is in contact with the vaoorised liouefied gas, Paragraph R.5.3.3 requiresthe rules ofthe body (i.e. section 5) ofthe Code to be used. This means that the shell must be checked for hoop tension caused by vapour pressure and possibly any internal pressure due the loose fill insulation. The formulae given in Section 18.3.1.1 can be used and the allowable stresses shown in Figure 18.3. The minimum thickness requirements are again as Figure 18.5. Bear in mind that for outer tanks the level of radiography is no longerdictated by Appendix R and can be such as to require the use of a joint factor of less than unity. The relationship between joint factor and level of inspection is shown Figure 18.6.
'l
al
e
d e
Notes: 1. The maximum test water level is required by Paragraph R.8.3.3 of the Appendix to be equal to the maximum product liquid level. 2. Usually 1 .000 but in unusual cases could be sea water with an SG of up to 1.025.
.S
is
3. In the case of open-topped inner tanks this is zero. 4. Required by Paragraph R.8.4.1 to be 1.25 x
po.
)f
)-
8.3.1.3 Axial compression
5. Allowable operating stress limits illustrated in Figure
18.3 or in Figure 18.4. For non-APl listed materials it is
The behaviour of thin cylinders whilst subject to compressive loadings is an interesting subject in its own right. Agreat deal of
18 The design of low temperatute tanks
Spcciliod Minimum Spcci6cation (Scc Notc l)
Maximum Allowablc Tcnsilc Sucss for

Tcnsion. S,.
Tcnsilc Strcnqth
Gradc
Notcs
(lbf/in'21-
Yicld Polnl
(lbf/in.z1
(lbf/in.2, scc Notci2 and 3t
Platcs
ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
A 36
s8,m0
58.000
A I3I
4,5and6
B
36,m0 34,0m
34.000 34,000 30,000
r6,m0
r5.200 6,000 r6,000 | 5,200
r
A I3I
A13I
A 283 A 283 A 285 A 516 A 516
cs
c c
58,m0 58,m0
55,0@
4and5
4,5and6
@,(m
55000
55,000
33,0m 30,m0
30,000
| |
5,2@
6,500
55
16,500
1E,000
@
65
A 516
A 516
:
7 4
4
60,0m
65,000 ?0.0@ ?0.000
80,000
31000
350m
38,000 50,0@
t9J00
2r,000
70
A 537 A 537
573 573
Cla$ I
Class 2 58 65
'2t,m
24,000
@,0@
32,000
35,000
A A ASIM A ASTM A
58r00
s73
633
m
B
65m
?0,0@ ?0,000 65.0@
r6,0@
1E,000
CrdD
c
A
E
4a000
50,0@
r9,300
4snd7
19J00
r9.500 21,0@
ASTIYI A 662
40,00
43.0@ 50,0@
ASIlr,l A 662
ASTMA 678
ASTM A 678 ASTM A 73? ASTMA E4I CSA CSA
4ud8
4ard?
70J@
70,0@
E0,0@
60,m 50.m
37.?00 43,500
50,800
l9J@
22,1@
B Clas! I
4
?0J@
70J00
50,0m
21.0m 21o00
16,400
G4021-M 2Ow .nd 2@Wr C40.21-M 300w lnd 300wT csAG4o.2r-M 350W csA G40.2t-M 350WT rso 630 Ee75 Qurlfuy q D
tso 630
4
4 4 4
59Jm 65Jm
65300
69J@
61,9@ 72.0@
50,t00
37,000 48,J@
18,m0 18,0m 19200
l7,l@
19,600
8355 Quality C, D
PtF
ctrnlcS! API Spoc ASTr,l A ASTM A ASTM A ASTM A
5LB 138 106 B 106 c 333 l 3 ASTI{ A 333 6 ASTM A 333 I ASTM A 524 ASTM A 521 tl
A 281 Cr"dc C A 285 Gradc C
@,m0
60000
35m
35,000 35,000
l&0@
.18,000
@,00
70,m0 55J00 65.0m
r&0m
21,0@ 16,5m
40,0m
30,m
35,000
19J00
@,&0
55,000
t5,000
t8,m0
r6.500
30.m
Elccric-Fusion Wcklcd ASTM A I34 ASTM A I]4 ASTM A I39 ASTM A 67I ASTM A 67I ASTM A 6? I ASTM A 67I ASTM A 67I ASTM A 67I ASTM A 6? I ASTM A (t7 |
4,5and9
5and9
9
9 9
55.0@
55.000
30,0m
30.000 35.000
r2.lm
r1.200
60.@0
14.,fi)
t:r.200 | 4.400
cA55
55.m0
60.m,J 65.ffX)
rc.(m
:12.0m
cc60 cc65 cc?0

cD?o
cD8()
'lo.(m
t5.000
l5.({x)
r6.8(X)
7and9 7and9
70.fix1 80.(xxl
55.(XXl
t8.fix) 50.fin
$.u.x)
l{).00(l
l6.ltul
t9.!(xl
cE:5
CE({,
|.i.:(xl
l-l..llxl
({1.{xxl
l:.txxl
Figure 18.3 Maximum allowable stress values for simple tension - page
Frcn API 620, table
5-1
18 The design of low temperature tanks
'd
3)
Spc6ifrcatiort
(Scc
Spccifrcd Minimum
Noe l)
T.nsilc Srens|h
Orade Notcs
(lbflin.2)-
Vcld Pojnl
(lbf/in.z1
Maximum Allowable Tcnsilc Strcss for Tcnsion. S,.
(lbf/in.2, sc Nok;2 and
t)
Forgiogs
ASTM A IO5 ASTM A I8I ASTM A I8I ASTM A 350 ASTM A 350 ASTM A 350
60,0m 60,0m
?0,0@
10,m0
r0,000
36,000 30,000
E.000
LFI
LF2 LF3
t8.000 2 r.000
60,m 70,m
70,0@
Crstings
r&0m
2
36,m0 40,0m
r,0m
2!,0m
lrd bolthg
30,000
36,000 14,4{n
ASru A 27
ASTM A 36
60.30
For alcho. bolting
ASruA
193
ASTM A 30? ASTM A 307 ASTM A 320
B7 B for frngcs 8rd pflsturr parls B for lruc{l.rl

porB s|d
ll
ll ll
lo
12
ll ll lrd
60,000 58,000 125,0@
t5,3m
r05j00
55,m0
s5,000
,w
8,400 r5.000
rnctor
bolting
vt
l25pm
r05,0m
24,(m
Suqc-ln"l sh.p6 Rcsisting lnt (rlal Prersur ASTM A 36 ASTM A I3I ASTM A 633 ASr r A 992
4rrrd 6
4
58,0m
58,0@
36,000
,',A6
csA c40.21-M
cs^ c40.21-M
csA G40.2I-M
260W rnd 26OWT
3mw |rd 300WT

350W lnd 300wT
4.nd6 4lnd6
63,m 65,m
59J00 65300
69,600
34,(m 42.(m
50,0m
l5:m
t5Jm
4{rd6
4and6
37Jm
43,5@
50,800
l?,400 15200 15200
r52m
r5200
Notcs:
rtd limiradoru of rpocifioti,os tlquild by 42. tlFugh 4,6 shdl bc complicd with. Erc.p( for drcac 'rscs wlrt! ldditiond fdors or litlittrias rc |pplid 16 indicdld by trfcrcnclr io Notcs 4, 6, l0 |nd 12, rhc .llowsblc t!tl3ilc![!3s \|.lu(r gitttr in lhi! trblc for matlrid3 o{trr tllln boltiog rtcl l[c tlE lcasrr of (.) 30% of rhc rpccificd ninhum ulrimlc acnrilc stslngth f6 thc msr.{ial or O) 60& of $c spccifi.d minimultr yicld loiol 3._Ercspt whctr . joiot cfficic{tcy &crot is alrcady lrdc$d in 0|c.pccifcd allowlbh sallr vsluc. r' idicatcd by thE lrfctlnccs ro Nolc lO, or {llcrr d|c vrlur ofrvdcEdfncd in racord'r|c with 5.5.33. i! lcss rhln rlrc .pplicsblc joinr cffciqrcy giv.n in'ibblc 5.2 (ud 0rcnforc cficcb r grtx.r.duclion in rllowrblc rfrts th.n seuld lhc F&& rfficicrrctfldq, ifrpplicd), rhc ipccifica *ts rnluas for wtds in rslslon shrll bc multipllt by dlc rpplicrbk joinr cfficicrry lrctor, E, gircn in Trblc 5.21 'in 4. Swss valucs for strucrurtl qudity stc.ls inch& ! quality frdor ofo.92. 5. Platcs.M pip. shrll not bc rsrd in $iqkncss grcarcr thln l/. in. 6. St.q(r valucs arc limir.d ro rhosc for srccl thal hrs.n lltin|at. rcnrilc snrngth of only 55.000 lbf/in.l.
2.
l. All pcnircnt rnodifcrtioos
7.
lrss
than or cqual ro 2ll2 in. thickncss.
8, Lrss than o.
usc 10.
9. Stcsr valucs for
cqllll to I l/2 in. $ickncss, fusbn-s'cldld pipc includc a wcldcd-joifl cf,icicncy fsdor of O.m (rcc 5,23.3). Only strrighr"srrm pipc shall hc oscdi thc of spiral.scam pifrc is prohibicd.
a
Strc$ vllucr for cr"slings irrlude

Sc( 5.6.6
qualiry f|cror of0.80.
ll.
this
f2.Affowahlcsttd$shascdonSectionvllloftltcASMEBoifu..1PtI.tturryrrrclCrrdcInullinhcdhythc.atioof0rdc\rfnstrc\\tiKr(rrsn! rlandld rnd Secraon Vl | | ot rhc ASME (i'dc. niJrnlctv 0 lt!{).ti
: !ure
18.3 lvaximum allowable stress values for simpte tension - page 2

5-1
-..m APl620, table
The design of low temperaturc tanks
Spccid Minimun ASTM
Allov$L Stcsr
DrsiSo
sFcifa.|bns
TcoiiksrEngltt
PlatcandSEua all
Yi.:ldstittlth
Mat art
A 353 A 553.Typc
A 645
lm.mo
I
t5,m
85,m 65.m
3t,?@
t00,0m
95S0
423d
A 240, TyF 304 A24o,qpc 304L
?5,m
700m
r4,0q,
o$o
25,000
22,s
18,750
NM n-w
4J(D
8550
Alby m34 E aD,Alloy 5052{

209,
t5S
5000
3,750
95m r8.$0r t4,06

,0m
7,t00
B 209,Altoy
5m'0
4),m3
35,m0
t3J00r
10J00
r6rtr
12,6m
9,9@
B.Ulg,Allot 506&0
E 209,
B
Alby 5154.0
30,m
'12@3
8r50
209,ltby 5456-0 22l,Alby 3(xl3{

5052
19,0s
r4pmr
3,?f,1
l?.rG
4Jm
I
B
l4,m
25,000
39,000
I22l,Alby
rJm r0@
16.m0
?r00
9,m
l4/@
r1600
9,9d) r?.1@
22l,Alby 563-0
12@
B 221, Alhy 5086'l) E 22l.llby 515{4 E 221, B 221,
35.0m
30,0@
140s
rtrs
t0,s)
83Cl 13.fl0
Nhy 5456{ Nloyr 6(}61-T,l.dT6

d)6l-T4
4Lm
24.m
l9@
8Jm
l0,m ro@
rodlt
UN
PlFinS |nd
8@
lbbht
75,m
?5,0$
30.0m
25.000
A33f,Gndc
t
TP,
l00nm
A 33l,Grdc 8
A 213.
t00,m
Bpc 304
3O4L
ond.
75,(m
70000
22Jm
27S0
22Jm
A 2 t3, Cndc
TP,lYF
t&7$
A 312" C,t!d. TP,
DT. l04c A 3la GndcaP,BF 304Lc

A 35& G(!d.
B 210.
3O4.
75s
?0,m
75.0(I) r4.0(D
1!@
25p00
nfi
r&7x)
2?.m
zlj00
2?IID
4.500 4.500
c1|cr I
Alloy 3303.0
1r@ 5.m
5rq)
tffi
3.750
B 2 10, Alby B 210. Alloy
ml-H
5052{
I 12
14.(m
25.(tro
35,000
togn
14p0or
11,000 10,000
3.?50 ?_aD
etm
MO.
Alloy :i086{) 2 | 0. Alloy 5154{}
o-lh
8,250
r]Irn
9p00
9,000
!or(I)
25,m
39.0m
0 Xl.Alloy 5052-0 tl :.1l. Alk'y 5{|[|1'0
7500
1q00o
u,000
140oo
Figure '18.4 Msximum allowable stss values - page
From API 620, table @3
temperature tanks
Strcss vatuc
(tbflin.r)
Allowablc Stress Dcsig|l r0,500 9.000 r3,650
12,600
SF.ial Minimum
ASTM Spccificatioos
B 24l,AUoy B
Tccrilc
Strenglh
Yicld Srcngh
r4.000
$86{
35,000 31,000
24l,Alloy 5454{)
1e000
B 241, AUoy 5456-0

B ,1,14 (UNS-1.I06625), GrJdc I B ,144 CJNSnm6625), Grdc 2 619 (UNS-N10276), Ct si lc
41.0@
120,000 100,000
t9.m0
60,000
t0,800 17.r00 54,0@r 36,m01
40000
40,mof 30,mof
rm,mo
100,000
4to@
41,000
B 622
(t NS-NlOtr6)
30J5d 30J5d
36,90d
36,900f
Forging:
A5n
A A
B
182, C,rad! 182,
lmpm
F,'IYpc
75,000 30,000
3&
304L
?5,000 65,000
1,1,000
&r& F, lYF
22,fi
18,750
2?O00
25,0@
5,000 16,000
22fi
4J00
t4,400
B 247,
ZT,Aloy 3003-Hl12 Aloy 5083-Hl 12 Modd
3qm
Bolting.
3,750 12,0m
2l l, Alloy 606l-T6 (sfi..io+arddtcd .od B81)

320
42,m
35!O
lojm
cn&
88, BgC, B8M
s3h'.f,r
r25,m
lm,od)
80,(m
65,000
30,m0
>%-1in.
> lt/4
>l-l[4i&
- lrzir.
lt5.m
105,@0
26tro
2r,m0
16.000
r00,@0
50,(m
A 320 (rolutiotr{r.lFd rrd r,}ao c&ldcd)

Grrdcs 88, BtM,
!frin+{d.d
gradcs
rd
BAFdI riz6
75,(m
30,000
r5,m0
Nob8: rThc alloq[blc rEErsls for thcsc tDfirdrb rtr bssad oo thc lowcr yiald rnd Ensilc lErhgth of thc wEld firral or baJc mct l, s3 drl.F ldncd by Q.6.1, .rd *l. d!6ign rulcs in Q.3J2. Thr Einimum mc.surcd tcoiilc s@o8lh rhalt be 95,m0 lbf n.2 and mhimum mcrlu|ld yickt ilrryth shdt bc 52,500 lbflir2. The maximrm p.rnidcd vrluca !o bc uscd fo. dcr.rminin8 rhc illow.btc ar.ss arc 100,0m bffurz. for r.nsilc slr.ngor rnd 5&OOO lbflin.z for yicld itrrnglh,
DBascd oo tha
95.0@
Fi
nrd
yicb and Gtt$iL atEnglh of lhc wrld nEtrl, rs dctlnnind by Q.6.1. Thc oinimum rncssu.cd r.arsile rtcng$ shall dr odnirun mc-aru.ld yi.ld rltngrh shall bc 52J00 lbf/rn.l.
a
be
qior u/clding pipint or tubing.

with 5.23.3.
joi
.ffici.rra of 0.80 shall bc spplicd lo tlrc .llorJablc suts.s for longiMind Fir{s in accordancc
maiimum tmsilc
and
(rnE
dcaignalion Mod rcquitts li.ntu of B 209, Alloy 50814.
thar lhc
yicld srcngrh ard lhc rnioirnum clong.rion of lhc marcrial conform |o rhc
gThcs. allowablc
$rc$ vrluer arc for ma(crials ihickness
lo
k eit blistEd pcr Q..1..r.1
up ro end irKkrding
-5
ir.
hr
rhicknBr ovcr L5 in.. atlow$lc srrcrs vrh|!\ arc
usiog ASTM dara of lcnsilc (ul(matc) and yic'd srftngrh Jor rhcsc Crad!:t.
tNor ro bc rrscd fo. op.ning rqinforccmcnr whcn
uI!{
with A:151. A
jsl.
nnd A
64i.
Figure 18.4 Maximum allowable stress values - page 2
Frcn APl620, table Q-3
18 The design of low tempercture tanks
ca
(fr)
corrosion allowance (in) radius if tank wall (in)
Noninal Plate Thickness (in.)

3116
R=
S"" =
25 >25-60 o0- 100 ,00

< Frcm API62A,bble 5-6
This converts almost exactly to the following in metric unib:
ta
5ro
12.5(t
ca)/R
equ184
r,r
where:
Figure 18.5 Tank radius versus nominal plaie thickness
theoreticaland experimental work has been done in this area
The ability of a thin cylinder to resist axial loadings has been

shown to be related to numerous variables, amongstwhich are:
S* t ca R
= = = =
allowable compressive stress (N/mm2)
sheltthickness (mm)
corrosion allowance (mm) radius of tank wall (m)
. . . . . .
The cylinder diameter The cylinder length The cylinder wall thickness The material of construction The degree of imperfection in the cylindrical shape
When the local axial stress is primarily due to a moment in the shell, then the allowable compressive stress may be increased by 20%. Where the bending ofan empty orfulltank is caused by wind loads or the bending of an empty tank is due to seismic loadings, then in addition to this 20% increase, the allowable compressive stress may be increased by an additional one third.
For butt-welded shells, the joint factor used in compressive
Any co-existent internal or external pressures to which the cylinder is subjected The relationship between these variables is complex. One attempt to summarise this situation is shown in Figure 18.7.
A design Code has to reduce this substantial body of work to a relatively simple set of easy to use rules and this is what API
stress calculations shall be taken as unity irrespective of the exlap-welded shells, the joint factors to be used in compressive stress calculations shall be tiaken from Table 5-2 of API 620
tent of inspection of that joint. In the now unusual case of
An anecdote from the author's experience may be of interest at
this point. A 50,000 m3 capacity LNG tank was being con-
620 has done.
Axial compression loadings on cylinders take a number of
forms. One is a uniformly distributed loading around the periphery of the cylinder due to such loadings as self-weight, roof loadings and insulation loadings. Asecond is non uniform loading, usually distributed as a bending load due to wind or seismF cally induced loadings (note again that the seismic loading is not discussed here in detail but is dealt with in Chapter 24) A third loading is a point load applied at a specific point located on the periphery ofthe cylinder. The tank design Codes are not ex-
structed in the south ofthe United Kingdom some 25 years ago' A somewhat unusual erection technique was being used The outer tank was being erected by the conventional jack building method. However, the open-topped inner tank was suspended from the outer tank roof and constructed from the top downwards. Bythis means a single set ofjacks could be used forthe building of both tanks. During the finaljacking operation the entire weight of the inner tank was being supported by the outer tank shell. lt was noticed at this ooint that the two minimum thickness upper outer shell
actly forthcoming regarding this last loading and the way in whi;h a point load is fed intothe structure is leftvery much to the
courses had developed the pre-buckling lozenge pattern' Needless to say this was recognised as being towards the
"hairy end" of the scale and the load was rapidly jacked down
designer. Fortunately such loadings, caused perhaps by local attaChments for stair\/vays or pipe supports, are usually small when compared with the other loadings applied to these tanks and this fact should be reassuring for the designer'
In general the various loadings are considered to be applied to emptytanks asthis is the worstcase For those tanks which can be subject to liquid loadings, the internal pressure is found to stabilise the tank shell and increase its resistance to compres-
onto supports. Later unpicking of the loads and stresses involved for these tvvo courses revealed that the applied compressive stress was close to the limiting value ofequation 18 3' Agreat deal ofthe research work in the area of buckling of cylinders has been preformed on small scale specimens, but here was a full-size specimen complete with real construction defects such as locked-in stresses and deviations from the true theoretical shape. An increasingly dim memory suggests that the outer tank shape was not good. Nevertheless, this experience serves to reinforce the beliefthat the limiting stress given by equation 18.3 should be taken seriously 18.3.1.4 wind and vacuum stiffening Forthe wind and vacuum stiffening of single-walled tanks or the outer wall of a double-walled tank, reference ls made to Paragraph 5.10.6 ofAPl 620. This provides rules for the number and aize ofthe wind stiffening required for a vertical cylindrical shell' These rules are essentially the same as those for ambient tanks described in ChaPter 4.
sive buckling. The exception to this is the seismic design case for full tanks where the axial loading is a function of the liquid level within the tank and this is dealt with in Chapter 26 Although not entirely in accordance with the letter of Paragraph 3.5.4 ofAPl 620, it has been common practice to use the allowable compressive stress from Paragraph 3.5.4.2 which assumes that there is no co-existent hoop tensile or compressive stress. This is sensible because for outertanks the tensile hoop stress due to internal pressure is modestand known to stabilise the tank. For inner open-topped tanks' there is no co-existent hoop tension and compressive stresses due to the loose fill insul;tion system are also low. As it is very unusual for a tank shell to have a ft ca) / R of more than 0.00667, then the allowable axial comdressive stress is given by:
The maximum unstiffened height of the tank sidewall is given

by; Hr = 6(100t)
loor)3
s"" = 1,800,oooKt ca) /R]

where:
equ 18.3
-l
equ 18.5
where allowable compressive stress (lb/in'?) shell thickness (in)

n1
s""
t
maximum unstiffened height of the tank shell (ft)
8.4
Basic Typc of Joinl
Limirations
Joid
Maxim0m Joiflt Efficiency
Emcicncy
(%)
Radiographcd (%:
(Sce Notc
I
sce
Notc 2)
100
me
;ed
by
nic
0te
)ne
nunPin$. auainca other mcans appov.d by lhe porchascr,lhar roofs abovc liquid willobtain th. quality ofd.positcd trcld on thc insid and oubid. wcld surfaccs lftar agrces with $c rcquircmcnls of PaDgraph Roofs abovc liquid lev.l, UW-15 in Scction VIII of thc ASME C.rd.: x/clds using mctal backing sldps Uat rcmain in plec! arc crcltrdcd.
melal
lcvcl.
Full
(sce
Nore 3)
7o
?5
spo,
Full (!cc
't0
85 100
Nor! 3)
Spot
FUU
ive
3X-
Singl.-wddcd boujoint with backing srrip or couiwlcnt o{hcr than thosc includd !bo\,L
of
ive L
Singlc-c,cldcd bun joint witfi out
Longitudinal or nEridional cilclrmlcrcmr or lati tudinali)i s bctwcar plater not rnorr than I r/4 in.lhick nozzlc attachmcnr *EtdiDg without thiclnass limitatioo.
Roofs abow liquid lcvcl.
75
(r.c
85
Notc 3)
?0
10 70
JPwr
Full(sc!
Nozzla 4tachfircnt
"_-.
70
)n-
wcLfing. &d.quivak
of
or ladEdind iobts
Nor4 3)
;i
70 70
backing No& 4).
rt ip,
LnShudinal
(sc. Notc 5)
or
lo.
he ng ed he
Dolble full-fillct lapjoint (scc
tn ridionrljoinls
cirflrnfcdlial
ptatcs nor rnorc ard 3,/8 h hickj;inrs shall not 6c uscd for longibdintl or mcridionaljoints Ihat {rc p(ovisioru of5.12.2 icqui.c to bc butt-r,6ldcd
*twcco
this
tyF
OtlEr citcurnfcfiotial oa latildinal ioints bct*Ecn platcs not morr thro 5/8
Singlc
ler
ed ell 'n.
ne
full-fllct lapjoint
(scc Nolc 4).
or m.ridionelilints ltld ci.cumfcr- 35 cflial or lariurdi&ljoiots bctwan phtas rbl
in-thiclc
6s
65 35
lr$giMinal
norc drao
bc nscd for lodgiudinal or Dcridiood joinrs tlui thc Fovisions of 5.12, rcquir wh.r! rhc rhirutc{
,8
in
lhickFinB of
this
tyF sh.ll nor
plalcjoincd cxc.Eds r/4 irl"

Sioglc
JOmts
flu-filkt
lrp joints for hcrd-ro-noz.lc
nL nre
Nozztc-anachndt
fi
llct w.lds
8n*hlnanl ofhadJ convx to pcssurc morc lhsD 5/8 in rcquid lhickncss, o{ y wirh use of lh. fillc{ wcld on rh! i$idc of tlF 0o2dc. AlrchrEnt wclding for nozzlcs and thch rcinforccmcnts,
For
nol
35
(lscludcd in
thc sftngh factors io
3.16.8.3)
Plt g rrcldr (scc 5.245)
e-
Attachmcnt wclding for nozzlc (scc Notc 6).
rdnfo.t
mcnB
80
80
te
1| . Scc 5.26 ard ?. | 5 for d.mimdofl rcodrcnrcnts. 2. Rc8rtdla$ of any vducs givcn in ftis colunul. thc cfiicicncy for htrwcldcdjoinls bcrwcco plar.s wilh surhc.s of dorbtc cunarur. thar have a compfli$vc iE-css acro6.r llrc jolnl lrom a ncgativc taluc of P. or otlEr cxtcmal l@dinr nrav bc rakc$ as unitvl such comorcssirc vrass shalt nol rcccd 700 lbfto r, Fot 3ll othrt ltpwcldcd joint!. tllc joid cmcicrrcy facror musr bc appliid o rrr atlr,rattc coriprcssira sriss. Thc cflicrcncy for furl. pcn tmllon D|rn'wclddt romtr. khich arc in comprccsion adDrs !h. cntirc thickEss of rhc conE rcd plar.s. may bc t in as unit v All ruin butl.wcldcd joints t scc 5.26.1.2) dbll bc complcrcly radiogr.phcd as sFcifi.d in ?. 1 5.1 fid .ozzlc and ninforccmcnr hchmcnt wckl. $arr bc c,(amrncd by rh magftdc.paniclc mcrhod rr srfciftd in ?.15.2. 'nE 4. Thictocss hmrrarions dr not appty ro llat borlomr supfDncd unifomty ona dation.
tn
\,.
te
a-
ld
it.
J Fo. thc poro$s affh lable.3 circumfcrcn[al or laritudii.l ioins shallb. considercd suhiccr ro rhe samc rcouir.nEnrs and limiullionl !s arc k,n. gitudtnolor m$idionalroint\ shcn $rch a circumt rcorial or lainudinaljoinr is locarcd(ar sttuncal. lori slhcricalor Lllips{ndrl .hrltL n I'r ';a irnd c.rlindricai sidcw l s. t|s ;tnsidcnd in j. .1 ofc. slrlic. of doublc curvlrur. lbr ar fc iuncrion hctwcrn l Looicat o; dishcd rmf &v thrron Itt it r rimilariuncruru at citbLr cnd of I i;nsiion sccrioo or rducc. ls sh(sn in Figuft 5.9
fo
o [
6''.|'.d0icDnc!l]tctGis|towt|ir|i||c|wd|ds!ndph'!lwt|dsi'.n(i|lC)t|p
nt
In
: jJre
:'.n
18.6 lL4aximum allowable efiiciencies fof arc-wetded joints
APl620, table 5-2
18 The desian of low lemperaturc tanks
flgt re :l
0.6
',iil
i-l
.f...:.::::
0.5
_; *:: l-* ;
'ny'R\ il i'i .E\TI

j::-:
,?0-: :
.
-'r' 'ir:i.
:,-i .rl
f.:
't0
':
04
K
0'3
.'|': l:+Ili-:
: , l.T:i-:i
l
i.-r
l:i :
ii
tt l,i
'::
.:,;ll; i,
ii- ,.
I
':
ttt
i:li$|++ ilt;
'l_l : i:i.1l-::
0.1
I
!r i.
t-i i ;. ':i I l.<-
r;t.
i+
i
rli i
!i_
I.jil:r:
:t
L:l
ti
:l
j-r,I.i ';:li
;iiij
I
-l illl ill
i.l.;i i*
i:li.i.;-1
rlr:.-.*
ir ]+:;-:-l:l
i
i,rir..l.l
r:
'i:.t.
iU,
i:l1i;lil
il
.:l
'i:1.
ili:irlf, r;i;t; ::l Ti 6i,: i:l

tt:i ,i.i
i: I .l.i il
:i'1
:iriiill;l
riil'-'.-
l.i: ri:i i:1 | til i t-l- i,- '. tOl,-:il

l.ll r i-',
iii
:-:l:,
i:i,ili;i
Figurc 2
A=M.an lln.
Efecttoe\
t.rdtt C, C=ll|nltr lor .ll t.tultr

of
I, B= Ltdltt for
E0 Pol cnl
0.10
04.01.01-NorE.
EXTERNAL PRESSURE
ie. E\: )
<o.
tlis
B'rcklinS mey occur uDder- ex_ t ma,l Dresaure aloDe at rower

oressurei tban indicated bY
o0l
t00
bata Sheet io tle long wavelength mode covred bY Data sbeet 04.09.01. Tberefole in external oressufe ca!c6 the strD8tb -ol tle ivlinder rhould elao b cneckeo \riitrr Date Sheet 0l 09 ol'
R
t
1
Daceitbet 1963
axial pressure - page Llnstiffened circular cylinders under combined Figure 18.7 Buckling stress coefflclents for tirn-walled Sheet no 04 01 41 From Royal Aeronautical Society Structunl Data
t D
Notes:
1.
= =
thickness ofthe top course ofthe tank wall (in) [note 1] tank diameter (ft)
The Code states that the thickness used shall be the
04.0t.01
BUCKLING STRESS COEFFICIENTS FOR THIN.WALLED
UNSTIFFENED CIRCULAR CYLINDERS UNDER COMBINED
"as ordered" thickness unless otherwise stated. This

means that for tanks where a corrosion allowance has been soecified. it is the uncorroded thickness that shall be used. Clearly if the designer, owner or other interested parties feel that the added security of having a stiffening system based on the corroded shellwould be beneficial, then there is provision to allow this, but the onus is on these parties to demand this change. 2. This formula is based on the following:
The design wind velocity (V) is 10q mph which imposes
AXIAL COMPRESSION AND INTERNAL PRESSURB
-,
l-le.gth
R
(s.cona
of = radius of
ke6 ld! t*)
cylild.l (i!.) c/iider (in.)

(in.)
,= tlid.ncss of cylind.r warl (iaJ o=llaximun inw&d initial iffsula.ity -E= Youos.'s nbdurus 0b./in.) {-buck$ng strss co.frcinr dd!.d
t'=critiel
,- iitcmd
ple3urc 0b,/i!.') codpr$sivb sttB (lb./inj)
a dynamic pressure of 25.6 lblf(. The velocity is ini=rr

(r/R)
by
The cuns on Fislr. r 6ay be Bed to dcrcdine rle brcklinE sr.6 co.f6ciet5 for thin-eau.d un.tj-ffnd ci@lar cytinder3 uader @obin;d djal comprBioa and irt.rnal pcsurc. The buaklins 3rlB @effidst K i3 plotted.sainst 6/r ror var;ous value or thc palme@r (lrlE) (Rl)r. The dclrh 3 of initial nr.glladriB i! one of rhe D.inciDal faclorc a{erinE rbe buckling str6s of circular cyliddeE. Dispcitiod ofiuch i.rcsalerideJ ba! ben panly tAkcn into a@unr by thep.rticular d.6nidod 6dopted tor 6, i,., tne maxidun inward irregula.iry of the surfa@ of rhe cylinde. from arv slraicbt edg. placed in an axial phnc. Appreciabte vanatioi in buckri'q si;ess dirsr stiu bc expered for cyij^deB haling tnc aame 3/r rclio but wi{h di8snlly shaped ed difcrcndy l@ted inidal i.r.Autari!$. h h.lways dificuh to irreprer actulnsur@ots of i(egularities, Some gu;ddce or the vatues of 6 fdr uee who etjnaLine tte bickti@ strese of qylioders f rch Fignrc r ;s given in Flgurc :. Tle dr;es or Figw ; bave len deriv.d Iron experimental r6ulrs, etr@rive vatues of 5/r b.ios obrained b! wo.ki.g back lrcm Ficur. r. The rers on which tle cu.i6 ar.-bar.d @vcrcf a wide raoge of date.iah abd cylinder 3izcs and. saner b.nd is show!; cuNc A i3 the de linc dnwn rbrough rle elperimenral poinls, [ns B, B, liow thc lidirs for eigbry per cenrol rhe rults and lines C, C, show the limirs for all the tuult!. lt i5 beliq.d rl.( by u6ios t!$e cun6 a rc*onabtr 6rimaie of rhc ndufactu.ing inaeuraci* wjlr 6e obrained for use iD d.ttrhidng rle buckling srr6s of cyund.E under .xial @hprgsion aud irrer!.1 pre$ure rrom ! !gur. r, on Fislre , thc cude ror (t/E)(Ri is {or $e es of toadids u.der 'f =o pre$urc iE !o redua rhl inir'61 a:ial @mpe3ion alone. Tb efect of incrnal iiregularitie in rhe crlinde. and hence to lncrease (h huckline srre$ walurs of.(?/E) la/4r giv rheefr*t or cxte..d tr6sure. coefhciert. "Nts*iv!
lhe orde. o! th.se elfecrs is:ndi@red by ihe dotred cuwes. Tn curu6 are appli@ble obly to cyl,ndec whcre tllR): )' :{ lrr F), bur rhd may be used to deremin. rh buckling srras of dng{risened cyiinaqs if i js rakeD 4 $e distance btrw.en two rinss and dre above ondjrron k fu$ued. For slDrter c/Undss .ne bucklirg srr-s will be hgher Lhan tlat given by
creased by 10% for either height above the ground or gust factor. The pressureîs thus increased to 31.0 lb/fr". An additional 5.0 lb/f is added to this for internal vacuum (5.0 lb/f is equivalent to a vacuum of approximately 1.0" water gauge). lf the design is to cater for anotherwind speed specified by the customer, then tl'!e value of H1 can be adjusted by multiplying by (100iv)' . Theformula can be similarly adjusted to cope with wind velocities which are expressed in terms of wind pressure rather than velocity and for other levels ofvacuum.
The background to this is based on the work of

Mccralh ( Refere nce
1
8.
To take account of the differing thicknesses of the tank shell courses, the shellmust be transposed to an equivalent shell, all
of the minimum or upper shell course thickness using the following relationship:
wt.
where:
Ir w.i rlrlrq
I L 'acruar
r--''- lI
equ 18.6
tunrom
Cox and P{r!RAx. Th Eimenrs of th. Bucklins of Cufred plat6. loudal olrhe Rotdt A.o@stn:at Sociar, Sptdber rta.
Compd3io6 ud lrrerDal Pcsulc. N.A.C,A. Rclorr !ozi, tqst. FunG and S3a!R. Buc&tina or Tii!-walr.d Ci@td CvnndcF uoder Compcsion .nd Iarernat Prusurc. Jddd of r,,. A.@tu;tknr Sci.@es,
thickness ofthe top sidewall course (in), as ordered, unless otherwise specifled lsee Note 1 abovel thickness of the sidewall course (in)forwhich the transposed width is being calculated, as ordered, unless otherwise specified actual course width (ft) transposed course widh (fr)
Cox. Unplblisbed rork, Lo, CurE and ScEwdrz.
t"d,"r =
Bucjkline of Thin-Watled Cvtinder undir Aaial
A,xiar
H^nRB m Thc stabiliry of Thin-waLd UNdfiocd Cir.utar Cvtind* ^1. ubde. Axiel Compesio! I.cludirg rhe Efct3 of tDt mal prssurc. jor@t ol t^6 Aero@uficat Augu3t 1957,
W = Wr =
'.toq.r,
To find tbe buc&ling
6rs of
a cylinder under @mbided axial
oopcsion
R=18
snd ,=ro.o lb./in,'
itr., t-0.036 in,, l-t8 jr., E-rox!o.
tb./in.,
The sum of the transposed widths gives the total height of the transposed shell. lf this height is greater than the value of Hj calculated from equation 18.5, then one or more intermediate wind girders must be added to stabilise the shell.
(l/x),=r.o a.!d ,5 {t/R)=o.os; lhcrcfore (t/.R}'> .s (r/R). R/t=5@ ed, f6h cwe A of Flgure ,, 3/r-o.15. (r/E) (R/r)r=o.,s dd, kom Fisurc t, x-o.ao.
A cylinder of muc! l* rld averaao *snda'd of manufacrure in l.fts of lhe magritud. of its cylirdriel inpcrt@liols, misht bav. ar cfi@tive t/t of o.95 (upp.. C li* on Fig!rc ,). Suc! a cyrindt would have . huch t;wer
If lf
H1
>
qurred
W, then no intermediate wind stiffeners are re-
Thcforc lb=8,@ lb./in.r
H1 < >W, <2Hr then one intermediate wind stiffener is reourred
or orly o.oo9 0d.i C ltn on FiEw ,) .!d beyc a buckliE !rG! & _rr.,@.1b./io.r The po$ibiury ol3!ch variariols i. bucklilg dtr;s must b.
It is
buckliqg srcs rh6 rhat titut d abovc j ia woutd bc <,4oo lb. /io.' Ukewis a crlinder of much geare. cyli.dril p.rfetiod misht;;hie. an .f,etive 6/r
lf 2H1 < I Wr <3H1 then two intermediate wind stiffeners are reoutreo
Etc.... generallyagreed that the spacing between the wind stiffeners should be equally pitched on the transformed shell as faras is oossible. This is efficientdesign. lt provides the maximum shellstability in that all of the unstiffened parts of the shell are equally stable. The stiffeners may be attached to either the inner or outer surfaces of the shell and must not be located within 6 inches of a horizontal welded seam.
:;-.e
-::rs
!ndercombined axialpressure - page 2
18.7 Buckling stress coefficienis for thin-walled unstiffend circular cyl-
-'.-
Royal Aeronautical SocieE Sttuctural Data Sheet no. 04.01.01
The required minimum section modulus of the intermediate

18 The desian of low tempercture tanks
Tank shell
quired for the stairway, then the opening shall have the same minimum section modulus as the stiffener itself This is described further in ChaPter 4. The stiffening ring itself can be a structural section or be fabricated from plate. ln this case the joint between web and flange may be an intermittent weld on alternate sides'
One rathole of minimum radius0.75" shallbe provided ateach
itiffener crosses vertical shelljoints This detailis shown in Figure 18.9.
ioint between stiffener sections and at each point where the
All fillet welds shall consist of a minimum of two passes The ends of the fillet welds shall be 2" fromtheedgeof therathole as illustrated, and these welds shall be deposited by starting 2" from the rat hole and welding away from the rat hole An acceptable alternative to stopping the fillet welds 2" short of the rat hole is to weld continuously through the rat hole from one side of the stiffener to the opposite side All craters in the flllet welding shall be filled bY back welding.
Anv ioints between sections of stiffener shall be made such that
area or the shellto be included in the wind siirr-
5i9ru"13"tJ[:,33""F"tins wind stiffener is given by the following equatron: Z = O.O0O1D'H, where: equ 18.7
tne minimum required moment of inertia of the combined

shell/stiffener shall be maintained
Welded joints between adjacent sections of stifiener shall be made with full thickness complete penetration butt welds The use of backing strips is permitted. 18.3.1.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings For double-walled tanks where the thermal insulation system consists of a loose fill material (usually perlite) in association with a resilient blanket (usually glass fibre)' the insulation system imposes an external pressure on the outerface ofthe inner tank. fhis mechanism is described further in Chapter'19 The
i
I
Z = minimum section modutus of the stitfener (in3) and the Participating shell The participating shellwhich may be included in the calculation of the sectlon modulus on the stiffener' both above and below the point of attiachment is given by:
to =
1
I
I
external pressure is at its maximum value when the tank is
.a7[Dt1',
equ 18.8
peemDtv and warmed up to ambient temperature following a
magnir.iod in lo* t".p"tutuie service The evaluation of the tude of the insulation component of the loading is also disin Chapter 19. ln the case of inner tanks with fixed roofs' the insulation loading can be increased by the mostpessimistic
where:
iuiied
lp
length of the participating shell (in) (see Figure 18.8)
Where tanks arefitted with spiralstairways and thewind stiffening is to be fitted to the outside of the tank shell, stiffeners extending up to 6" from the outer surface of the shell plate with stairwiys of at least 24" nominal width are permitted wlthout modification. For stiffeners which are widerthan 6", a minimum
lf the unobstructedwidth of stain/ayof 18" mustbe maintained reis the stiffener in stiffener is of such a width that an opening
combinations of interspace pressure and inner ianl( vacuum' The Code does not give any guidance for the design of a suitable shell stiffening system. Adesiqn methodology which has wide acceptance in the indus(Refertry is b:ased on the work of L.P Zick of Chicago Bridge modifiminor with republished been has This work eice 78.2). cations in a publication by the American lron and Steel lnstitute most recentiy revisedin 1gg2 (Reference 18 3) and it upon this
Con nu@sfr|e|EE
(s*a
3 s)
i" I r l
Jornt
r"
rr-i,..
r,rt.
"
Fgure 18.9 APl620 - Shell slrffenet
deta'ls
.ne
:.:
:re following is based. This document gives design meth-
te9nrge
- : -:'or three d;fferent types ofvessels and loadings. lt is Type C - :'r is most appropriate for storage tanks ("Storage Tanks of -:'ie Diameter Subject to Radial Loads Only, ot Small Vacu, -: Wherc the Axial Load is Negligible").
half of the distance from the centre of the stiffener to the centre of the next stiffener on the other side (or to the top or bottom of the shell) (in). This is the part of the shell supported by the stiffener and this is illustrated in Figure
18. 10
rch
lne
--. external load applied bythe insulation system on a vertical :. -dricaltankhas been shown by experimental and theoreti:: :iudies to be nearly uniform overthe tank height. This has .::. assumed in this design procedure.
-:
:3count for the fact that real tank shells are constructed from : ::ries of courses, usually of different thicknesses, and the -ry in Reference 78.3 is based on a shell of constant thick-::s. it is first necessary to construct a shell of constant thick-:-is equivalent to the real shell. This is for convenience based : - :re minimum shell thickness used in the real shell and is : - -structed as in Section 18.3.1.4 by repeating the calculation :':quivalent course width on a course-by-course basis using
D t E
= = = =
tank diameter (in) thickness ofthe thinnest (i.e. top) shell course
(in)
-he
Young's modulus ofthe tank shell material

(lb/in2) usually taken as 29.0E06 for steel
oe |2"
)ptrae )ro-
materials and 10.6E06 for aluminium alloys
factor of safety with respect to predicted failure suggested minimum value = 2.0 external pressure (lb/in2) Poisson's ratio
::
-ation 18.6.
equ 18.9
p p
= =
for steels 0.30
iat
)ed be -he
This formula is valid for values of L" greater than O.916i.
_:fe:
For tanks of conventional proportions, it is most unusual for shell stiffeners to be this close together. The number of stiffeners required to stabilise the shell is given
by:
-1. =
-^:
.-
total height of equivalent tank shell (in)
.termediate shell stiffeners

David Taylor lvlodel Basin Formula is used to decide upon This is taken from = citching of the stiffeners on the tank shell. : ,vork of Windenburg and Trilling (Refe rence 18.4), some of , - ch is based on test work carried out on behalf of the US Navy :: 'ar back as 1929.
N.,n
=t
lt is
equ 18.11
em
ron
(rounded up to the nearest whole number)
ys-
Note:
ner
-he
--? fofmula is:
distance above
celni)fs,
stic
Tt, ,
!,
<D
0.45
2.42 E (t Df f + _4 Fp(l-u')''' l
|
equ 18.10
usualto arrange for shellstiffeners to be a minimum or below the circumferential shell seams (measured on the real shell). This can be the minimum spacing permitted by the tank design Codes or a greater distance to suitthe method oftank erection.
_ere:
It is next necessary to calculate the number ofwaves into which the stiffening ring will buckle, which is taken as the same number of waves into which the complete unstiffened shell will buckle:
L,
uitUS-
half of the distance from the centre of the stiffener to the centre of the next stiffener on one side (or to the top or bottom of the shell) plus
Nz - -:: H lt^..
Di]
where:
D
> 100
equ 18.12
iiftute nts
N H t",
= = =
number of waves rounded up to the nearest whole number - Note that the maximum permitted value is 10 total height ofthe real shell (in) average shell thickness (in)
Next is the calculation for the required moment of inertia of the stiffener and the participating area of the shell:
'
FPL'DI
'
sE(N'z-1)
equ 18.13
where:
l" L"
= =
moment of inertia of the shell stiffener and the participating area of the tank shell (in4) actual or real height ofthe tank shell associated with the particular stiffener (in)
The participating area ofthe shell is the lesser ofl .1t"vbi (equal to the participating shell width on either side of the stiffener of
078-/r aiven \2 :
:Lr 18.10 The podion
of the lank shell supported by a stiffener (1")
t-i
in eouation 18.15).
This is computed by reversing the move from the real shell to STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 329
8 The design of low tempenture tanks Diametor 72m
Height
Product
35m LNG 0,48 Width
Fillheight 34m
sG
Course
(m) Thickness (mm) Equivatent

(per
1-bottom 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 I 'lGtop
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3"5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
35.4 31.7 2a-1 24.5 20.8 17.2 ',13.6 9.9 9.6 9.6
course) (cumulativ) 0.134 35.000 0.177 31.500 28.000 0.235 0.336 24.500 0.507 2',1.o00 0.815 17.500 1.465 14.000 3.241 10.500 7.000 3.500 3.500 3.500
ht
(m) Realheight
(m) .quivalnt height (m)
(clmulative)
13-913
',t3779
13.602 13.364
't3.o27
12,521
11JO6
10.241 7.000 3 500
Figure I 8.1 1 Example of transition from the equlvalent to the real shell
the equivalent shell in equation 18.9 above. An example ofthis calculation is given in Figure 18.11. To preventyielding ofthe stifener, the following minimum area
requirement shall also be met:
.
wnere:
PL.D
equ 18.14
Stitrener s2e6
A" '
0.78
composite area ofthe stiffener and the participating shell (in'?). The participating shell width to be included on either side of the stiffener itself shall be: equ 18.15
Top
'|
9lo
x 305 x 76
x8 mm
mm
152x9
159xe 165x8
10
!1
12
171x8
184x8 197x8
Note:
This is more generousthan permitted byAPl620 Paragraph 5.10.6.8 for wind stlfiening (see equation 18.8)
13
't4
15
203x8
which in the same units works out to

To
be060{;
&x
9.6
ensure that the stifiener is a sensible minimum size, the area
ofthe stifieneralone shall be not less than one halfofthe value

of A" calculated.
F" =
Allowable compressive shess (lb/irP)and shall be taken as '15,0001b/in'? for steel.
This procedure results in a stiffener anangement with the shell stiffeners congregating towards the top of the tank shell and increasing in size from the top of the tank to the boftom. A typical arrangement is illustrated in Figure 18.12. The conservative assumption, built onto equations 18.13 and 18.14 is that allofthe load on the tank shell is taken by the intermediate stiffeners. The proportions ofthe plate stiffeners shallconform to the AISC rules for compression members (Reference 78.q, or the designer can use the simpler 16t rule.
End (i.e, top and bottom) stiffeners Forthe design ofthese stifieners, it is assumed that one halfof the total radial load on the tank shell is transferred to the end stiffeners. In this case where the external load is uniform, the end stiffeners are equallyloaded, each receiving one quarter of the total load on the tank shell.
The required moment ofinertiaforan end stiffener is given by:
c{T
FpHD3
equ 18.16
wnere:
H
total actualtank height (in)
Figlre 18.12
tpical shell stiffenlng arrangement
outer tanks. API Appendix Q divides the component parts of the tank into two categories:
Primary components. lt is worth quoting paragraph e. i.4.1 in full as there is frequently some confusion in this area:
"ln general, primary components include those components

Eileclive area wilhoul annular stilfener
that may be stressed to a significant level, those whose failure would permit leakage ofthe liquid being stored, those exposed to a refrigerated temperature between -60'F and -27O.F, and those that are subject to thermal shock. The primary components shall include, but will not be limited to, the following parts of a single wall tank or of the inner tank in a double wall tank: shell plates, bottom plates, roof plates, knuckle plates, compression rings, shell stiffeners, manwaysand nozzles including reinforcement, shell anchors, pipe, tubing, forgings and bolting".
lzr"lL"l
Effective area with annut& sliffening
Note: When roof
plates, knuckle plates, compression rings, manways and nozzles including reinforcement are primarily subjected to atmospheric temperature they are reclassifi ed as secondary componenb.
: l-:e
18.13 Boitom comer arrangement where additional area is required
Secondary components. ln general, secondary components

include those components that will not be stressed to a siqnificant level by the refrigerated liquid, those whose failure wiit not result in leakage of the refrigerated liquid being stored, those exposed to product vapours, and those that have a design metal temperature higher than -60"F
Much ofthis categorisation is concerned with material selection and impacttesting. This is discussed more fully in Chapter 21 .
::r
open topped tanks N should be taken as 2 for the top stiff-
:lr
::.
a tank with a fixed roof with a radial rafter framework, N =:uals the number of radial rafters subject to the maximum ,: ue of '10.
:âll be calculated using equatlon 18.12.
a flat bottom or a self-supporting roof (i.e. no framework) N
-"e required cross-sectional area ofthe

=:ed from:
end stiffeners is calcu-
nHn
equ 18.17
The two formulae from Section 18.3.1.1, (equations 18.1 and 18.2) are used again here with the following exceptions:
liquid containing tanks
"4F
Ht is no longer required to be the same as Ho. The exact wording of the Code on this subject is:
t is available, (i.e. a top stiffener located below the top of the shell), a participating width ofshell on each side ofthe stiff=rk :1ef, as given in equation 18.15, shall be included in the area.
'
Q.8.1.1 states; "Except as limited by foundation or stress conditions, the test shall consist offilling the tank with water
to the design liquid level and applying an overload air pressure of 1 .25 times the pressure for which the vapour sDace is designed. Where foundations or stress conditions do not
the bottom end stiffener, the participating section without addition of extra material is the annular plate outstand. the :rrtion of the annular plate beneath the shell and the effective ,1 dth of annular plate (given above) together with the participat-9 shell area from equation '18.15. This is usually sufficient to '- fll the moment of inertia requirements ofequation 18.16, but -.3metimes falls short of the minimum area required by equa: cn 18.1 7. An economical means of providing the extfa area is :: use a small annular plate stiffener to mobilise additional an-Jlar plate. This is illustrated in Figure 19.13.
--ê
:lr
of the water shall be limited as stated in e.8.1.2 and

Q.8.1.3.',
permit a testwith waterto the design liquid level, the height
preferably not exceed the established allowable bearina value for the tank site. Where a thorouqh evaluation of lh; foundation justifies a temporary increaie, the established allowable bearing may be increased for the test condition. but the increase shall not be more than 25%.',
Q.8.1.3 states: "The maximum fill shall not produce a stress in any part of the tank greater than 85% (may be gO% for stainless steel oraluminium materials) of the specified min jmum yield strength of the material or 55% of the speciflec minimum tensile strength of the material. What this boils down to is:
Q.8.1 .2 states: "The load on the supporting foundation shatl
-te
maximum value for L" is usually taken lrcm Reference
18.3.2 The API 620 Appendix
e approach
is
::orage of products at temperatures down to -270.F. This is -ade clear in the scope in Paragraph e.1.1 of the Code. The considered are a single-walled insulated tank (most un=nks -sual these days) ora double-walled tank consistinq of an inner
has been described in Section 19.3.1, when this Standard r.as written it only considered single containment tanks for the
The minimum test water fill level is given by: Hr = 1.25Howo equ 18. i 6
The shell th ickness will normally be governed by the
ope-
:nk
-ot designed to contain the product liquid.
for storing the refrigerated liquid and an outer tank enclos-g an insulation space around the innertank. This outer tank is
ating condition but a check must be made to ensure the stress limits given in Q.8.1.3 are not exceeded.
tia:
,','ith the passage of time and the increasingly frequent appear:''rce of double and full containment tanks, the rules of this AD::ndrx have also been used to design liquid containing metaliic
There are occasions when the test water level is reouirec to be higher than that given by equation 18.18. These c:cumstances could be associated with local requlations o. customer preference. So a test water height up to H co.t o be required, and in this case the shell thickness wiil probaSTORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 331
8 The design of low temperature tanl$
srdric shell b2sidr to AFt 620 Ap
,rloteridl selcted
9% Nlckd:
AST
A553
Tank diohela Height of fork shell
op'.olir'g Fill height last Fill heighi P.oduct S Test wster 56

Operuting pre3sure - fixed rrof tonk only Tesi pr6s|tFe - fixed roof tonks only lrlinimun thickie9s corrosion ollowonce Weld nefol properties Density of steel
2O.&
|n
ntdrg
mborg
li i:
Ullimole Tensile Sif engih Yild Sirng{h yS
6,a=[ffilrnn
9,600 hn
uts.--ZEiE-ru/rnrn'
= 399.91 t{,hm, p= 8O0O.0O k9lm3

229,8 N/hn'? 266.6 1.1166? 379.2 N/mnf 339.9 Mmm'z 229.8 339,9
N/mtn'g
Fron APr 620 : Q.3.3.2 (desqn) d Q.8.1.3 (tesi)

Allowoble strqte"s
opc.stirE;
or trst : or
1/3 x UTs
2/3 xYS 0.55 x UTs

0.85 x YS
Dasign slress
Test stress
N/nrn'?
The colculofion of the shell
fhiclap$ cohat fron API 620

where
| 3.10.3.2.
t= Tt +"o
SoE
sB. marii
,+
(rn)
T, = lditrjdindl unil fofce (cirdrhferehtiol unii forcas) rm ollowobl stf55 for simple iension E= efficiency of joint
td seleclea
Coufse
wdih
(tn)
Ha
lr
(wn)
17.56
(m) 34 30.50
(nn)
25,O8 19.91 17.33
(run)
25.O8
(|n|n)
(lt'n) 22.4 ?0,o 17,4 14.4 l?..2
Wei9hi (Te)
154.91 142.50 126.67
110.20
I
3 3
20.,{()
16.90
13.,tO
25.@
22.tu
19.91
22.m
19.91 17.33
2730
'3
23.fi
20.00
t7.33
14.75
11 17
10.29
6.40
14.75
12.17
9.60
16.W
7
8
13.00
290 4.60
-4.10
12l7
9.60 9.60
9.60
9.60 9.60
77.27
60.EO
9.59
7.O1
9.59
9.50 6.00
701
4.43
1.84
-7.60
-11.10
4.43
1.84
lo
".50
9.60
9.60 9.60 9.60
9.6 9.6 9.6

9.6
60-90 60.80 60.80
Totofl,eioht: 952.55 Ie
where;
Hd = Height
Hr = Heighl td = DesiEn fd + cq
of liquid hld under oPer{tlng codifions oi level being conslde.ed (n) of liquid head under ta# conditio[' dt level being contidered (|n)
: ir:
thickrs of 3hell (nm)
Dedgn thicknesg + corrosion ollowonce (mm) Tert thlckness of shell (nu'n)
l" = selccted shell thickness (nm)
Figure 18.14 Example calculatlon showing how the test water heighl influenced the shsll thickness - page
8 The design of low temperaturc tanks
Smt Stntl Oesron to fpt

ter
tdr* lheil
fZO
fo
,rldteriol selected
sxnl"k"'-llllr1ssl E
Tonl dion
Height of
Fillheight
Fill height
opcmthg
r'ffi*
w w
i,r
(tusr)
tcst
34.00
rh
Produci SG
Tesr wdter Sg
Op.i.afi4t pr$$? - fixed foof lqaks mly Tesl prErure - ftx.d noof iohk only
l'linihqn lhiclaEas
Coirrosion qllowonce
Weld metol properiiat
Uhitndte TeBile St|.engf h Yield Strength
D.nsityof st el
F.on APr 620 r q3.3.2 (desqn)
Allowqble stre3ses
& Q.8.1.3
lW|rnbqrg = 9.600 rnn 61=W$nrnr UTS = 689.50 Wm|nz YS = 39.91 N/mr:

p= e000.00 kglnri
ffi"uo"g
opa.atlrB or
tst:
Desi$r stress
V3 x UTs 2/3 xYS 0.55 x UTS

0.85
or
{ YS
229.8 wtrtnz 266.6 N/hn, 379.2 f.t/61614 339.9 Nh|n, e29.8 N/mn, 339,9 Nlnrmr
Te6tStr93
llle
co,qulqii$ of the rhell thick'|ess cones
fron Apf 620 I 3,f0,3.2.
t=
Cou|le
1
T"
S*E
+aa
where
Tr:
g,
ldtitlrdinql unit force (clrrunferdiol unit fofcs) ollowoble strEis for simple terlsiolt E 3 efficiency of joinf
= mxinw$
Wtdllt
(|n)
H6
ll'
(n)
34.00
id
(run) 25.08
19.91
ld+co
(|n|l|) 25.08 22.50 r9.91
17.33
id selected
Weighi
(rn)
(hii)
25.08
19.91 17.33
(nn)
3534
31.69
(mm)
(re)
224.20
34
36.4
3050
27.@
31.7
28.1
27ffi
e350
20.00
16.50 13.00
m.77
177.97
155.17
28.05
24.42
4
eo.00
16.50 13.00
,7.33 t4:75
14J5
14.75
1Zt7
9.59
rzv
9.59
4.43
'|
4.78
17.L4
21.5 20.8
131J4
108.94
9.ffi
o 6.@
'
7.at
6.!0
4.43
e50
2.&
!34
a4
1?.r7 9.@ 9.60 9.60 9.60
t7.z
13.6
E6l3
62JO 60.80 60.80
=
9.87 9.60
930
9.9 9.6 9-6

rornl weiol*
-TiSd7l-.re
Hd =
Hr = Height of liquld hend qldef lert conditjons td = Design thickness of shell (nrn) td +
Heigl* of llqrdd hsad under olerlting corditig.s af level bing congidersd (ttl) at levcl bsing considerd (n)
Detign thicknS + corrociqn
ca.
tr
dbwree
(nUn)
tr
Terf thicknssr of shell ftnn) s.lecrd shell thickne6s (mn)
l|r1 Ernple calculation
showing how the test water height Influencd the shell lhlckness- page 2
tempenture tanks
Nominal Cylindcr Slainlcss s{.cl
Diamctcr(f()
nickel stael
Nominal Plate Thickncsr (in.l
non-liquid containing tanks, the rules from section 5.4 of the

Code are used as described in Section 18.3.'1 .3. For aluminium alloysthe allowable compressive stress shallbe reduced bythe
ed
<60
l4O > 140-220 >22O
dOAluminum
r/rr,
ttl
5tt6 r/s
ratio of the modulus of compressive elasticity to 29,000 (note
US customary units of lb/inz) for values of
[- c)
less than
0.0175 and by the ratio of the minimum yield strJgth of the alu3h6
<20 2O-Im > 120-2m >M

Fran API 624, hble Q-5
ttt
5h6 l/s
miniumalloyto30,000forvaluesof
than 0.0175.
ft -c) '
_'
equaltoorgreater
18.3.2.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening
Figure 18.15 Nominal thickness of inner iank cylindrical sidewall plaies
For single-walled tanks (most unusual to Appendix Q), and

outer liquid and non-liquid containing tanks, the rules outlined in Section 18.3.1 .4 are used. The only difference is that Appendix Q allows the use of stainless steels and aluminium alloys. For these materials the requirement for a minimum of two pass fillet
bly be dictated by the test condition.
An example of this is shown in Figure '18.'14. In this case thedesign ofthefoundation and the supporting base insulation material must be checked to ensure that they are suitable for the higher test case loadings. Minimum values for the design specific gravity of the various products (Wo) are given. These are:
welds is not mandatory

18.3.2.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings The Code gives no guidance here and the methods described in Section 18.3.1.5 above are commonly used. The only differences are in the values of Poission's ratio and the allowable compressive stress to be adopted when aluminium alloys are to De useo.
In eouation 18.10 a value of u of 0.33 should be substituted and in equations 18.14 and 18.17 the allowable compressive stress
- Methane - Ethane - Ethylene .
29.30 lb/ft3 34.21 lblft3 35.50 lb/ft3
(i.e. an SG = 0.470) (i.e. an SG = 0.546) (i.e. an SG = 0.569)
of 5483 lb/in'? (based on 15,000 lb/in'z times the ratio of the

Young's modulii of aluminium alloy to steel) should be used.
Values for the allowable stress for the design condition (So) and the allowable stress for the test condition (Sr) for commonly used ASTM materials are given in Table Q-3 (Figure 18.4). The values ofSo given in this Table for plate materials are based on the lesser of:
18.3.3 The BS 7777 approach

As has been discussed in earlier Chapters, BS 7777 is based on the work of the EEMUAcommittee and its recommendations contained in the EEMUA 147 publication. EEMUAand its predecessor, OCMA, worked for several years to pfoduce a set of recommendations which included double and full containment tanks which were increasingly being required by clients interested in increased safety for storage facilities for the various low temperature gasses. BS 7777 does not use the primary secondary and basic categories forthe component parts ofthe storage tanks, rather preferring to place the various parts of the structures in the cold (i.e. design temperature based on the temperature ofthe stored liquid)and warm (i.e. design temperatures based on minimum ambient temperatures) categories.
In Part 3 of this Standard, rules are provided for the design of concrete parts of low temperature tianks.
(a) one third of the specified minimum ultimate tensile

strength of the material or
(b) hi,/o thirds oJ the specified minimum yield strength [75%
in the cases of stainless steel, aluminium alloys and nickel alloys - which does not include 9% and 5% nickel steelsl. The values of S, are derived as stated above.
For materials where the strength of the weld metal under-
matches the strength of the plate material such as 9% nickel steel, footnote a of the Table allows a range of weld metal propertieson whichthe allowable stresses foroperating and test conditions can be based. Paragraph Q.6.1 pro-
vides means of determining the weld metal strengths.
The minimum shell plate thicknesses are given in Figure

interesting to note that the values given for stainless steels and nickel steels are different from those given for aluminium alloys. They are also different from the values given forAPl 620 Appendix R tanks (see Figure 18.5).
18.1 5. lt is

Operating case:
The basic design formulae are:
liquid containing metallictanks
It is interesting to note that the properties ofthe parent plate or weld metal, upon which the allowable stresses are to be based, are determined at room temperature. The actual properties at the design temperature will be higher, and in some cases considerably higher, than the room temperature properties. Thus in operation an additional factor of safety exisb.
D l98w^rH^-0.3t-oÎ t^' ") " ,)nQ (

Test case;
'ca
equ 18.19
18.3.2.2 Nonliquid containing tanks Appendix Q of API is interestingly non-committal regarding the design of the non-liquid containing tanks. A minimum shell thickness of %6" is specified which is appropriate for smalltanks but should be checked for largertanks as suggested in Section 18.3.1 .2 . In general it is usual practice to turn to the body ofthe Code (i.e. section 5) for suitable rules for the design of outer non-liquid containing tanks. 18.3.2.3 Axial compression For both inner and outer liquid containing tanks and for outer
t.
-i, ' =20s, {gew, '
o.gt*0, }
equ 18.20
The variables are as defined in Section 18.3.1.1withthefollowing exceptions:
. .
No minimum product density is given. As originally published, the test water fill height was to be the same as the maximum productfill height. Alateramendmentwas published changing this requirement which is discussed in Section 18.3.3.6.
For outer liquid containing tanks, the design product fill
)f the
n
lhn} dismeter
Mlnlmum shell thlctness 8
ium
Carbon steels
manganese
lU'IS,2.35 or YS/L5 or YS/1.5
,ythe
(note
D <30
30<D<50
50
Improved
l0
caxbon marganese
toughness ltns/2.35
than
)
s,
l,ow nickel
steels
steel
UTS/2.35 or
alu-
-'ater
NOm. This thickness may inciude any corrosion allowanc provided that the shell is shown by calculation to b safe in th corroded condition and in accordanc wjth the requirement of 7.2.i1.3.
% nickel
Austenitic
stainless
% Ps/1.5 10.2 I tlTS/2.35 oi % Ps/1.5 10.2 IUTS/2.5 or I % PS/1.5
: gure 18.16 IVinimum shell plate thickness
Figurc 18.18 Determination ofthe maximum allowable stress desgn
"on
ano
ed in
BS 7777 : Paft 2, table 12
Fron BS 7777 : Part2,table l,hximum shell thickness'/

Nornnrl cont
D
11
Material type
lrs
dLmeter
Noblnal
shU
thrchr)
)ndtx
.
lype I
30 mm 25 rnm 30 mm2) 25
For fillet
t?es II and III t?es lV and V 1}?e vl
,<10
l0=D<30 30<r<60 60<r<75
5
6
nm
gs
-ibed
'r When material thicknesses are required in excess of thes values, additional requirements to maintain the same level of safety are lo b ageed between purchaser and manufacturer
'z)
l0
12.5
ilfer/aote
re
see footnore to tabte 2.
to
: lJre
18.17 l\,4aximum shell plate lhickness
: .n
', The rquirenenl to. minimm nomiMl thicknss is neded for onshuction pu.pces, and nay include any colruDn auowe.e, prdidd that the shell b shom by cdculariotr ro be sfe in the cormded condition and to b in accordance with ?.1.4.2 and ?.1.43. Figure 18.19 Conlainer nominal shell plate thickness
BS 7777 : Paft2, table 4
tano
:IESS
height shall be the level achieved when the full inner tank contents are released into the outer tank. -1ese formulae applyto tanks ofthe single, double and full con.rment categories.
Fron BS 7777 : Pad 2.
tabl-e
i the
-.d.
parent plate, the weld metal properties used in the determina-
tion of the allowable stresses shall be demonstrated to have

been achieved by the use of a strain-gauged, cross joint tensile test which is defined in the Standard.
--e design point

tseo
:ions et of
:':re r.y additional height to accommodate seismic sloshing -:: be included in the product design level (Ho).
taken as being 0.3m above the bottom edge course under consideration.
is
18.3.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks Only steel tanks are considered. The shell plates shall be checked for internal pressures using the following formula:
need
--e
nent
rterious
' a 16. These minimum thicknesses are not the same as those -i:Jired for non-liquid containing tanks. The footnote makes it : =ar that the minimum thickness can include the corrosion al:,,, ance providing the shell is thick enough for the internal presi --e according to equations 18. 19 and 18.20. Corrosion allow: -:es are not commonly applied to low temperature tanks as
minimum thickness requirements are given
in
Figure
t^
,PD " =--+ca 20s p = =
equ 18.21
Where the variables are as defined in Section 18.3.'1 .1 withthe exception of: internal pressure as a combination of internal gas pressure and insulation pressure (mbar) design stress being the lesser of 260 or two thirds of the material minimum vield strenoth
(N/mm2)
BS 7777 does not permit the use of lap-welded
-=-i already been mentioned.
cotd
)red
num
--.
r'naximum shell plate thicknesses for the various materials :'= jiven in Figure 18.17. lt is interesting to see that this Table ,:s a let out in Footnote 1) for circumstances where the sheil =
nof
(s
:::e
" : - normally be in the form of additional or more onerous - -:-cy V-notch impact testing which would be agreed between
thicknesses exceed the values given in the Table. This
outertanks.
:-= : Jrchaser and the manufacturer. Footnote 2) states that for service and double or full containment categodes, "ordi-'.3 -= r' 9% nickel steel (type lV) should be replaced by "im: -: ..d- 9% nickel steel (type V) or by austenitic stainless steel
It is most unlikely that equation 18.21 will dictate the shell thickness. The minjmum shell plate thickness shall be taken from Figure 18.19. Again the footnote allows the inclusion oJthe corrosion allowance.
The maximum shell plate thickness shall not exceed 35 mm.
1.19
-.:e Vl)when the shellthickness is between 30mm and 40mm. -- = 3 jlowable stresses for the operating case are given in Fig-
--- - 3.18 subject to a maximum value

s the
of 260 N/mm2.
-J.20
18.3.3.3 Axial compression The thickness of the shells of non-liquid containing tanks are usually less than is the case for liquid containing tanks. For this reason it is necessary to check the stability of the shell under the influence of axial compressive loadings. The basic equation to determine the allowable compressive stress is given by: S^ = 12.s where:
/ t,^\ ]j--ilc
same maximum as is imposed by BS 2654 for ambi-. :- - :: rks. lt is there for similar reasons of avoiding problems of :;--::Jfal instability and excessive anchor rotations of con-?::=: pipework (despite the fact that the Code seeks to dis: : - -=3e the use of shell pipework connections).
--: :
rbe
rnddrs-
---_, eld or proofstrength ofthe parent plate orthe weld metal "- :-ever is the lower) subject to a maximum value of 340
owable stresses for the test case are 85% of the mini-
equ18.22
--: - :.nate tensile stress (UTS), proof stress (PS) and the : : ::-,ess (YS) are all to be determined at ambient tempera--=
,i nere the weld metal under matches the strenoth of the
S" t
= =
allowable compressive stress (N/mm2) shell plate thickness at the point under considSTORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 335
eration (mm) corrosion allowance (mm) radius of the tank shell (m)
A factor for different loading combinations:
72.00 35.00 34.00 34,00 20,40 0,48 1,00
= 1.00 for deadweight above the point under consideration plus insulation load plus 50% of pipe load plus superimposed load = 1.25 for deadweight above the point under
consideraLion plus insulation load plus pipe load plus wind load plus 50% of superimposed
toao
Cturce
= 1.33 for deadweight above the point under consideration plus insulatjon load plus seismic load plus 50% of the superimposed load
BS 7777 makes this design requirement specific to the outer container (i.e. by definition non-liquid containing) shells. For single-walled tanks it would seem sensible to carry out the same checkforthe uppercourses of tanks, particularly in cases where unusually high roof loadings must be accommodated (for example a Canadian West Coast snow loading which can be uo to 5.0 KN/m'?).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9
l/lldfi {m)
Thidoess Tr'ickis! thii<n
3.500 3W 15@ 3.:,00 3.5@ 3_500 3.5{rO 3.500 3.5@
(.'yn)
25.1 22.5 2(}.O 17.4 UA 122 9-6 9.6 9.6
{ffin}
35.0 3t.!t 27.A 24-1 A.5 16.9 132 120 12.O
ttrm)
Z2.O 19.7 17 4
15-2
129
120
120 120
12.0
9526 1297.7
CaseA
Case Case
9323
B C
Design to APt620 - partiat hydrcte.t Design ro Bs 772 - Fu[ hydrotest Design to BS 2777 - Partiat hydroresl
rigu e 18.20 Companson o' unk shetts desiqred lo APt 620 Aooerd r e. BS
7777 {fLll t'e ghr lesr) and BS /277 tparlial neigt^t lesl)
Equation 18.22 is exactly the same as equation 18.4. Clearly this has been "borrowed" from API 620. The onty difference is
that the load combinations and associated factors are different.
18.3.3.6 Addendum to BS 7777 on partial height hydrostatic testing The decision to require all low temperature tanks to be hydro-
statically tested to the full design liquid level was made by

EEIVIUA 147 as a reaction to the events surrounding the Qatar
18.3.3.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening

The section on the design of the wind and vacuum stiffening for
exposed shells giveninBS7777 Patl2is exactlythe same as that for secondary stiffening given in BS 2654 and described in earlier Chapters. 18.3.3.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings BS 7777 gives some limited guidance on the design of shell stiffening for external loadings. This is confined to a brief commentary on the factors contributing to the loose fill insulation component of the design load, the application of a factor of safety of 2 on both stiffener pitching and sizing, the use of the wind and vacuum loading methodology for determining the number and positioning of the stiffeners and the statement that each stiffener shall be designed for the loading on the panel of shell associated with it, including an unspecified portion of the tank shell plate adjacent to the stiffener. Whilst this is helpful, it falls some way short of the detailed design procedure outlined in Section 18.3.1.5. The designer is left with the option ofusing this method and borrowing rulesfor stiffener area, moment of inertia and contributing shell area from anothersource (BS 5500, Reference 18.15, wouldseemtobe a suitable candidate) or adopting the method described in Section 18.3.1.5.
Tegr.nerdt ol !l^r.rq
C.Mn fTMCP) 27Jat 50 'c -A1d Low Ni (TMCP or Q & T) 2?J at -80 rc -^ts 9% Ni slels 100 J at - 196 'Ce ' Ener$/ izile is th minihon avmg of three spcime.i with Elur lN lhs ?5 96 of $e value speifiedb
LPG tank facility failure which have been described in Chapter '17, Section 17.3. This was carried over to BS 7777. For large LNG tanks where the difierence between the product design specific Aravity (usually around 0.48) and the test water specific gravity (1.00) is large, designing for a full hydrostatic test fill height gives a test overstress to all the shell courses of around 2.08. This is considered excessive. For LPG tanks with a design specific gravity of around 0.6, the overstress is of the order of 1.67 and for ammonia with a design specific gravity of 0.68, the overstress is 1.47. These are considered more reasonable.
Figure 18.20 shows a large LNG tank where the shell is designed to API 620 Appendjx Q (partial hydrostatic test height), BS 7777 (full height hydrostatic test) and BS 7777 modified to the API permitted test water fill height. lt as clear that the full height test requirement results in an uneconomic design oftank and this meantthatthe industryavoided specifying BS 7777 as the design Code for this type oftank
With this in mind, Technical Committee PVE/15, the committee responsible for BS 7777, decided that something needed to be done and in 2000 published PD 7777 .20OO (Reference 18.6\. PD stands for published document. The reasons for publishing these new requirements as a PD ratherthan as an amendment
ldt t.mD.rttu. tor
"c
l2O
J'
Te.t
50 J
50 J
.r..8y
ot
reld
n.trl
-20 -50
only oh sin8le
at
ar
50'C
-80'C
- 196'C
Not rcquired elue
75J at
ls rhd rne ulue

ed shdld
should be m
spin.d &d viur no sinde
For
spe.l6d in lhis Lble. For

c
steltnj.lor* ls ria
1l
m, o
lOmh x
6hh
sul$ize spennes shoutd be u*d,
Ni stel5, ihe vzlue lor l0
$b-sia speineB
demoGF.! ?O9i ot rhe tdu6 96 ol the \arue sDcjnd in rhis
Irnpact ia$ing shqld be cdi.d on one r6t ol spimN per40 toM6 of plab aid tEtch re giren in DN 10026.
uE
erh llaie
ba!.I
10 demoBtnre rhe lequirEd inlac{ }lue. th addition, rsir8 ar a nequenc}, of shoutd be cMied @t 10 dnoNFate t20J.i rhe rmDer*urc spei6ed. tte de6niiion
Relerere should be nEde to
md
A ol BS ??7-2.
60
'For
horimt
veld5 in
9 96
Ni srels, lne wel<l mLl rEquifthent ned or y be
at
196rc.
Figure 18.21 Longiludinal Charpy V-notch impaci test requiremenls Frcm PD 7777 : 2000, table 2
18 The design cf 1a,,
ie-aa-aa,-.
aa-.
NU-ductility
tldsition
aemler.tu.lor tFo 'c
'c
Butare
hopane,{Propylene Ethane,/Ethylene
'c -45
90
-10 -50
-105 -165
145
-140
Met]'ane (ING) N/Ab 196 c 'This temp@t@ od the eiated NDTT 6 b @d for mtenal *lection Drovided tlar rhe spe.i6ed dsiSF rempmt@ js not more rhd 5'C colder thd tlis assMed 'Elft. b T6tirg below -196 rc is coNidered unpEcricd . Two nonrak 6drs at qc eertain a NDTT ol ar lea* z0l d4 Filh CAT = ND1T + 400 rc 16l, 16l, giv6 a minimM -196.C CAT of -16l'C. W'rih the boilin8 point of ING belng o!1y0.6'C lower (-161.6'C), ed the coBMtim olOe CAT NDTT + 40"c = relntio4 lllie !5 cNiderEd a $6c!ent requiremoi io sp4iry @ck resl
: . --:
18.22 Required n |ductility lfansition lemperatures and r.inimum tesi temperaiures for no brcak resutts
' -
?D 7777 :2000, table 3
': 3S 7777 was associated with the CEN rules which state that : ,' 'rg the period when a new European Standard is being pre:: -:C, all national standards must
-::
be subject io standstill. This
rs that the national standards cannot be amended (unless . -: lnlficant error is discovered), and the use of a PD was in ef::: a device to modify the Standard within the EU rules.
--= criginal British
be issued as a full Euronorm Standard. What follows in th s Section and similar Sections of this Chapter is taken from the draft or provisional version of the document. lt is not thought that there will be major changes resulting from the comment consolidation process, but itwould be wiseforthose using Storage Tanks & Equipmentlo refer to the final version when this
becomes available. The normal evolutionary process which occurs when new Standards are written is that they are based on what is perceived as the best of earlier Standards added to by any new practices within the particular subject area. This is very much the case with this document, but one significant difference from earlier Standards is the introduction ofthe design of steel components by limit state methods. lt was initially proposed that in compliance with the demands of oiher Eurocodes, the limit state methods would replace the allowable stress methods. However, in recognition of the long hjstory of steel component design for storage tanks by allowable stress methods, the familiarity ofthe industry and those active within it with these methods and the possibility of old dogs proving unable to learn new tricks, the allowable stress methods were retained and sit in the prEN alongside the limit state methods. This is in many ways a parallel with what happened in the UK in
-;
'oro-
Standard based the material selection on - : :: on resistance to brittle fracture and included the full test
::-::s
---i to provide added safety in this respect. The new pD

rts material selection on initiation resistance and on the
latar lpter
d
-:
r
capability of fracture arrest for fractures which may ex",::: :-: acfoss a horizontal weld seam or be associated with a lor: :- itle region of a vertical weld seam. This is explained in , : -: detail in the introduction to this PD. enhanced plate and weld metal Charpy V-notch impact Figure 18.21 and nil-ductility transition temperature ) determinafion in accordancewith ASTN/I E 208 (Refer': - -8.4. The NDTT requirements are as Figure 18.22. The ' ::
uct ,aler tatic
::-
'::
:-sure that the fracture arrest criteria are met, the PD re- 3 as
)s of wttn
f the
:
:
: -::.d welding methods
-:
.essomeadditionaldetail relatingtospecimenselection,
etc.
ty of
aea-
. :
)d to
,
: ::-:ewiththe requirementsof the PD, then thefollowing : - --ary ofthe hydrostatic testing requirements:
': : 'rg that the material has been selected and tested in acis
.'-..
r:
) full
- single containment tanks manufactured from steels lhan 9a nickel steel or austenitic stainless steel, for
at
:=::
:
temperatures warmer than -105'C, full height hydrotesting is required.
the area of the design of structural steelwork. The new Standard, BS 5950 (Reference 78.9) introduced limit state design methods and it was intended that the old Standard, BS 449 (Reference 78. /0) with its allowable stress methods would coexist for a brief period and then be replaced. What actually happened was thatthe old Standard refused to fade away and both now exist in parallel. The intention ofthis new Standard was that the various factors would be adjusted so that both design meth-
iank
. :: - s ngle containment tanks manufactured from 9% nickel !::: or austenltic stainless steel, it is not necessaryto carry
,: : full hejght hydrostatic test.
rilee
ooe
h
. :r-:re n ner tanks of double or fu ll containment tanks, a full . .

-: :-i
=
ods would provide the same end result and consequenflv the same levels of safety. The scope of this Standard is to provide rules for the design, fabrication, erection, testing and commissioning for of single, double and full containment, plus for the first time, membrane
hydrostatic test is not necessary hydrostatic testing is unnecessary
lng
:,-::eouter(metallic)tanksof doubleandfull containment

-.
nent
-:=::o carryouta
-:
-= -e steels as specified and tested to the pD are used
for :.yef courses only of outer tanks, there Should be no

hydrosiatic test. Additional surface crack
-::::: on ls requtred. - : - : ^ .,d rostatic test referred to above is one where the test .: ":- .,: is sufficient to impose a stress in the bottom cou rse -: : -:s the design stress arising from the product loading.
,<
l0<D<
30<D<
10
30 60
6
8 10 s
I:j .
'::
The prEN 14620 approach
60<o
NOTE The cqui.menl for nininum rhickness
mentioned earlier, this Code (Reference 1g.g\has -: :oJ'se of being wriflen for some years now lts cur: :-, _: s that the docu ment has been completed, issued for : :-"'rent and the comments are at Dresent (December :: -: consolidated into the final version which will then
::=r
needed fo. @nsltuction purposes, and may irctude any cotrosDn arrowance provided lhar he sheu s shoM by ldlallon to be safe in the @rcded
Figure 18.23 fulinlmum shell plate thickness
Fran p.EN 14620-2:2003, table
Type of steel
Allowable stress in sewice

the lesser of:
O
Allowable stress during hydrostatic test

the lesser of:
0.60 f" or 0.85 the lesser oi:
Tlpes l, ll, lll Tlp lV Tlpe V

NOTES
43 f, or 0.67
fy
or 260 N/mm'?
fy
or 260 N/mm'z
the lesser of:
0.43 f"at 0.67

lhe lesser of:
A
fv
0.60 f, or 0.85
lv
.40 f, ot A .67
f"
1) f" ls minimum ull mate tensile slrenglh in N/mm'?and
s minimurn yield strength
Ln
N/mm:
2) For iow nckeland 9
o/o
Nistees fyisequalto0.2%otprcolslress
Figure 18.24 Determination ofthe maximum allowable desrgn slrcss
From prEN 14624-2:2443, bble 4
Operating conditions
1.36
Test conditions < 1.57

1.06
d > 1.57 1.10
c!
o.> 1.42
1.11
s < 1.42
1.57|d.
1.7210
NOTE o is the tensile to yield strength ratio fJfy

'fr is the partialfactor for actrons;
f" is ultimate tensile strength of steel;
lM is the factor for material shongth; fyis lhe yleld strength of the steol
Figure 18.25 Partial load and mater al factors for types l, ll, lll and lv steel
Fron ptEN 460-2 : 2403, table 5

1
storage tanks for products stored at between -5 'C and -165'C It was envisaged that the Standard would have its scope extended to cover products down to -196'C by the addition ofan Appendix or extra part similar to BS 7777 : Part 4. Sadly, this looks unlikely to happen, due largely to a lack of interest from that part of the industry dealing with the storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon.
the same as are given for liquid containing tanks in Figure

'18.16. The maximum thicknesses are as stated above.
18.3.4.3 wind and vacuum stiffening The method of calculating the number and size of shell stiffening is exactly the same as is given in BS 7777 (see Section 18.3.3.4) which is in turn taken originally from BS 2654. 18.3.4.4 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings The only guidance is a reference to a calculation method given in a Japanese Gas Association document (Reference 18.11) This leaves the choice of method to the designer and the above reference or the method described in Section 18.3.1.5 would seem sensible candidates.
18.3.4.'l Hoop tension
liquid containing metallic tanks
The formulae used for calculating the thickness ofthe tank shell underoperating and test conditions are exactlythe same as are
given in BS 7777 (equations 18.19 and 18.20). The minimum thickness requirements which apply to primary and secondary liquid containers are slightly different to those in BS 7777 and
are given in Figure 18.23. The maximum shell plate thicknesses are as follows: Types l, ll and lll Type lV
18.4 Bottom and annular design

40 mm
50 mm no limit given
The Code rules for bottom plates of metallictanks are quite simple and straightfoMard. The plate thickness and the means of joining are specified. The Codes do not give guidance regarding the plate layoutsto be adopted. This is lefttothe contractors
steels
steel
Type V steel
A let out clause, similar to that included in BS 7777 is added al-
lowing these thickness limits to be exceeded when additional materialtesting is carried outto demonstratethat the same levels of resistance to brittle fracture have been achieved
For the allowable stress design, the allowable stresses are sim-
who have their own particular favourite plating arrangements based on experience and suitability to fit in with the erection methods and, at the end ofthe day, to provide a flat bottom. The finished profile oftank bottoms can be flat, coned up to the tank centre or coned down to the tank centre. This latter arrangement is often associated with a tank centre bottom outlet connection. Annular plates and theirjunction with the lowestshell plate is an area in a liquid containing metallictank where a complex stress situation is found. Yielding and shakedown are known to happen during the hydrostatic test. A great deal of research has been carried out in determining and predicting stresses in this component. This work has been reduced to a slmple set of rules which experience has shown provide a satisfactory service history if followed by bnk designers.
ilar to those given in BS 7777 and are shown in Figure 18 24.
Note:
There has been considerable debate about this and it would be wise to consult the "real" EN Code when it is published.
The partial load and material factors for the limit state design
method are given in Figure 18.25.
All vertical and horizontal welds must be butt welds with full
penetration and fusion. The distance between verticaljoints in adjacent courses must not be less than 300 mm. lt would seem preferable to use a larger spacing of say one third of a plate length here to avoid possible distortion problems 18.3.4.2 Nonliquid containing tanks The axial stability criteria are exactly the same as are used in BS 7777 (equation 18.22). The minimum shell thicknesses are
18.4.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach

'18.4.1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
Bottom plates for liquid containing tanks shall be a minimum
18 The design of low tempetature tanks
Dcsign Sresb in Fnsr ShcllCou6c (Psi)
ofFirsr Shcll
cou6c
<0.75
> 0.75
(an.)
s 20.0m
24,0m
> >
1.00
1.25
t.00
L25
1.50
bas.d on rE folndarion providinS a uniforn suppon undr rhc fufl 'Thc thicrncsscs sd widdr_ (sc. R.3.4. I ) wro(n or rhc enular ptac. Untess ftc found.lion is propcrty cr,npacrcd, Fnicutarty at thc iciac of a concrca nnSwar. scnkmenr wrl ptroducr addidonat sElsscs i, rhc annul& otalc.
b'Ilc
=jnai$tum
sucss shall bc calcllard ushg ftc fomuta (2.6Dxffdyr. phcrc D nominal dianc&. of thc r.nl, in ft; = nr rrng hergN ot fte tlnk for dcsign, in Iq C: dcsign lp.cifc graviryi snd , = dsign rhickrcss of rhe n6r snc coursqcxctudrng conosion aloeoc!. in.
I/
: ture
18.26 Table R-6 from Apt 620
:rickness of %,, (6.35mm).
-f less otherwise
lt is usual to allow the use of backing strips for buti-welded f,itoms and provision must be made to accommodate these ::.king strips in the top surface of the base insulation.
:
-
:c-welded together with a minimum lap of i,, (25mm).Three : ate lap joints shallnot be closerthan 12,,(305mm)from each ::"er and from the butt welds ln the annular plate. There are ::"npanies who specify butFwelded bottoms for reasons asso: eted with a perception thatthis reduces the oossibilitvof leak_
specified, the bottom plates shall be
::e.
rgure
tiffengction
iquid containing metallic tanks must have butt-welded annu_ plates. The wjdth of the annular plate shall provide a mini_ =- - m distance of 24,' (61omm) between the jnside of the tank : -: I and any lap-weldedjoint in the remainder ofthe bottom to_
-=:Jired by the following formula:

1gs given
8.11).
with a minjmum projection beyond the shell of 2', =1er : - rm). Agreaterwidth of annular plate may be required when
-_"=es JHG
-::e:
equ 18.23
F g ure
1
8.28 Welded joint req utremenls
rbove
r'r'ou to
Fron APl620, figure 5-3
-.
stm-
tns of rctors
--: :hickness of the annular plate shall not be less than the - :.1esses given in Table R-6 (Figure 18.26).
-- - - ng of annular plates shall have a circular outside circum_
:. "j 3
= = = =
radial width of the annular plate (in) nominal thickness of the annular plate (in) maximum tiquid design height (ft) design specific gravity ofthe liquid to be stored
true circle at the outer periphery and a scalloped effect atthe in_ ner profile. This arrangement is economical in terms of use of
material and fabrication work.
nen$
)ctton
)
:
:
tank con-
lnge-
:-=-:e but may have a polygonal inner profile, with the number : res being equalto the number of an nular plates adopted. : : lnvenient to make the number of annu lar plates the same
.
The radialjoints between annular plates shall be butfwelded with complete penetration and fusion. The Code does not 0reclude the use oI backing strips for these welds and for annulaf plates this is often considered convenient in avoidinq the com_ plications ol lifting the annular to gain access to weld from ir-e underside.
(305 mm) from any vertical weld in the tank shell.
Butt welds in annular plates shall not be closer than
12,,
then twicethe n umber of shell plates. *:=::la1,
:-:
-:
I
nas
number of shell plates, or if this proves to be wasteful of lt is not uncom- 'cr the innerand outeredges ofannularplates to be cut to ,.:me radius. This radius is that of the outer edge giving a
Maximum Thickncss of Shcll Plalr (in.)
0.1875
The Code requires 25% ofthe the outerend of radialjoints to be
radiographed.
Note; For
Minimum Sizc
of
tion methods after the first two weld beads have been deDosited.
For the welded joint between the lower course of the tank shell and the annular plate, the Code allows two options. The firsi is the use of a fillet wetd laid on each side ofthe shell pla1e. These welds shall conform to the following:
place, the welded seam must be examined bv maonetic particte (Mpt)or by tiquid penetrant lLpt; inspei_
welded joints where a backing strip is to remain in
r this
-'
Fillct Weld (in.) 3h6
his-
> 0.1875 - 0.75 >
0.75 t.25
> 1.25 - 1.50
.
forflat botlom cylind cattanks
The size of the fillet weld shall not be greater than
joined. and not less than the values given in Figure 1g.22.
27 Sidewall,lo-bottom fitlel wetd a2A.
(12.7 mm), not be less than the thinner of the two Dlaies
%,,
hble 5-4
When the specified minimum yield strength of the shetl plate rs greater than 30.000 lbiin, (207 N/mm2), each filtet
parts of theweld peripherybyensuring a blockage in the annular passage and ananging the air supply feed to be
located at one side of this obstruction, and the pressure

gauge at the other side.
The second option is to utilise a full penetration joint, which does not require the pressure testing described above.
For a large tank subject to significant seismic loadings, the annular width and thickness requirements given above are often exceeded, sometimes by signilicant margins as the tank designer attempts to arrive at a stable design. This is done by increasing the holding down ofthe annularplate bythe contained
liquid to the limib permitted by the Code. Annular plates of

Egur6 18.29 Fitting and welding of lapjolnts From API 620, tlgute
,2
30mm thickness and 2.5m width are not unusual in these circumstances. Wide and thick annular plates bring theirown construction problems. 18.4.1.2 Nonliquld containing metallic tanka The minimum nominalthickness ofthe bottom plating shall be not less than %6" (4.8 mm). The Code does not insist on the use ofa ring of butt-welded annular plates. So, lap-welded bottom plates to the outer periphery are permitted. Lap joinb immediately beneath the shell shall be fitted and weldedto provide a smooth surface as shown in Figure 18.29. Where the bottom plates are thicker than /s"
weld shall be made with a minimum of two passes
. .
For annular plates thicker than %" (12.7 mm), the joint shall comply with the requiremenb of Figure 18.28.
The welded joint shall be examined as follows. The initial weld passes on either side of the shell shall have all slag and non-mebllic debris removed and be examinedl/isually. Aftercompletion of thelillet or partial penetration welds, the space between the welds shall be pressurjsed to 15 lb/in2 (1 mbar) and examined for leakage using soap solution. Steps shallbe taken to ensurethatthis pressure reaches all
D.sigr
(9.6 mm), the joinb beneath the shell shall be butt-welded.

S!!$r
in Firsr StEll
Cou'*. (lbt/in.))
I
s
t9,000 tA tA
tA 9/t2 rA eaz
0t5
thl
1/rc
t+,2
t142 2l^.2
> o.?5
t.00
ea|
tVtt
1/r5
> 1.00 - 1.25 > 125- 150 Not
llal
tkz
t74lz
r:
..d tlE tiichEt d6c tur thcll oo|!|c Thc ftinimum bo.roo phr.r |l.cat dt |ftdguc otclo lifc of lomcJd.s fordunimo Lrt .
r
rr! |hicb.!..3 trd vldda (r. Q3.4.1) ln dd! ribL |1! h.sdoo tE foudrlin FlvidiiS rttnlfodn r4porltrd.r dE fu wt&hof dE tlmuIr pL!c. Udc!. rb. fotndd.o b F!0.d, comF.r.4 pdq{rdy ! lIt ind& of r.onc$rc dIttw.ll, r.dlaEn stll p.ldlce.ttdiddd
,ftr!.r h dlc.na!||' ptrte. fhc &lcbr.s ofdE.!outr.
thbhs!.:
rThc
t.t
fo.
uuhl hotbll9t|l!. es! (bivldb$.d

llliig tE fo(n'rh t(r6D)
dc!i8! rpc.ift Snviry;
C =
r!!$
rhdt tccrtsrLr.d
x (rfC)yr, vrtrc! D c mminrl di.rn r.r ofd'c
ot &.
r.d fo(d!rlg[, h &
rd
trlh In f},t= m|Iitnutn filittg lEi8ltt dclEr 6icbr.ss of0r f.|r rlEll c6oric,.rdodint co'ltltion dhvmcc, h
ir
FigLrre 18.30 Minimum thickness for the annularbottom
plate: steeltanks
Fron API
620, table
Q4A
D6itD
St$r
ln
F6( SlEll Co{tlc (lb0i! 2)
ofFinlSh.ll
<0.50 lA ea,
r5.06
thr
l5a1
ti6
^6
>050-0,75
>0.75
t\t
ts,l.z
,t
tln
rh6
r3A2
- lr0
125
ter1' lA
rv|6
,rb
N/a
>
l!0 -
ti
1A
rha
3ho
lsA2
1116
> t25
- t50 r.75
aaz
tw
lta
trrar
rh
rt6
t.a
> lsn > Not Th.
lt46
I
t.75-20
3:
rk
llat
rhicte$i ..d {i.trh3 (i.! Q-1.4. | ) in ihis rltlc s b$.do. In. fond.rio. Fovidin! ! milom ,ut,Pon !.d.r !h. flll {idtn of d! unltd pl!|!. Untc$ rr|. fd,idrk t i3 p.qc.ty @p.cr.d. ptnidldry n |h. i i& of | cNErc dnlwdl. t { 6n will Fdle .ddi_ riond .uc.s i. tn. |![st . ot r.. ft. 6i.tFi, of rtrc |Nl! borron pl.r6 ftcd .or .rc..!t rlE tlricttB of dE 6r$ ih.ll cdre TrE ni.iMo lhicrEi* td hnuhr borrom da6 *c &.iwd b$cd on . Otiguc .yct. lif. of 1000 .y.l* for tllminuo ldts. Ith. $6r rhrll t oldl!&d urang fi. adltt l(2 64t) , (rO)l ,' whsc D; mhintl diamrd of ltE tet in ft tr = mriBuh lill'tr8
ol $. |.nt rq dc.i8n. in fr !rec. h in
a; =
, h.igh
d.iign ipc.itic Irrvry: .nd
r=
d*itn rhktn.$
ol IIE liBr .hrll .@Ge. .rclldin! co(osid tlk'w
Figure 18.3'l Minimum thicknoss for the annular bottom plate : aluminium tanks
Ftun API 620, table
+48
1g,The design of low temperature tanks
te an-
io
De
SSUTE
Backing strips %" (3.2 mm) thick shall be used, or the welds shall be made from both sides. These butt welds shall have complete fusion through the thickness of the plate and extend inwards at least 24" (6'10 mm) from the tank sidewall.
which
it
often
K CeDy In-
For larger tanks of this type, it is often considered convenientto
a butt-welded annular plaie.
18.4.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach

'18.4.2.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
3ined
es of
rcon-
3ottom plates for liquid containing tanks constructed from 5%

rickel, 9% nickelor stainless steels shall have a minimum thick.ess of %6" (4.8 mm). Curiously this part of the Code does not specify a minimum thickness for aluminium alloys.
,''.z:z
Section Z-Z
Figure 18.33 Typ cal sketch of plale joint under shett ptates for tanks of con tainer withoui ann!lar plates
Jnless otherwise specified, the bottom plates shall be

rll be ap-welded together. The lap welds shall consist of a minimum
rnph-
rf two passes (for materials excepting aluminium alloy). -hree plate laps shall not be closer than 12,,(305 mm) from :ach other or from butt welds of the annular plates.
3utt-welded annular plates are mandatory and shall fulfil the 24" (610 mm) inside of shell to any lap-welded joint and the 2,' 50mm) outstand requirements gjven in Section 18.4.1.1, un:ss a greater width is required by the following:
Frcm BS 7777 : Part2, figurc 3
Bottom plates shall be lap or butt-welded together Lap welds shall consist of at least two passes. Lap joints shall have a minimum lap of 5 times the bottom plate thickness. The use of butlwelded annular plates is mandatory The minimum width (i.e. the total width from the outer edge to the inner edge beneath the bottom plating) shall be 650mm. The minimum thjckness ofthe annular plates is given in Figure
18.32. Butt welds in bottom of annular plates may be welded from both sides or from one side using backing strips.
shell
'' /a
oe0.
:cr steels:
t_. GG
:tr1.
390tr
as given in equation 18.23.
aluminium alloys:
equ 18.24
--e
-
minimum thicknesses of annular plates shaJl be as Figure a.30 for steels and Figure 18.31 for atuminium alloys.
The joint betur'een the lowest shell plate and the annular plate rnay be double fillet- or full penetration welded. For double fillet welding, each weld shall be of at least two passes and be of a leg length equal to the annular plate thickness. The inter weld
l-:t
: -:5
welds in annular plates shall not be closer than 12"
pressure test is recommended but not made mandatory For the full peneiration option, a warning about possible annular plate distortion is included. 18.4.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks The minimum thickness of bottom plates shall be 6 mm. The bottom plates shall be lap-welded with a minimum lap of b
mm) to any vertical shell weld. --e joint between the annular plate and the lowest shell course . :ermitted to be double fillelwelded or of the full penetration ::-,velded option the same interweld pressu re test is required. ' 3.4.2.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks
-.:e as described in Section 18.3.1.1. For the double fil

-- e outertank bottom shall
times the thickness of the plate. The minimum length of a

straight sketch (i.e. a cut to fit part plate) shall be 500 mm. This avoids the use of very small plates.
-':._.
have a minimum nominal thickness
(4 8 mm).
The minimum distance bet\,veen three Dlate laDS shall

300 mm.
be
-. :bove, the Code does not insist on a ring of butGwelded an- ?. plates and fillefwelded plating to the periphery is permi! .::
':
Again for large tanks, the use of butt-welded annular plates ,en iound to be convenient.
Tanks, where the bottom shell course is greater than .lO mm, shall have a rjng of butt-welded annular plates with a minimum
' :-e outer tank bottom is exposed to the vaporised gas as is - : -it usually the case, the fillet welds must have a minimum of '3.4.3 The BS 7777 approach
(total) width of 500 mm and a thickness of 8 mm. For the butt-welded radialjoint a backing strip of minimum thickness 5
mm shall be used. The minimum bottom olate laD onto the annular plates shall be 60 mm.
Tanks, wherethe bottom shellcourse is notgreaterthan 10 mm
': .1.3.1 Liquid containing metaltic tanks --: .J'rinimum nominal thickness of bottom
a ring of annular plates or be constructed with lap-welded bottom plates to the perimeter. Where this option is chosen, the deiails shall be as Figure 18.33.
may have
plates shall be The attachment between the bottom edge of the lower shell
plate and the bottom plate or annular plate shall be fillet-welded continuouslyfrom both sides ofthe shell plate. The leg ,ength of the fillet weld shall be equal to the thickness of the shell plate, the bottom plate or the annular plate, whichever is the least.
The lesser of 8 mm or
IO 12.5
tl
18.4.4 The prEN 14620 approach
This draft Code only allows steel bottoms with annular plates. The rules are the same for the primary liquid containe( the secondary liquid container and tanks for vapour containment onlv STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 341
. ' :- ::
imlm tt^tchnF"s o. anlLtar i7 /7 : Pan 2, hble 10

32 1,/ir
ptare
18 The design of low tempenture tanks
t
t6r
(rnar)-/
PENM|SSIBLE
{OT PERI'ISSELE
I I I
Frrcn
Wl|.! $in3 0. .lr.m.t dxrt Fnb. (rh. @f Dtrc udd dE..qFsrio. b& $ rho*n n Cr.||it !t l. rlE ..r .hdld .dridlr or o* of cruki.f ro .{rq4 rlE dn,dF .f ,rrnfr ,. llE &.r .t rtE fi|Lt ktd D'mnnoi A i. hr.ik h .id rlrrtd .ot .rc..d diftBd ,{ ' Sc T.bk 5.2 td linir.ttoc cm.min8 kE.rb wlEc vres rypc, .t ql<td pr.k nr! b. u,..t.
Figure 18.34 Figure
56 from APl620
The minimum thickness of boftom plates, excluding conosion allowance shall be 5 mm. The remaining requirements for bottom plates are the same as stated above for BS 7777. The annular plate shall have a minimum thickngss, excluding conosion allowance of e given by:
18.5 Compression areas

The basic logic and derivation of the formulae used to dssign compression areas is described in Chapter 3 on ambient iank design. The various Codes use whal are essentially the same
rules, the only differences being in the debil_
e" =(3.0 rej/3), but nottessthan I mm

where:
equ 18.25
el
14, = wnere:
=
.ipH
thickness ofthe bottom shellcourse (mm)
18.5.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q)

API 620 allows two different designs for ihe cylindricalshett-toroof ju nction. These are the knuckle and the plate types. The knuckle type is quite unusual these days. The fabrication costs ofthe hot-pressed knuckle plates, the needforveryaccurate fit up in thefield, the difiiculties otjoining the radial ioof support members to the shell and the lack ofany significanfmaterialsaving tended to push the industrytowards the plate type of desion.
The minimum width of the annular plate, W" is given by:
20,1,
,
urt not lessthan 600 mm
equ 18.26
H p
= =
maximum design liquid level (m) design product specific gravity
The remaining requiremenb are as stated above forBS 7777.
The basic rules forthe design of a knuckle type of compression area given are limited to geometry limitations and direction towards the design requirements as discussed in API 650, see ChaDter 5. Section 5.10.
It is stated that the radius of curvature of the knuckle in the meridional plane shall be not less than 6% and preferably not less than 12% of the diameter of the tank sidewalls. A radius of 6% will frequently require an excessively thick knuckle plate. In the eventthata knuckle is not provided, the participating portions of the roof and upper shell course plating shall resist the compressive forces generated by the internal pressure. lt is usually the case that the plating in this area is not sufficient for the task and local plate thickening or additional area is required. Permissible and non-permissible arrangements in this area are illustrated in Figure 18.34.
Rool ol lank
w. =
0.6
/FJ[--tit
L_
Cyindturl sldewall ol tank
The relevant formulae are:

wh
=o.61Fdq-
equ 18.27 equ 18.28

cr
Table 18.35 Compression ring region
w"
-0.6ff"
cJ
Fron API 620, table 5-5
Q = Trwn +
Tr"w" - tR"sin
equ 18.29
Thickness of lhe Thickcr ot lhc Two Patu Joincd(in.)
Minimum Siz. of Fillcr Wcld (in.)
A" = Q/15,000 or Q/S"E

,vhere:
equ 18.30
< > tll
tt4
-314
ltrc
5h6
>\4 - ltt4
The width of the roof plate considered to participate in resisting the circumferential force acting on the compression ring region (in), see Figure 18.35 corresponding width of the participating side>
ltt|
lE
Figufe 18.36 l\,4inimum size ofilllet weld Fron API 620. table 5-8
= =
L
R2
wall (in)
thickness of the roof plate at and near to the roof to sidewall junction including any corrc sion allowance (in) corresponding thjckness of the sidewall at and near to the same junction (in) roof spherical radius or Rc /cos cr (in) sidewall radius (in) meridional (radial) unit force in the roof plating = 0.5PsR, (lb/in)
lf Q is in iact positive, then the allowable tensile stress is based on the allowable tensile stress from Table 5-'1 and thejointfactor from Table 5-2.
= = = = = = = = = = =
The requirement that the composite centroid of the compression area provided shall not lie above or below the horizontal line through thejoint between the participating shell and roof areas by more that 1.5 times the average thickness of the two members joining at the corner is made. This is for reasons of
limiting the secondary stresses as described in Chapter 4. There are a number ofother requirements forthe compression area details which are outlined briefly:
a
Tr
T2
The horizontal projection of the compression area shall

have a width in the radial direction of not less than 0.015 times the horizontal radius of the tank shell. This onlv aDplies if Q is negative indicating compression. which is the majority of cases.
correspondinglatitudinal(circumferential)unit force in the roof plating = PqRs (lb/in)

circumferential force in the sidewall (lb/in) angle between the slope of the roof and a ver-
Tz.
ct
tical line (see Figure 18.35)

total circumferential force acting on the compression area (lb) net area exclusive of corrosion allowances quired for the compression area (in2)
gn
nk
ne
re
Where the minimum sidewall and roof plate thicknesses do not provide the area required by equation 18.28, then the additional area shall be provided by (a) locally thickening the sidewall plate, the roof plate or both to comply with the requirements or (b) adding an angle, a rectangular bar or a horizontally disposed ring girder at the juncture of the sidewall to roof plates or (c) using a combination of these.
r)
maximum allowable stress for simple tensjon as given by Figure 18.3 (lbiinr) efficiency of meridional joints in the compression area in the event that Q should have a positive value (see Figure '18.6) design vapour pressure (lb/in2)
The horizontal projection of the added angle, bar or ring girder shall not be less than 0.015 times the horizontal radius ofthe tank shell. However, when the added area is less than one half of the required total, this width requirement may be disregarded ifthe horizontal projection ofthe participating roof area is equal to or greater than 0.015 times the shell radius; or when the angle, bar or ring girder js located on the outside ofthe tank, the sum of the horizontal projection of and the horizontal width of the added material is equal to or greater than 0.015 times the horizontal radius of the tank.
on
)urp-
te-
of
- s almost always negative and in this case the design com:'=ssive stress of 15,000 lb/in2 is used for steeltanks. ln the un. : . case that an aluminium alloy tank requires a compression : -:: a compressive stress of 15,000lb/in, factored bythe rela: ,: values of the materials would be appropriate.
=
The projecting part of the roof compression area, an added STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 343
8 The design of low tempemturc tanks
in Figure '18.36.
f \ *f|
t-f
Where a thickened shell compression area plate is to be welded to the thinner minimum thickness shell plate, then the joint shall be as indicated in Figure 18.37.
The Code is notexplicitin its requiremenb for the maximum thickness of compression area.parts. A thickness of 2Z " would not seem unreasonabb as long as the material selection requiremenb are met.
t-t l-\ /
*n
The requirements of BS 7777 for compression areas are based on those of BS 2654which are described in Chapter3, Section 3.7. Theformula for the minimum area required and the derivation of this is also mvered in thisChapter. The formula only considersthe radialforce in the roofsheeting and ignoresthe other two terms which are of opposite sign and cover the circumferential loadings in the participating roof and shell areas which are included in equation 18.29.
The allowable compressive stress of 120 N/mm2 (17,400lb/in'z) is higher than the 15,000 lb/in'? permifted by APl.
Figure 18.37 Alternative details forjoint between thickened shell compression ara and uDoer course of lank shell
The general layout and minimum angle sizes are given in Figure 18-38. Two other differences between the 857777 and the BS 2654 practices are that BS 7777 adds the API requirements for the horizontal projection ofthe effective compresslon area to be not less than 0.0'l5timesthe horizontal radius ofthe tank shell, and the rule limiting the vertical position of the composite centroid.
angle or ring girderwithout an outer vertical stiffening flange shall not exceed 16 times its thickness. OtheMise the horizontial or nearhorizontal parts of the compression area shall be braced at intervals around the periphery ofthe iank. lt is usual to choose the compression area proportions such as to avoid the necessity for lhese bracings, but if they are required, then rules are provided to allowthe number and size of such bracings to be calculated.

Forthe plate type ofcompression area, the rules are exactly as given for BS 7777 and described above.
The minimum size of fillet welds between the various compression area componenb shall not be less than indicated
Correldor d top ccb tngle recdon ard lhdr
dr[etr
D
ahcll
lnd tjoof
trr - - radlu! of curljgqrr of
,<lo 8<Ds36
86<D348 LO<D<m
8<D
l00xlmxu
6lt{t|M
60x 60x 6 eox 60x 8 80x 80x l0

drt ol ioD cub
160x160xl0
NqIE. Whq r!d!.ltt , tn inov .rd. dbuld b. !d!H.
t 6f.
l/"
rDof (in n) (for contcrl mo& - X/sin d); ladtos of sttel (tn m); thida|ss of itrell (in rutr); tNcfgresr of sngle rtifleder (ln nun); thtclate$ of mol date al aoltrl,rldsiorr drg (in nur)i - nu$mum wldth of drcn pbttotg
cotddered to mr.L up the cornl ale8; - luJdtnum wldth of rDof Pbting corddercd to mrke uP the corn
trea.
Figure 18.38 Shell-roof compression aas From BS 7777 : Pan 2, frgurc 6
be
nen
Knuckle type compression areas are permitted but no rules for their design are given. Reference is made to the Japan Gas Association Standards.
Single filleiweld JF = 0 35
rum
18.6 Roofsheeting
The roof sheeting design is very similar to the ambient tank
practices from which it has evolved. One significant difference is that the design internal pressures are higherfor low temperature tanks than is usually the case for tanks operating at ambient temperatures. BS 2654 has categories for design pressures of 7.5, 20 and 56 mbar, whereas BS 7777 allows up to 140 mbar, and with the agreement of all parties, higher figures are permitted.
For tanks where the metallic roof sheeting (usually steel) is exposed to the atmosphere, there are a number of different possic lities.
Double fillet weld JF - 0 65 /\,--'.-----------------_ ._______\___.
:it
"
se-
Backing stnp bultweld JF = 0 75
sed
:ion
vaonher fer-
\rc=
(
Eutt weld JF = 0 5.0 65 or 1.0

{depending on teler ar inspBcrion)
rch
in,)
-rg-
The roof sheeting may be supported by, but not joined to the supporting framework. ln this case the possibilities for joining :he sheets are topside lap welding, double-sided lap welding and butt welding with or without backing straps. For this unat:ached sheeting case, the roof sheeting alone must resist the rternal tank pressures.
-->r
Backing stnp butt weld uslng rafter JF = 0 75
*1f--
_-lr---;
--1
i54
Ine not rnd
-he roofsheeting may bejoined to and act compositelywith the :upporting framework. ln this case it is usual to use the roof :upport structure as backing straps for the welding of the roof
sheets. Whilst in practice the roof framework may contribute to :1e tanks ability to resist internal pressures, its influence in this
Slrapped flletweld JF = 0 65
i.
-espect is usually ignored in the calculations.
:cr
tanks with reinforced concrete roofs, the roofsheeting and

Figufe 18.39 Various poss bililies for joining roof plates
:s supporting framework act as erection shuttering. During ser-
. ce the roof sheeting is exposed to the full tank design pressJre (which with current designs may be as high as 300 mbar) :Jt the structural resistance to this loading is the task of the re^'orced concrete. The design basis for the roofsheeting is now :ased on the internal and external loadinos which will occur :Jring the construction process.
Tr = tSr.E
equ 18.32
Then:
PR
2S'F
where:
equ 18.33
:1er the roof has been erected in its final position, and this may
- olve air raising, jacking or piece small erection at the fulltank -:ight, it will be subjected to loads during the placing ofthe rein':.cing and the subsequent placing of the concrete. lt is the
,i
=
=
acing ofthe wet concrete which usually gives rise to the worst :ading case. For a large LNG tank the concrete roof will be -.:me 450 mm thick. lf this thickness of wet concrete were : 3ced on the roof. lt would represent a loading of around 11.0
calculated roof plate thickness excluding any corrosion allowance (in)
R" = R]
6615p1r"rical radius (in)
The remaining variables are as defined above.

The minimum thickness ofthe roof plating (exclusive ofany corrosion allowance) is 216" (4.8 mm). As for the tank shell, the allowable stresses are shown in Figure '18.3 and the joint factors shown in Figure 18.6.
'\1m2.
-- s is significantly more than the usual roof loading of around ' 2 KN/m2,and it would require a substantial roof framework
=-C thickened roof sheeting to support this loading unaided. ::f this reason, it is usual to seal the tank envelope and apply :- nternalair pressure to balance the wet concrete loadingsfor :-: period of concrete placement and curing. the full450 mm ofconcrete were placed in a single pour, a :: ancing pressure ofaround 110 mbarwould be required and . :ie roof were poured in two equal thickness pours, then this : : a ncing pressure would be arou nd 55 mbar. These pressures
if
The various possibilities for joining the tank roof plates are
::.

BS 7777 allows both cone and dome shaped roofs. It imposes the following shape requiremenb:
:-:1
become the design pressures for the tank roof plating.
Cone roofs shall have a slope of 1:5. Dome roofs shall have a spherical radius of between 0.8 and 1.5 times the tank diameter. The design requirements are very similar to those given in BS 2654 for ambient tanks. For internal pressures for conical roofs:
18.6.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q)
:-:'n
' 1.2.5 gives the following for dome roofs:
the body of the Standard, equation (7) from Paragraph
equ 18.31
oR.
tu-n
equ 18.34
For internal pressures for domed roofs:
.
equ'18.35
Local loadings from fittings and other similar roof-mounted
'
PR,
equipment
2os4
. . . . . .
For external pressures for both cone and dome roofs where no
Differential pressure loadings on the suspended deck (iffitted)
supporting structure is present:
Wind loadings
Seismic loadings Blast loadings lmpact loadings Erection loadings
| 1nP t":rs L = 40R.1 'tFl

I
equ 18.36
where:
t, Rr 0 S I P" E
= = = = = = =
calculated thickness of the roof sheeting exclusive of any corrosion allowance (mm) for dome roofs the spherical radius (m) for cone roofs = Rr/sino slope of the roof at the roof-to-shell junction (degrees) design stress taken as two thirds ofthe material minimum yield strength subject to a maximum of 260 (N/mmr)
Forcases where the roofsheeting and supporting structure are

to be used to form shuttering to enable the concrete roof to be erected, the roofframework design loadings are based on combinations of the following:
. . . . . . . . .
The self-weight of the framework The self-weight ofthe roofsheeting priorto concrete placement and thereafter if not tied to the concrete roofwhen this becomes self supporting The self-weight of the suspended deck and any supported insulation
joint factor (single-sided lap welds 0.35,

double-sided lap welds 0.65 and butt wetds 1.00) external loading (KN/mr) Young's modulus of the roof plate material (N/mmr)
Loading from reinforcing placement including any point loads from accumulations of material
Any loadings during concrete placementwhich are not balanced by ajr pressure Differential pressure loadings on the suspended deck Seismic loadings lmpact loadings which may be transmitted to the framework Erection loadings
The minamum thickness of roof plates shall be 5.0 mm.
Roofs without supporting structures shall be butt-welded or

double lap-welded.
Lapped roof plates shall be continuously fillet-welded on the outside with a minimum lap of 25 mm.
For roof plates which are lapped, it is recommended that the loweredge ofthe uppermost plate should be beneath the upper edge of the lower plate to minimise the possibility of condensation entering the joint. Seams in the roof plating that are included as part of the compression area shall be butt-welded.
In this last case the roof framework is largely redundant, apart from forming a convenient means ofsupporting the suspended deck, from the point in the erection processwhen the reinforced concrete roof becomes self-supporting. Sadly it is impracticable to remove and reuse it.
With the exception of the small diameter tanks, often for the
storage of oxygen, nitrogen and argon, conical roofs are quite unusual for low temperature bnks.
One wayofgaining some advantage from the redundantframework and the sheeting which has been reduced to pressure sealing steel wallpaper, is to place the roof framework above the roofsheeting and arrange good connection to the concrete by the use of shear connectors. By this means the roofframework and sheeting can replace some or all of the lower part of

The minimum thickness of 5 mm and theformulae forcalculating the roofsheet thickness are the same as are given above for BS 7777. joint factor of 0.70 is given for backing strip butt welds, otherwise the rules and guidance are as BS 7777.
A
the reinforcing required for the concrete. The design of supporting frameworks for tank roofs is an area where the design codes are less prescriptive than is the case for other areas oftank design such as tank shells and bottoms. Consequently different companies have developed their own desig ns. For the larger dome roof tanks which form the majority of low temperature tanks being built, the following roof framework types are commonly used:
18.7 Roof frameworks

Fot the cases where the roof sheeting is exposed to the atmosphere, the roofframework design loadings are based on combinations of the following:
The simple internal polar rib arrangement where the polar ribs all run from the roof periphery to the centre ring, fitted with circumferential bracing as required, having either unattached or attached roof sheeting. The internal polar rib arrangement where intermediate circumferential rings are used such that the numberof ribs reduces as the tank centre is approached. Again having circumferential bracing as required and either unattached or attached roof sheeting.
The externallyframed versions ofthe two arrangements de-
. .
The self-weight of the fmework The self-weight of the roof sheeting The self-weight of any supported insulation The self-weight of a suspended deck (if fitted) External roof loadings (i.e. snow live etc)
scribed above with the roof sheeting being attached to the underside of the framework.
A geodesic arrangement
lnternal tank negative pressure loadings (i.e. the design

vacuum)
similarto that used for some ofthe proprietary roof designs for retrofitting to ambient tanks as
unleo
valu for Mcmbcrs NotSubj.c( (o
Pt surclmposcd
Valuc for
ro
M.mb.ff Subjccr
( lbflin..)
ads
P..$uc-!mpo-scd Loads
(iffitPins
dd $mcd bolc
in rcmcd or drillcd holes
ll,500
10.000 12.000
r2,000
platc sirdcs whcE At is nor moF lha. 60, o. wh@ wcb is adcqlably srif.n d, gross ot Wc!6 of bcds dd platc 6n&ls wh.E scb is rcr wcbs of b.ans
!d
8.0m ?^ Gnsion val!. rrom Tablc
5- I
stid
*b
r8.0001t +
.d.quat ly sriffcmd sd /I/l
is
mor!
tto
t rt?0041
(tcmiq uluc fton
Tablc 5- I ) Jl
60,
on
12,6m
n + Q?n?Nt
are
(o oe
lom-
Fillcl wcl.li wh.rc load h pcrFndiculd to tr lcnglh of ecu on tlE s.ction 0lough thc thrcar (se 5. | 6J3. il.m b) filbl eddt wl|cr! lold i! F.rllcl to 0E l.rg$ of w!14 oo dE s.dion 0uooeh ttlc tlm6t (s 5,15,&3. icm b) Pbg wclds or clor vclds, on ctr@rivc fayirS-suF fr.t lrci of *cld (s.. 5.24.5 md Tlblc 5-2) Burt sdA! on Lrst ('oss-r.ctional arca, in or at
?0% l.nsion valuc ftDm Tablc 5- I
9,0m
50% tctrrion
ulrc
ftom Tabt 5' I
| 1,700
65%
nsion
!a!u. froh
Tablc 5- |
14,400
80% tcnsion valuc frcm T.blc 5" I
dsc
of wcld (s. 5.16.8.3,
illh
a)
acer this )lIed )oint

oaF
Bc.ring
Pins
od !|nt.d bohs in rlocd or drillcd hoLs .d qplicd !o hoh .r oou one sidc of lllc mcm,
u,ffi
30,000
1.33
xt
nsion vatuc fron TabL 5- I
lrad disEibltsl uodoEnly,.pproximarcly, lcross

thi.kEss of ih. m.mbcr
1,67
x Ensibn wloc frcm T6b'c
5-
corctcd
16,0m 0,{B
LI
t t
l.
!d +plicd io bolt
at
only orc sid. of ihc mcm-
xt
Bion vallc fred TlbL J-|
thickn*of
rd dittibut d uaifo.nly, alproxioatcly, acru! th. m.mbd connct d
20,0m
x &.sion wlu. iion Tablc 5' I
/ork
Thc v$irblcs io lhc comFEssirc $r.rs .qu|tioN d.6n d $ follows: , = onb..c.d l4gth of thc 6luma in in.i . con spoding hat r.dius ot &ddrion ol rhc colurn in ioi r = OickrEsr of rhc rlbule column, = in ic: /= unity (lO) for v.lo6 of /R c$sl to of gElt r hr! O0l5ty =(2,.j)Ilm,ltr)l l2<2/])llm)/r)ll ftr tih.s of rA lcss rlun 0.15. 2. Thc vdiab,er in lhc bcnding strcs .qulrions src dcfincd 5s folld.s: , uruuppo.Ed t..8rh of !h. m.Dbcr; fd . cerjlcvd b.m nor iu lty shy.d at ns outcr cnd agaiist Fe.lador o. rctadon, / stEil bc rrkln ss rwic. ri. tcn$h of ll)c @opE$ion ndg., in in.; d = dcprh ot ihc n nb.r, in i.,r , = widnh oa irs @nprc$ion flegq in b.i I = thickBs of ils conpcssion fleg., in io. l. Thc vuiablcs in thc shc&ing stE* cquarions .kfincd as follNs: I = cl@ dii.irc. wb Adgc! in in.: I = urkrncrj of dE w.b.
b.rw.
part oed
ced
: :-'e
'
18.40 Maximum aliowable slress values for structu members ':'1 API 620, kble 5-3
allowed by API 650 Appendix G for aluminium roofs. This would normally be with athched roof sheets.
Tte-
any part of any internal frarfework shall not be less than 0.17" (4.3 mm).
ure
3Ve
::aching the roof sheeting to the iramework brings significant -:'eases in the vertical, and particularlythe horizontal stiffness
is of particular benefit in cases ,-ere high seismic criteria have to be accommodated in the : =: gn. lt also allows the radial ribs to be used as backing straps '- ch is convenient when higherjoint factors for the roofsheet- are required to allow for hagh design pressures. lf the roof I r-:ets are laid in a radial petal plate arrangement, then onlythe : -:Jmferential seams will require separate backing straps.

B57777 : Pan 2 ptovides the following guidance, similar to and based on the requirements of BS 2654:
The steel for construction of roof members shall have a minimum nominal thickness of not less than 5 mm. The roof-supporting structure shall be designed in accordance with BS 449 : Part 2 :1969 (Reference 78.9) or with BS 5950
:' :re composite structure. This
ete ne-
tof
fea tse
ns. wn
--:
.
different roof framework arrangements come with various
rity
1e-
: . antages and disadvantages. The simple polar rib to the tank ::^:re type is easy to erect requiring only a central king post to :-:lo the centre ring, but is wasteful of material. The more
in terms of material usage, but complex to erect. lt is difficult to be specific as to which - :: ls best as the merits of the different types tend to change :::ending on the tank size, the local circumstances and the de-
(Reference 18.10\.
-:-e
:: -plex types are more efficient
.'-
The spacing of roof purlins for cone roofs shall be such that the span between them does not exceed 1.7 m. Where one edge is supported by the top curb ofthe shell, the maximum span shall permitted shall be 2.0 m.
Where the roof plate is not welded to the supporting framework,
-.:
and erection method experiences of the contractors

ved.
)ir-
'e'rg
'3.7.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q)
for all roofs exceeding '15 m in diameter, cross-bracing in the plane ofthe roof surface shall be provided in at least two pairs of adjacent bays. These braced bays shall be equally spaced
around the tank circumference. This stiffenino is known as wind bracrng.
--=
e-
-:.' ambient temperatures. Consequently the body of the (section 5) provides some basic design rules based on -::: -,can
-: =
siructural steel standards for these frameworks. The are shown in Figure 18.40 and make reference to Figure
rrajority of roof frameworks are subjected to ambient or
--,
'e
For coned roofs with roof plate thicknesses greater than the minimum thickness, and for domed roofs, the purlin spacing permitted may be increased by agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer. A sensible peripheral pitch for a large radial rib dome roof would be around 2.5 m. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 347
--:
ôminal thickness, including any corrosion allowance, of
18 The design of low tempenture tdnks
trualn tast
stsrtt$!(Im $5I
sYlr&r
afrn tut Do$t
I
T
il
It
ll
tl
Figure 1 8.41 A tank anchorage system penelrcting both the secondary bottom plate and the outer concrete tank liner
8 The design of law temperature tanks
136x
sgcloit
E-E
ffnNCE
EfiEC]EOI CASI
di
Cnfln
temperature tanks

This provides little in the way of design rules or guidance. Reference is made to ENV '1993-1-1, the applicable Eurocode for the design ofsteel stucturcs (Reference 18.12).
the penetration of the secondary bottom as mentioned above, the design process was made more complex by the fact that this tank was built by the spiraljacking system. This means that
the shell seams between adjacent courses are not horizontal, butfollowa spiralpath. This in turn meansthatthe length ofthe holding-down straps vary to avoid the strap shell attachments falling on this seam.
It is interesting to note the use ofthe tube set into the concrete base slab to artificially lower the lower fixed point and the requirement for accurate erection presetting in the radial direction. The former allowed strains due to differential thermal movements in the vertical direction to be accommodated, and the lattertook account ofthe thermal horizontal displacement of point B where the strap passed through and is attached to the secondary bottom.
18.8 Tank anchorage

The designs ofthe anchorage systems for single-walled metallic tanks and for the inner and outer walls of double-walled metallictanks are based on the methods described earlierforambient temperature tanks in Slorage Tanks & Equipment. The task is made more difficult by the following:
. . .
The tank design pressures, and consequently the uplift

forces are greater
The liquid-coniaining tank shells are subject to thermal

movements which must be accommodated in the design The anchors for the inner tanks of double-walled tanks will have to penetrate the outer tank envelope
The total design loading on the tank anchorage is made up of combinations of the following loadings:
. . . . .
Self-weight of the metallic tank parts (in the corroded, i.e. the lightest condition) Self-weightof the participating insulation when appropriate The internal pressure
The various codes give allowable tensile stresses for tank anchors under the differing loading regimes. The actual load in anchors where a thermal movement is involved is a combination of tension (due to the uplift actions) and bending (due to thermal movements). As has been mentioned already, the use of an anchor where the proportions are deliberately chosen to have a low stiffness in the radial direction minimises the bending component of the stress, leaving more available effective strength for the pure tension component. This generally provides a more efficient solution for the design of the strap itself and limits the bending loads transferred to the tank shell. There is however a limit to this freedom to adjust the stiffener strap proportions based on a sensible strap width and minimum
Wind induced uplift

Seismically induced uplift (it is usual not to have to consider wind and seismic evenb occurring simultaneously)
thickness. Strap widths up to say,200 mm, would seem a sensible maximum unless special circumstances dictate
otherwise. Sorting out the various loading components and load cases for tank anchors is a tedious business and is an area of design well-suited tothe use ofbespoke computer programs or spread sheets.
The form ofanchorage chosen is again based on ambienttank practices. The boltand chairis less frequently used for low tem-
perature tanks and the welded-strap type is generally preferred. This is for two reasons. The flexibility of a thin strap means that loads caused by thermal movements of the tank can be more readily accommodated. Alsothe attachmenttothe tank shell ofthe conventional bolt chair gives rise to higher moments in the tank shell than does the strap attachment. This is important in an area ofthe tank shell already being subjected to high hoop and vertical bending loads.
It is usual to consider the liquid-containing tanksto be emptyat the time that the uplifting loads are applied, with the exception of the seismic load case described below
18.8.1 The requirements of API 620 Appendix R

18.8.1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks For single-wall tanks, or for the inner shell of a double-walled tank, the following requiremenb apply:
. .
The anchorage shall accommodate movement ofthe tank
wall and bottom caused by thermal changes.

Stainless steel should be considered for tank anchors, or provision should be made for corrosion wherecarbon steels are used. lvlaterials for tank anchorage shall meet the requirements given for primary materials (see Chapter 22).
Open-topped inner tanks are only subject to uplift loadings arising from seismic loadings. ln this case it is usualto resist the uplift by mobilising a part of the contained product liquid to assist the tank self-weight to hold the tank down. This is described in more detail in Chapter 26. There are however situations where the mobilising of the contained liquid cannot be used, or where it is impractical. These could be wherethe seismic upliftcomponent is simplytoo big to be resisted _by self-weight and liquid hold-down. This could in turn be in situations where the site geometry does not allowthe necessary adjustments to the tank proportions to enable adequate liquid hold-down to be made. ln these cases holding-down anchors must be provided which attach to the inner liquid-containing shell and must penetrate the outer metallic shell, or the liner of the concrete outer shell, and on occasions the secondary bottom as well. These penetrations must not allow leakage of the product vapour during service. Bearing in mind the various thermal movements to which these components are subjected, and the high anchorage loadings in the strap, this is a complex design pfoblem. An example of such an arrangement is shown in Figure 18.41 . This particular case is about as difficult as innertank anchorage systems get. In addition to the design problems associated with
When the too shell course is the minimum thickness as

given in Figure 18.5 and the top corner arrangement is as
So rca of Uplift Prcrsurc

Tanl dcsign Fcssurc
AllowlbL Tdrsion
SEarC (psi)
Allowablc dcsign ircss. S,,

{scc Tablc J- I )
Tank &sign prcsrurc plus wrnd or $hquakc Tank tcst prcssurc
Smalle' of 1.33 t,or 80% or lhc spcificd minimum yicld
Smallcr of
l.:11t,or
80%
of
rh sp.cilid tninimurn
yicld
I'Thc
rlksab[
t(rn or trnsr|t
strc\s cr
tcnsion srrc\{ d]".t! irnrn{d xl ttE dt rhc rn.hor
Ini nMnocrsc.
Figure 18.42 Allowable tension stresses for uplift pressure conditions From API 620, table
,7
18 The design of low temperatute tanks
above,
rct ns
r
that that
zontat,
ofthe
rments
Figure 18.34 details a-e, h and l, the minimum anchorage shall be designed for normal loads ("normal loads" means the upward loadings less the downward loadings with no additional factors applied). In this case the allowable stresses for carbon steels, shown in Figure 18.42. For aluminium alloys and stainless steels the following shallapply:
tom. This is most unusual for these tvoes of tanks and will not be considered further.
The tank anchorage shall be designed based on the following:
. .
The design stresses shall be in accordance with Figures 18.3 and 18.42.
When corrosion is specified fortheanchors, thickness shall be added to the anchors and the attachments. lf bolts are used for anchors, the nominal diameter shall be not less than 1 in plus a corrosion allowance of %" on the bolt diame-
ncrete tne re0rrec'rermal o, ano
The maximum allowable tensile stresses for design

loadings combined with wind or earthquake loadings shall not exceed 90% of the minimum soecified vield strength for the material.
For the test condition where the tank is filled with water to the maximum product design level and an over pressure of 1.25 times the design pressure is applied (where
ter Attachments of anchors to the shell shall be designed using

good engineering practices. This means giving appropriate af tention to the minimising ofany moments and stress concentrations aDDlied to the tank shell. As above, the counterbalancing structure shall be designed to resist the uplift based on 1.25 times the internal design pressure plus any wind load on the shell and roof. lf seismic loads are specified, uplifr shall be calculated using the internal design pressure plus the seismic loads. Wind and seismic loads need not be combined.
nentof to the
nk an-
oad in
nbrna-
applicable), the tensile stress shall not exceed 90% of the minimum specified yield strength of the material or 55% of the minimum specified tensile strength of the material.
0ue to 're use

sen to
Allowable tensile stresses shall be taken from Fioure

18.4.
bend'ective y pro-
) itself There strap

rimum )em a
ictate
es
When the top shell course is thickened as in Figure 18.34 details f and g, or where a knuckle is used, the anchorage shall be designed for three times the internal design pressure. The allowable stress for this loading is 90% ofthe minlmum specifled yield strength ofthe anchorage material. As an alternative, the purchaser may specify a combination of normalanchorage and emergency venting (it is usualto folow this latter course of action, the addition of emergency venting systems being generally considered a cheaper option than the consequences of increased anchorage loads and the foundation provisions that will occur).
18.8.2 The requirements of API 620 Appendix Q

18.8.2.1 Liquid containing tanks The requirements are very similar to those spelt out in Section 18.8.'1.1. A couple of extra cond;tions are imposed:
for
lesign pread
-'./
. .
Allowabletensile stresses shallbe taken from Figure '18.5.
ng decided on the anchor loads to be appljed, it is clearly -::essary to provide means of resisting these loads. The Code ., es thefollowing guidancefortankfoundations to resist uplift:
.
t
For tanks with an internal design pressure less than 1 lb/in2, rhe uplift shall be taken as the smaller of the maximum uplift
or Sok nickel steels, stainless steel oraluminium alloy may be used for anchorage and carbon steel may be used when a corrosion allowance is provided and the temperature regime is suitable for this material. Aluminium alloy anchorage shall not be embedded in reinforced concrete unless it is suitably protected against corrosion.
9a/"
calculated in the following conditions: The internal design pressure times 1.5, plus the design wind load on the shell and roof.
18.8.2.2 Nonliquid containing tanks The requirements of Section 18.8.1.2 apply.
valled
) tanK
The internal design pressure plus 0.25 lb/in2 plus the design wind load on the shell and roof.
18.8.3 The BS 7777 requirements

BS 7777 does not differentiate between the requirements for the design of anchors for inner and outer tanks. Although laid out in a different wayfrom APl620, the actual requirements are essentially very similar. The design loadings are set out as follows:
rs, or ileets re re22). is as
For tanks with an internal design pressure of 1 lb/in2 and trver, ihe uplift shall be calculated considering 1.25 times ine internal design pressure plus the design wind load on :ne shell and the roof.
,Vhere the anchorage is designed for the three times the
:esign pressure as described above, the foundation shall
:e designed to resist the uplift that results from three times

:'re design pressure with the tank full to the design liquid
:veJ.
Inner tank service loads The uplift produced by roof design vapour pressure with seismic loads, counteracted by the effective weight of the shell, roof, roofstructure, roofinsulation and any permanently atbched insulation.
::
-:
--
-:
3 r\i of the above it is permissible to utilise friction between soil and the vertical face of the ringwall (if used) and all of :ffective liquid weight.
. .
Inner tank test loads The uplift produced by roof test

vapour pressure counteracted by the effective weightofthe shell and roof structure.
does not make it clearjust what constjtutes the effecquid weight. The author's view is that this should be calcu:-=: n the same way as WL in the seismic design case, (see , - =r:ef 26).
= Code
Outertankservice loads The upliftproduced bythe annular space design pressure with either the wind uplift and overturning, or, the seismic loads (but not acting simultaneously), counteracted by the effective weight of the shelt, roof, roofstructure, any associated structure attached to the roof or shell and any permanently athched insulation.
' : 3.1.2 NonJiquid containing metallic tanks :: ' :'rese non-liquid containing tanks the requirements of sec: - a of the Code apply. -- ,i 3 rlows tanks with cou nterbalance j.e. where a counterbal-
:-:
:
:
,.:-. :ne
:':
-:
-g structure such as a ring wallor a slab type foundation astank self-weight in resisting the uplift) and tanks with:cunterbalancing weights. In this latter case, no anchors :'ovided and the uplift loads are resisted by a stiffened bot-
Outer tank test loads The uplift produced by the annular space test pressure, plus 60% of the wind uplift and overturning, counteracted by the effective weight of the shell, roof, roofstructure and anyassociated structure attached to the roof or shell.
The allowable stresses are given by: STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 351
temperctute tanks
. .
Service case: not to exceed 50% of the (minimum sDecified) yield shength of the material of construction. Test case: not to exceed 85% of the yield strength of the
material of construction.
be limited, to avoid failures of the anchoraqe due to ice formation or water condensation.
. . . . . .
A corrosion allowance of 1 mm should be aoolied to all surfaces of anchorage parts. Any initialtension in the anchorage members resulting from bolting loads or loads due to transient or long term thermal movements, should be considered in the anchor loadings.
Various other items of advice are offered in a fairly haphazard fashion and these are listed as follows:
The internal and external tanks or containers (the BS 7777 terminology for non-liquid containing tanks) shall be regarded as independent structures where neither contributes to the other in resisting uplif
No initial tension should be applied to the anchorage. lt should only become effective when an uplift force develops in the shell of the tank or container.
Steps should be taken before the tank goes into service to ensure that anchorage bolts cannot work loose or become ineffective over a long period. Any anchor bar, bolt or strap shall have a minimum cross sectional area of 500 mm2.
. . . .
Asuspended deck shall be considered as an integral part of

the outer tank.
Where insulation of the loose fill type is used, it shall not contribute to the resistance to uplift of either tank. Wind uplift and overturning loadings shall be based on BS CP 3 : Chapter V : Paft2: 1972 (Reference 18.13).
Anchorages shall not be attached directly to shells or bottom plates, but shall be attached to pads or brackets (lt is unclear if this means that anchors can be attached to bottom plates, which is considered undesirable). The design temperature for anchorage and anchorage attachments shall be either the design metal temperature of the tank of container, or a temperature agreed between the purchaser and the designer.
Anchorage points should be spaced at a minimum of 1 m

and at a maximum of 3 m and should, as far as possible, be spaced evenly around the circumference of the tank.
When reading through these requirements, it should be borne in mind that the language is used in a specific way as required by BS 0 (The British Standard for Producing British Standards). Hence "shall" indicates a mandatory requirement whereas "should" and "may" indicate a recommendation of good
praclce.
Where the top shell course is thickened to provide additional compression area, the anchorage should be de-

The guidance given for tank anchorage is essentiallythe same as is included in BS 7777.
3 times the design vapour pressure. The allowable stress for this loading may be increased to 90% of the minimum specified yield strength ofthe anchorage material. The Code then goes on to explain the thinking behind this requirement, which is helpful. The reason for this is that, with a thickened top shell course, the anchorage is underdesigned relative to the shell-to-roof connection. Designing the anchorage for 3 times the design pressure load, ensures that the anchorage (strength) is in I'ne with the roofto-shell connection (strength) in the event of an extreme
signed for
over-pressure. This ensures that the weakest point in an over-pressure situation is not the bottom{o-shell junction.
Stress limits for tension are given as: Normal
operation
0.50 f" 0.85 fy 0.67 fv

1
Test oBE ssE

anchor bolts or straps.
.00 fv
The point is made that shell attachments shall be designed for a load corresponding to the full yield capacity of the un-corroded
. . .
Where the top course of the shell is thickened, but normal anchorage is retained, the use ofemergency pressure relief valves should be considered. lnsulation firmly attached to the inner or outer tank may be regarded as resisting uplift on either tank. Insulation is not normally applied until after tank testing. Anchorage design should allow for adjustment due to settlement during commissioning. lt is common to attach welded-strap type anchors to the tank shell pads during the hydrotest of liquid containing tanks to avoid the need for adjustment, which is inconvenient to incorporate into the design.
18.9 Tank
fittings
This Section deals with fittings which penetrate both the liquid containing and the non-liquid containing tanks. Other items of equipment which are some times included under thls heading such as in tank pumps, stilling wells, fill columns, etc. are dis-
uur-ru rIv,,dP(v, zv.

As is the case for ambient tanks, there are a variety of types of fittings for low temperature tanks. Roof fittings are the most common, being used for liquid, vapour, instruments and services. Shellfittings, mainlyfor liquid outlet connections, are less common. Fittings penetrating the tank bottoms are uncommon these days and are confined to liquid outlet connections. For fittings in double-walled tanks where the inner tank is designed for the product temperature and the outer tank or container is designed for temperatures based on ambient temperatures, there is a need to protect the outer tank materials from the temperature ofthe cold product in the emerging line. This is achieved by the use of heat breaks. The thermal insulation of these heat breaks is discussed in Chapter 19. Current oractice is to preclude the use of shell and bottom connections. These are seen as weak points in the storage system. The stress concentrations and discontinuities associated with fittings are potential sources of leakage from the primary containment and damage to the externally connected pipe work
. . .
All anchorages should be embedded into the tank foundation.

On no account should inner tank anchorages be embedded in the base insulation for the purpose of resisting uplift. Tank (and anchorage) design should accommodate move-
ments due to temperature change to minimise induced

bending stress in the shell. Any additional stress induced in the shell by the anchorage attachment should be checked to ensure that the allowable stress level of the shell is not exceeded forthe conditions ofanchorage load considered.
Heat breaks may be required at the anchorage of inner

tanks to prevent chilling of the outer tank and foundations. Heat transfer to the colder parts of the tank structure should
o ice
forSUr-
:-e associated equipment are described in some detail

lrapter
20.
:truld lead the tank to dump its conients. Consequen all con_ v - 3ctions to the tank are required to be through the tink root, ="rd this involves the use of in-tank pumps. These pumps and
in
from thermal )adtngs.

:rng
-iere
)rage. tt
evelops
)rvice to
are two areas where this practice is not adopied. The ::3rage of liquid ammonia traditjonally has not used in_tank : -mps as thesewere not availablefor usewiththis product until :-'re rec-ently. This subject is discussed at some length in
-'aDter 2l
-e storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon has tradition_
)ecome n cross of 1m
ible, be
k.
:-:y
) borne
)quired dards). hereas
-.:tions of this size, effective internal shut_off valves are '-:Jily available. For other prcducts, the sizes ifthe liquid ouflet -:-necllons are much larger, making the use of internal .--i-offvalves a less viable option. :::TAPI 620 and
BS 7777 permit and give rules for designing
:-:
: - -'rping question. The liquid ouflet connections for such tanks usually small, rarely greater than 6" in diameter. For con_
::-er products, being non-flammable and being stored in rela_ , aly small quantities. The use of internal shut_off valves is :: 1]mon practice and goes some way to answer the contents
: . the part of the industry that deals with these productJthat pose a lesser risk to personnel and the environment that
Penerfions throuih suspended deck
., been in double-walled single containment tanks with liouid : -: et connections in the lower shell or tank bottom. lt is aroued
'good
Thertulins!alon
Vapourfl4 Suspended deck vapoLrr veni
Fgure 18.44 Typ catsuspended deck penetrations
lfora
'ooed
!rq!lo
Trs
of
rdrng ) drses of r"lost
seriess mon
worded disapprovalofthe use ofsuch connections as follows: "All pipe connections should preferably be made via the roof of the.tank.-This is based on the phllosophy that the risk of ser ous reaKage lrom the innertank is thereby reduced to a minimum. ln this way. the possibility ofsurroundings flooded by teaking pfod_ uct, with the risk of fire and explosion, is minimised.', Some of the roof fittings are quite large. For large LNG tanks. in-tank pump columns of 42,, in diameter are not uncommon. with liquid inlets and vapour ou ets of 32', in diameter. Bearing in mind that these fittings will need to be fitted with heat breaks: then thediameterc of the actual penetrations through the outer tank roof will be even bigger. For such large fitting;, their very size gives rise to structural problems. ThJ compjnenis whjch go to make up the roof loadings are:
containment type tanks. BS 7777 expresses a rather nril;ty
tank shell connections. Apl 620 does this without comment as to the desirability of such connections, which js no surprise as its origins go back to tjmes which predated the use oi in tank pumps for land-based storage and concepts other than sinole
Inermat tnsulatron
The self-weight of the fitting, the heat break and ihe at_ tached. internal and external pipework together with t-e
:oneraron
is is
Any roof mounted isolation valves \a typical24" balt la E lor tow temperature service can wejgh around 2700 kE, Any internal attachments (i.e. in-tank pump columns). Loadings from externally connected pipework wntcr :s -s ally considered to be anchored at the roof conneci o.
noi
pn3m. t iih
__
Seismic loadings acting on the roof, the fitting and the cotrnected pipework.
ork
' :- :
3 Typical roof iitting arrangements
Tanks where the structural part of the roof is made of reinforced concrete are generally better suited to catering for these load_ ings than those made from steel.
For shell connections which Denstrate both tho inner and the outer walls, a similar probtem exlsb. This is usually overcome by the use of bellows or pipe work running in the interspace. Some typical arrangerrents are shown in Figure 18.46.
Tenk bottom connections are unusual but not unknown. Some pass straight down through the base insulation andlhe supporting base slab, and som6 turn through a aight angle and run out
through the base insulalion, which may be thick enough to accommodate tho liquid ouflet line, or may require to be locally thickened to avoid localchilling of the outertank bottom where this is not provided in a lowtemperature steel. Some altemative
Inrn.l b{m
.fugsdt
Inr.nEl plp*ork
lpe
Flgure
8.46 Some typical double-walled tank shll connction amangements
Plpe$qrk belwn roof3 io provld nxiblliv
Figuro 1.45 Typlcal roof frttng arangements for tanks with fixed inner and
Otherlarge rooffittings are the roof manways wh ich, forpersonnelaccess can be 36" in dianieter, andthose usedfor materials access during the tank construction period are ofren up to 60" in diameter A number of difierent tank roof fitting anangements are illustrated in Figure 18.43. For tanks with suspended roofs, connected internal pipe work must pass thrcugh lhe deck. There are also fiftings in the deck itself for personnel access and for product vapourflow across the deck. Typical suspended roof fiftings are illustrated in Figure 18.44. Nowadays, for the relatively rare case, where the tank is provided with fixed innerand outer roofs, the need to cater for the differential thermal movemenb between the tianks is an added difficulty. Some arrangemenb which have been used in the past are illustrated in Figure 18.45-
Figure 18.47 Typicaltank bofiom @nnction arangements
354 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPiIENT
1B The design of low tempercture tanks
and the ercome rspace.

r.
aqckng srrp, il used, may be ren eed anf wtding
Some upportrun out
h to
aclocally
rwhere
rnative
l! d
t?
ncl ls than 0.71_
d%ncn
Ptml
g
I
Plmr n
: -- lPl
;-
_: 1 8.48 Acceptable types of nozzles and olher conneclions - page

620, figure 5-o
:-=-gements are shown in Figure 18.47.
18.9.1.1 General requirements of API 620 section 5
'3.9.1 The requirements of Apl 620

--: : ready mentioned, tank fittings can penetrate the roofs,
These requirements cover the maximum sizes of nozzles
which do not require any additional reinforcing, reinforcing of nozzles which do require additional reinforcinq material to be
supplied. the details of suitable nozzle and reiriforcing plate attachments to the tank shell, stress relieving requirements and a number ofother points. These rules are applicable to nozzles in non-liquid containing tanks and form the basis ofthe desion of nozzles for liquid containing tanks.
:-:
:;-
-ection the fitting is desjgned to either Appendix R or e de:i -: rg on the temperature of the product liquid. For metallic :- : containing outer tanks the fittings are similarly designed .: ::cendix R or Q. For metallic non-liquid containing tanks the --:-ls are designed to the API basic section of the Code (i.e. -:-- cn 5).
orfloors ofboth innerand outertanks. Forthe innertank
Single openings in tanks whjch do not requjre reinforcement other than that inherently available within the provided nozzle
neck and the tank wall thicknesses are:
--
> situation
is made more complex by the two Appendices
:,: -cwing" parts of section 5 and then imposing modifications is an attempt to simplify and sum-:- se these rules. For those involved in the detailed desion of -. "tt,ngs. it is probably necessary to read the full text oi the = "-:JS sections to ensure a full and accurate understandino of
: '-:se rules. What follows
. . .
3" pipe size welded into bnk walls of %,, thickness or less
2" pipe size welded into tank walls of thickness qreaterthan
%. Threaded connections where the opening in the tank wall is not greater than 2" pipe size
-: : erhora of deiailed
requirements and advice providedl
The minimum area or reinforcement required is based on the

Paisl
Plnel q
gure 18.48 Acceptable lypes of nozzles and othef connections page 2
Fron API 620, figure 5-B
100% replacement of area rule. The basic formula is:
,\
= (d +
2c)(t c)E'
equ 18 37
It must lie within a distance measured circumferentially or vertically along the tank shell from the axis ofthe opening of the greater of: Adistance equalto the diameter opening after corrosion
where:
= = = =
area of reinforcement to be provided (in'?) the clear inside dimension across the opening (usually considered as perpendicular to the direction of principal applied stress) (in) corrosion allowance for the part in question (in) joint factor for the part of the tank wall inquestion
It
ot
A distance equal to the radius of the opening plus the thickness of the nozzle wall plus the thickness of the tank wall, all in the corroded condition must lie within a radial distance measured along the fitting itself from the inner or outer surface of the tank wall of the lesser of:
:
:
c
E'
The reinforcement shall be provided in the tank wall, an added reinforcing plate or in the nozzle body within the limits outlined below. The tankwallmay be arbitrarily thickened to make available more reinforcing area. The limitations on the effective reinforcing area are:
Adistance equal to 2.5 times the thickness of the tan k wall less corrosion allowance or Adistance equalto 2.5 times the thickness ofthe nozzle wall less its corrosion allowance plus the thickness of
any additional reinforcement inside the tank wall if available less its corrosion allowance(s)
leThedesign
otlov@te*
Enh.
d8ttr.d ol
.tta.lwd
k larid.dory
F!o.l F
P.n lF2.
\-l ll-l
9le6 slz,
nrr
.\pPf,.-A-3.rssrr t*trEl5
Singb-mH bp sEtd lor haads
c.@r b plgsr.
NOTES:
,- :
nornmal thickners of the irnl wall, in in., including cormsion allowEnce,
length of projcctior of d|! nozzle watl byond rhc imide face of dle iant wall.)
r. = loninal r, =
ninimum thickness of rhe nozzle neck, in in.in., includina @rrosion allowance,

nominal rhickress of rhe rcinlorcing pa4 ir in., includirg co.rosion allowanc if thc pad is er(posed io coFosion, conosion allowanc.. in rn..
,4 t5
= =
r"luc
not lcss than
ojrnnF
a value nor less than o.7rnnn,
t, =
norninal h.rd tlliclmcls, h in.
. =
tmin
fte smaller of
or $e thickn.ss lcss fie co.rosion allowanceof eirherof rbc pans ioined bya filler weld or Foove weld.
a value not less than the smallrotl/4 in. or + irshallnor be tesr han o.7rn,Di the sum
3/4 in.
l.TtE wcld dimcc'oN indicatcd i! Ihir 6gua pcdiqcd on 0lc asuhprion thal no .drosio. tu .nticiprt d or th. oubirlc of fir l,nk. lt oul\idc cotuion is.rpdl!d. dc oukirL w.ld dihcnsio$ shall b. ircra\ed a@ordingly, 2. Erpos.d cdgs sh(M as rudcd hay b. 6nish.d by lighl Einding b ar tast r 14 in- 6dius or chdf.Ed ar 45 degRs ro ar lcan a
I or/: =
IFd!n
FF r'a
&.1 smallcr.
cxempoons
5.16.9.
l.?5rmi,,.
rr =
rmrllcr ol l/arn,ar0./(r,,-.' {lnsrd.(ornerselds nlav h Iunher limired h! ! le$er

rhe
Fgure 18.48 Acceptabte types of nozztes and other connections - page 3 F@rn API 820,ligute 5-8
ly or
rg
of
s|on
liletal in the tankwall in excess of the thickness required forthe $uctural requirements for 100% joint effciency may be mnsltered as available reinforcing material if the fitting is located ertirely within the plate material (i.e. does not pass through a rlded seam). This is useful for roof penetrations. cany out site stress relief of storage tanks folbvting erection for reasons to dowith the size, weightand need
ness at any welded joint, in inches, is greater lhan

(D+50y120.
where: fitting nominal diameter (in) For fittings less that 20" diameter, D shall be taken as 20f. This requirementfor stress relief is not applicable to tank compression areas where the thicknesses of plates used fequenty exceed these thicknesses. This is fonunate as the sib s-tress relief of a completed compression area wouh be impradical and the restriction imposed on the designerof timiting the plate thicknesses to 1.25" or 1.5" would in effecd limit the maximum design pressures for large bnks.
Figure 5-8 from section 5 ofAPl620 provides guidance regarding acceptable details for welded nozzles and other @nnections. These are shown in Figure 18.48.
the the
ttng
f b not usualto
b.localsupport during the operation. There are however local
the
ank
sfress relieving requirements to minimise local residual stress concentrations. The necessity to carry out such operations, Gually in the fabricator's works, afrer the fiftings have been relded into the tank shellplate, are based on the shelland nozAe body thicknesses. Hence stress relief is required when:
2)e
iof
ail-
Tank sections which have a wall thickness greater than 1.25" (this can be increasedto 1.5,,forcertain matedals providing a minimum preheat temperature of 200.F has been maintained during the welding process).
Welded attachmenb and nozzle bodies where the thick-
18.9.1.2 The particular requirements ofAPl620 Appendix R
Appendix R contains a number of detailed additional requirements relating to the types of connections which are permitted in primaryand secondary components, the stress reliefrequirements and aspects concerning spacing and inspection.
At fear of repetition, the number of detiailed requirements in this
tailed design of these items, but this is limited and it is not unusualfor additional guidance to be soughtfrom pressure vessel codes such as ASI\.4EVlll (Reference 18.74) or a similar Code. This area of design is tedious and repetitive. Well-designed computer programs or spreadsheeb are a boon forthis type of
worK.
area makes it necessary that the designer studies the rules carefully and is hopefully experienced in this type ofwork. The
main Doints raised are:
18.9.2 The requirements ol 85 7777

BS 7777 seeks to separate the area of tank fitting design into the following categories:
. .
All openings in primary components shall have complete

penetration and fusion. Acceptable details are shown in Figure 18.43 details a,b,c,g,h,m and o.
In primarycomponents, shop stress-relief of the welded as-
. . .
The design ofoutercontainer (i.e. non-liquid containing me-
tallic ianks) mountings

The design of inner tank and liquid containing outer metallic
sembly is requires unless:
tank mountings The design of connections between the openings in inner and outer ianks
The stress in the plate is less than 10% ofthe minimum tensile stress ofthe plate materialand the opening reinforced for this low stress
The impact requirements for the plate and the welding fulfil the requirements for primary componenb and the thickness ofthe shell plate is less than %" for any diameter of connection or less than 1 .25" for connections that have a diameter of less than 12". The thickness of the
The detailed reouirements and recommendations are summarised in the following Sections.
1
8.9.2.1 Outer container mountings
The rules follow almost exactly the ambient tank practices laid out in BS 2654 described in Chapter 3. ln brief. the main Doints are:
nozzle neck without stress relief shall be limited to

(D+50)/120 as above.
. . .
No reinforcing required for nozzles oflessthan 80mm diam-
. .
The opening is reinforced with a forging as shown in Figure 18.48 details o-1
eter
Reinforcing to be 75% of the removed area Reinforcing to be provided either
By a thickened shell insert plate By a thickened nozzle body By an added reinforcing plate
to
o-4
The butt weld around the periphery of a thickened insert plate or the fillet weld around a reinforcing plate shall be at
least the greater of 10 times the shell thickness or 12" from
any butt-welded seams, except where the completed peripheryweld has been stress-relieved. In this case the spacing shall be at least 6" from any vertical seam and 3" from any circumferential seam subject in both cases to a minimum of 3 times the shell thickness. These rules shall also apply to the shell-to-bottom joint. lt is allowable to extend
As an alternative the thickened nozzle barrel protruding on both sides ofthe tank wall such that the j factor does not exceed 2.0 in accordance with the calculation method given
the thickened insert plate or the rejnforcing plate to the shell-to-bottom joint and not require stress reliefof the weld
to the bottom or annular Dlate.
There are some minor modiflcations to the oermitted weld ioint details. 18.9.2.2 Inner tank and outer liquid containing tank mount-
All welds in opening connections that have not been completely radiographed shall be inspected by magnetic particle (MPl) or liquid penetrant (LPl) inspection methods. This shall include nozzle and manhole neck welds and neck to flange welds. The root pass and each additional %" of deposited weld mebl shall be similarly inspected. Butt welds around the periphery of thickened insert plates shall be completely radiographed
Ings
The rules again follow the BS 2654 practices for shell connections. Table 13 (Figure 18.49) makes slightly different requirements for the minimum nozzle body thicknesses.
The Code makes a number of comments and recommendations (i.e. non-mandatory requirements), some of which are
worth repeating in full:
It is interesting to see that this section of the Code (and the equivalent section of Appendix Q) allows the use of slip on flanges with the agreement of the purchaser.
18.9.1.3 The particular requirements of API 620
Appendix Q
The detailed requirements of Appendix Q are essentially the
same as for ADoendix R. Stress relief of stainless steel or aluminium alloys is not required. For 5% and 9% nickel steels, stress relief is a function ofsurface strain and as such can usually be avoided. 18.9.1.4 The design of heat breaks
A has been mentioned, many tank fittings have heat breaks as-
All pipe connections should preferably be made via the roof of the tank. This is based on the philosophy that the risk of serious leakage from the inner tank is thereby reduced to a minimum. In this way, the possibility of surroundings being flooded by leaking product, with the risk of fire and explosions, is minimised.
Minimtrm manhole dd nozzlc body thicknes
50
d"< <d^<
50
70
5.0
5.0
6.0
70<dn<100
100<dn<200
8.0
10.0
sociated with them. These heat breaks are frequently subjected to high axial and bending loads from the attached pipework and associated fittings, particularly in the largersizes of connections and where seismic loadings are involved. The Code does give some guidance which can be used for the de-
200<4=300
300
< d-
t2.5
Figure 18.49 Manhole and nozzle body thickness From BS 7777 : Paft 2, table 13
1B The design of low tempercture tanks
i not un-
vessel rr Code.
e
esrgned ; type of
Where side or bottom entry is specified, the design should take account of nozzle leakage, and its consequences, from the following causes:
Pqtked
,,ih insulonon
' .
Differentialmovement
Thermal stress
Stressintensification
Pipe loads
ign lnto
ing me-
Difiiculty of inspection/maintenance
Foundationheatingdiscontinuities
Vulnerability of pipework to damage
netallic
n inner
Where possible, shell-mounted nozzles should be shopfabricated into shell plates
Figure 18.50 Possible connection option From BS 7777 : Paft2, figure 25
Where used, shell-mounted inlet and ouflet connections should be provided with internal shut-of valves
Jmma-
-^ s section ofthe Code also gives rules and advice regardjng

:- design of bottom connections. The one rule (mandatory) is :t connections to inner tank bottoms shall be Drovided with f .jt off valves for internal emergency shut off conditions. The 1:.r mandatory comments and recommendations are also -:eresting and useful:
es laid
dram-
. .
Connections to the inner tank bottom should be avoided. Bottom connections for emptying the tank totally prior to warm up and inspection are normallyof smalldiameter lt is not advisable to operate the tank through the bottom connections, unless the design allows some liquid to remain in the tank (this is presumably to avoid accidental tank warm up during service).
.
ng on
f,t
Where openings (i.e. bottom openings) are unavoidable,

the following design procedure should be adopted:
Figure 18.51 Further shell conneciion option From BS 7777 : Patt 2, figure 26
Entry to the tank is as close to the shell as possible, but
ex-
)jven
ljoint
runtnecuirendaare
not less than 650mm (to keep the opening close to the shell but not in the annular plate - this could be a problem where the annular plate is made wider for reasons of seismic design. The fitting should always be inboard of the inner edge of the annular plate). The nozzle is positioned in an annular or sketch plate, enlarged if necessary for this purpose.
Anti-vortex provisions are considered. Additional localised base heating is considered.
Much of these mandatoryand advisory requirements werewritten following the events surrounding the bottom ou et connections installed on the original Das lsland LNG tanks. poor con-
struction details, leakage and poor thermal insulation led to

these tanks having to be decommissioned and taken out ofser-
The nozzle opening is reinforced on a replacement of area basis by a doubler plate, or thickened annular or
sketch Dlate. The design should impose negligible bending moment on the inner tank bottom under all conditions of oDeration, particularly with reference to the difierential contraction ofthe innertank relative to the outertank. (One way to do this is to support the horizontal portion of the pipe from the underside ofthe innertank shell-to-bottom junction bya strap welded to the underside ofthe annular plate and the top of the pipe). The pipe should always be full of product in service.
A high standard of construction and inspection is sDecified. (lt is advised that the nozzle assembly is prefabri-
vice and eventually being demolished and replaced.
18.9.2.3 Connecting pipework between inner and outer tank connections

The Code provides two sketches of possible shell connection arrangements. The first uses bellows to provide the reouired flexibility (Figure 18.50), whilst the second uses a pipe loop within the interspace for the same purpose, (Figure.lg.5.l). The Code provides a number of mandatory reouirements and advisory guidance, all of which is useful. The mandatory requirements are:
ik
roof of
toa
-jing
plo-
. .
Connections shall have a detailed design. (Meaning that

each connection shall be fully designed in its own ight and not be a tepeat or copy of an eadier similar connection.)
cated into the thickened bottom plate and subiect to

inspection and testing prior to laying on the base insulation).
The unsupported area underthe nozzle is keptto a minimum and the surrounding insulation is designed for the
A heat break shall be fitted to connections between inner and outer tanks. (ln this case the detailed design ofthe heat break could follow the requirements of BS 5500. (Reference 18.15).
Connections between openings in the inner and outer tank
higher load imposed on it. (lt should also be capable of withstanding damage at the edges of the hole).
The space surrounding the nozzle and pipe is filled with a suitable insulating material.
shells shall be designed to accommodate the differential movement between the shells. (lt is importiant to consider not only the longitudinal thermal differential movemenG,
but also the translation caused by thermal contraction and the rotations caused by product loadings.) STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 359
. . . . .
Flanged joints shall not be located within the intersoace between the inner and outer shells.
Where welded pipe js used, the welded seams shall be radiographed for the full length of the weld.
Connections between openings in the inner and outer tank roofs shall be designed to accommodate the differential movements between the roofs.
For the suspended deck, connections shall be desioned as an extension to the nozzle in the outer tank roof.
The guidance is: Particular attention should be paid to the design ofthe interconnecting mountings. This is to ensure that no maintenance or inspection is necessary during the operational life of the tank, since access to the interspace between the inner and outer tank is normallv imDossible.
't
Figure f8.52 Aflat plate type suspended deck
Thermal and hydrostatic forces cause relative movement between the inner and outer tank, thus jncreasing or decreasing the interspace gap. Strain absorbing connections are necessary to ensure that the relative movement does not cause unacceptable local stressing of the inner and/or outer tank. (Guidance on local loads on cylindrical vessels can be obtained from Reference 18.15.) Heat breaks should be designed to prevent over-cooling of the outer shell. Connections should be made from seamless oioe. lvlovements between the inner and outer tank roofs arises from either differential thermal expansion or contraction, or differing internal or external loads.
The use of a suspended deck means that the roof insulation is now within the tank envelope and is protected from the wind and any chemically aggressive atmospheres. As a consequence, cheap materials such as glass fibre of a very basjc grade (i.e. household loft insulation type), mineralwoolor loose or bagged perlite can be used ratherthan more expensive insulation systems such as PUF protected by vapour tight metallic cladding. lt is not only the cost ofthe roof insutation that is sionificant. placing it in a protected environment gives longevity-advantages as well. Further advantages relating to the need to no longer require a low temperature grade of steel for the roof structure and sheeting also exist.
It is usualto arrange a generallyflat profile ofdeck flush with the top of the inner tank for double-walled tanks, and located at a suitable elevation to avoid thermal stress problems for sin-
For suspended decks the connection should be able to

move freely through the suspended deck, thus eliminating
gle-walled tanks.
additional loads on either the outer roof or the suspended deck. (l\ileans of preventing roof insulation from falling through any gaps and entering the stored product should
also be made.)
l\y' uch ofthis is self-evident and repetitive, but is nevertheless all sensible advice.
The design Codes have little to say about the design of suspended decks, so the designer is lefr very much to his or her
own devices. A number of different arranqements are in common use:
A flat plate system stiffened by circumferential mem.

bers The flat deck is usually of lapped and fillet-welded conof the deck is stiffened by circumferential flats attached to the upDer surface of the deck and serving as the attachment points for the hangers. The outer edge of the deck has a more substantial peripheral stiffener fitted.

For membrane tanks all liquid inlet and outlet connections are
to be routed via the tank roof. For othertanks connections to the
struction. The inner part
primary container and other parts of the secondary container

are discouraged but reluctantly allowed. In cases where bottom (and possibly lower shell, the wording is unclear in its intention)
inlets and outlets are used, either a remote operated internal shutoff valve must be installed or the bottom (and shell?) connection shall be designed as part of the primary container with
The hangers are usually of steel cable or rod material selected to be suitable for the loading and temperature. lt is not unusual for the hangers to be made from two different
the first valve being a remote operated type which must be welded to the bottom (or shell?) connection.
The guidance provided is similar to that in BS 7777 and reference is made to the appropriate sections ofthe prEN on ambient tanks in Chapter 3.
18.10 Suspended decks

Suspended decks or ceilings are simple covers over the top of the liquid containing tanks. They can be fitted into single-walled tanks or above the inner liquid containing tank of double-walled tanks. They are suspended from the tank roof framework and their function is to support the roof insulation. They do not require to be product vapour tight, in fact very much the reverse as the product vapour should be free to flow across the suspended deck with little resistance and consequenfly causing lif tle differential pressure.
Figur 18.53 A struclural frame and profiled sheeting type suspended deck
Figure 18.55 A suspeidd deck vent =g rte 18.54 A plywood paneltype of suspended deck
ation is wtnd consey basic
18.10.1 The requirements of API 620

Essentially none.
|tloose e insunetallic rsignif,ty ad-
materials. The lowerpart being suitableforthe lowtemperature whilst the upper part is of a cheaper material suitable for the local ambient temperature. An example of such a deck is shown in Figure 18.52.
The design ofsuch decks ofren involves the use offlat plate
18.10.2 The requirements ot BS 7777

BS 7777 has more to say about suspended decks. The mandatory and advisory requiremenb are summarised as follows:
dtono
re roof
fith
type bridge deck formulae from The Steel Design Manual produced by the United States Steel Corporation (Reference 18.16\. This type of deck is usually made of carbon steel with suitable low temperature properties or of alu-
minium alloy. The plate thickness chosen for the deck the
,data
)r sinrf
susor her commemI con-
plates isfrequently5 mm. This type is quite robust and suitable for foot traffic and for use as a working platform forany erection tasks in this area of the tank. The deck is heavier than the structure and profiled sheeting type and is generally more expensive on an area-for-area basis. lts use is usually confined to smaller diameter tanks.
The suspended deck support structure shall be designed forthe lowest temperature encountered by any part in pracflce
The design shall ensure that the outer roofshall always be at ambient temperature where the hangers are attached to
The structure shall be designed foranyone hanger becom-
ing ineffective Materials for the suspended deck shall be agreed between
Aframework of structural sections supported from the

main roof members by cables or rods This framework in turn supporb a deck of profiled sheeting. lt is usualfor the structural members and the sheeting to be made from aluminium alloy. lt is usualforthe design Code minimum thickness requirements of %6" or 5 mm to be ignored for this
the purchaser and the manufacturer and may include:
dbv f the
ers.
)nph-
Carbon manganese steel Aluminium alloy 9% nickel steel Stainless steel
sheeting which can be obtained in thicknesses down to 0.9 mm. To simpliry the supporting arangements, it is usualfor
the structural framework to follow the layout of the roof framework which is a normally radial rafter type.
Timber
.ltis
erent
t I
t
I
This type of deck is light and economical and is often used for the bigger LNG tanks. The profiled sheeting, especially in the thinner thicknesses, is susceptible to damage by foot traffic and erection activities. lt is frequently necessary to use walking boards or similar devices to protect it at this stage. Atypicaldeck ofthis type is shown in Figure 18.53.
The suspended deck shall be insulated such that the outer roof does not cool below its design metal temperature, that boiloffofthe product is limited and thatexcessive roofloading due to ice build up is avoided
The design shall preventthe passage ofinsulation material
into the Droduct

The design shallallow product vapourto breath through the deck to limit anydifferential pressures to less than 2.4 mbar.
Individual deck panels supporled at their corners by suspended plates Atypicalanangement using plywood in shown in Figure 18.54. This is an economical and easily
erected system. One unforeseen disadvantage with the use of plywood is its water contdnt. lt is normally delivered wilh some 10% moisture by weight. This has been the cause of difiiculties in obtaining a suiiably low dew point during the tank purging phase.
The first two types described are well-suited to a tank roofwhich 6to be airlifted. The suspended deckcan be erected at ground
Suitable vents shall be provided which allow this breathing and prevent cold vapour impingement on and chilling ofthe roof structure. Such a vent in shown in Figure 18.55. Fittings which pass through the roof space above the deck
and which could cause cooling of the vapour above the

deck shall be suitiably insulated The deck shall be at a level not less than 0.5 m above the product design level
In areas of high seismicity the deck should be at a level to avoid sloshing liquid impingement and be designed for any lateral loadinos
.$/el, attached to the main roof framework and air-lifted into its
tul position. The latter type is ideal for erection at the full iank
rht.
18 The design of low tempamture tanks

This Code has little to sayon the subject ofsuspended deck design apart from requiring the roofand its supporting structure to be designed for the minimum design temperature, to be designed forthe failure of any one hanger and to have ventilation openings such thatthe pressure difierence across the deckwill not exceed the weight of the supported roof insulation.
The inspection regime must be similar to that of the inner

tank bottom with of course the exception of the hvdrostatic test.
18.12 Bottom corner protection systems

Again, like the secondary bottom, this is a comparatively new
phenomenon in the design of low temperature tanks. API 620 and BS 7777 have nothing to say about this part ofthe storage tank system. The function of this component is to avoid the unsustainable stresses which can occur in the bottom corner of concrete outer tanks ofthe fixed or encastr6 design. The fixed bottom corner, as opposed to the pinned and sliding designs, which are discussed in Section 18.16.4, is currently the most commonly used detail for this part of the concrete outer tank.
d al I rd
e
!I ff 'I f
18.11 Secondary bottoms

Secondary bottoms are a comparatively recent addition to the list of component parts of low temperature storage tanks. For full containment LNG tanks with concrete outer tanks, secondary bottoms are now more or less much a standard part. For other types oftanks for other products, they are an occasional requrrement.
The function ofthe secondarybottom isto protectthetank base
F 'I
slab, either of the on-ground or elevated types, from damage caused by an inner tank bottom leak. A leak in the inner tank bottom will make its way through the sandwich of liquid permeable materials which together make up the tank base insulation and locallycoolthe base slab, which is usually madefrom rein-
innertank leak or failure case where the product liquid is contained by the concrete outer tank, a situation is created where the bottom slab is warm (protected by the base insulaIn the
[r
-
forced concrete. This local cooling can cause through{hickness cracking and consequent liquid leakage either to the ground or to atmosphere depending on the type of base slab adopted. There is also a possibility that damage to the base heating system and anotherpossible route ofliquid leakage via
the heating element conduits may occur. The secondary bottom concept came about in orderto prevent the possibility of liquid leakage to the local environment. The metallic form of this member consists of another tank bottom located either within or above the base insulation sandwich. The construction details ofthis secondary bottom are similar to the inner tank bottom, i.e. a lap-welded membl-ane of minimum thickness. There is a possibility that the thickness could be less than the Code minimum requirements of %6" or 5 mm, but the most commonly used material (9% nickel steel) is not currently commercially available at thicknesses less than 5 mm.
tion) and the outer wall is cold. This gives dse to shear stresses at the wall-to-base junction which cannot be easily designed for. Without some modification in this region, there exists a significant possibility of through-cracking ofthe concrete walland leakage ofthe product liquidto the environment. This is particularly the case for LNG tanks. Their large size and low design temperature exacerbate the oroblems.
For LPG tanks, the less onerous design temperatures often

makes this problem manageable without resort to bottom corner insulation. To make this bottom corner designable, thermal insulation is applied to the lower portion of the outer wall for a
There are possibilities of secondary bottom systems using

non-metallic materials and one manufacturer, has developed a proprietary design using polyurethane foam in conjunctionwith a glass reinforced plastic covering which has been used in a number of low temperature tanks. The most common system is however the metallic secondary bottom.
The secondary bottom is usually used in conjunction with a bot-
tom corner protection system which is the subject of the next

secnon. API 620 and BS 7777 have nothing to say regarding secondary bottoms. The design and practical requirements include:
\1
Figure 18.56 A 36% nickel / 64% iron alloy bottom corner protection arrange-
The thermal contraction must be considered, particularly where the bottom is attiached to.a bottom corner system which may provide a peripheral constraint. The bottom which is embedded within the base insulation willclearly not
contract as much as a bottom which is located on too ofthe base insulation.
. .
Differential thermal movement between the various materials must be free to occur without restraint. Local cooling of the embedded type of secondary bottom from some intermediate temoerature in normal service to the product liquid temperature in the leakage situation must be accommodated.
Constructing thin bottoms to tight local flatness tolerances is difficult. Provision for practical undulations must be designed into the system.
arangement
Figure 18.57 The installalion ofa 36% nlckel/ 64% iron alloy bottom corner
temperaturc tanks
the inner
drosktic
ems
r'ely
-erght which is usually between 3 and 5 m, although there are :esigns wherethis insulation is applied for the full height of the :,-ier tank wall. This insulation prevents the lower portion of the :,-:er wall from cooling to the product temperature in this acci-iElrt situation. ltchangesthe stress regime inthe bottom corner
outer tank wall for a limited distance, or to the full tank height.
The metallic solution has divided itself into two different approaches. The essential design problem for this component is
tea from one of almost total shear stress to one which is a
new
APt 620 storage tainable
-: ensure that this insulation performs its purpose, it is imporE:: that it is protected from the leaked product liquid in the
r:erspace. This liquid may be at the full equilibdum level and l-E static head will tend to force liquid into the insulation and -:- Jer it ineffective unless suiiable steps are taken to avoid this
:,:ssibility.
=:ed
xture of shear and bending, and is more readily accommoin the design process.
the conflicting need for the liner material to thermally contract and at the same time to be able to sustain the head of leaked product liquid. Without the structural support of the insulation material, the liner on the inside of the wallwill have to resist the
full product head. For a large LNG tank this could result in a 9% nickel steel liner of some 25 mm in thickness. This is both expensive and causes design difficulties at the point where this liner is attached to the tank wall due to the large local forces to be accommodated. One solution to this problem is to use a protective liner made from the 36% nickel / 64% iron alloy which is marketed under trade names such as Invar or Pernifer. This alloy has a coefficient of thermal contraction over a wide range oftemperatures which is close to zero. Consequently the thermal contraction problems largelydisappear. This is illustrated in Figure 18.56.
)teouter
r
corner,
are dtsmmonly liquid is created r insulatresses )signed
-=ditionallythere have been two approaches to the solution of

the type of ap:r:ach to the secondary bottom described in Section 18.11, r'h is continued around the corner and uo the inside of the
s problem. The non-metallic solution involves
The gap at the point where the alloy bottom protection liner meets the outer edge of the secondary bottom is deliberately
created to allow the secondary bottom to contract and pull the liner into contact with the outer edge ofthe base insulation ring walland obtain the necessary structural support. This detailhas been supplied for the LNG tanks installed in Greece and Trinidad. The alloy is expensive at some 4 to 5 times the rate/tonne as 9% nickel steel. lt is available at thicknesses which are considerably less (down to 0.7 mm) than the minimum available thickness of 9% nickel steel (around 5 mm), so this offsets the basic difference in the material costs. The alloy is easily fabricated and welded providing the correct equipment and procedures are adopted. A photograph of such a liner during installation as shown in Figure 18.57. The liner thickness in this case was 1 .2 mm.
a srg-
valland particudesign
s often
)m cor-
nermal rll for a
:l=
18.58 A 9% nickel sleel boltom comer protection arrangemenl
The second approach is to use a 9% nickel steel in the configuraiion shown in Figure 18.58. This does not incorporate the vertical leg at the outside of the base insulation of the previous so-
lution. The liner is constructed from steel of 5 mm to 12 mm thickness and usually incorporates a swept corner. The accommodation of the conflicting needs of thermal contraction and structural support is achieved by the flexibility of the liner. The validation ofthis design requires some sophisticated finite element analysis togetherwith the use ofsignificantly higher allowable stresses than are used in the other metallic component Darts of the tank.
Guidance is usually taken from the various pressure vessel

codes regarding the allowable stresses. A photograph of a liner of this type during installation is shown in Figure 18.59. The apparent step atthe top ofthe sweptcorner is because the insula-
tion has not yet been applied to that part of the wall prior to erecting the wall portion of the mebllic liner itself.
The thermal insulation used on the inside ofthe concrete wall is usually constructed from cellular glass. This is most usually at-
tached to the wall carbon steel liner with a suitable adhesive and of a thickness around 100 mm. The welding of the liner, be it of either material, is carried out from one side by necessity and cellular glass is tolerant of the high local heat inputs involved.
18.13 Outer tank concrete wall and bottom
liners
The concrete outer tanks offull containment systems are generally agreed to require to be made vapour tight. The prevention of productvapours from passing outwards through the concrete structure and the avoidance of atmospheric water vaDour from passing into the insulation (particularly of the loose fill type) are seen to be desirable, if not essential attributes of the system. There are those who suggest that modern concretes STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 363
'"i-: ':
ag The installalion of a 9% nickel steet bottom corner ananoement
18 The design of low tenperaturc tanks
correctly placed have a sufficienfly low permeability and do not require any additional vapour proofing and that the volumes of product or water vapour passing through the wall is insignifi_ cant. This view is however not in the ascendant in the industrv at this time. API 620 does not venture into this area, not beinq interested in full containment systems. BS 7777 does not s;ecificallv demand the use of a liner but points quite strongly in that dire;tion. The intention of words like "Liners or membranes are aDolied primarily as a vapour barrier. Full containment concrete tanks will normally be required to inhibit both the passage of both product vapour and water vapour. Unless specified by the purchaser it is not normally required to provjde ljners or meminterspaces." and "Liners and coatings are commonly included in the design of concrete components for refrigerated storage systems for the following reasons: a) to make the component gas andior liquid tight b) to prevent the ingress of water vapour into the tank." are difficult to misinterpret. Customers or their engineers often have strong views on the necessity for, and types of liner systems to be used on, their facilities. Two different approaches exist: The non-metallic route involves the direct aoDlication of such materials as sprayed GRP to the faces of the concrete floor and walls. These are usually proprietary systems, the exact details of which are fiercely protected by their owners. One possible disadvantage of these types of liners is that their application is generally incompatible with other construction activities taking place within the tank at the same time. This gives a programme problem. The extension of overall timescale and the inconvenience of having to stand down the mechanical erection team are significant diffjculties. Building two or more tanks on the same site, suitably out of phase, may help with the latter difficulty. Developmentwork is currently afoot to flnd ways of addressing these difficulTIES.
branes to double containment walls, base slabs or
cast tnto inn.r face ot concrete wall
Figure
8.60 A typical wall liner system
Note:
lncidentally, note the use of "should" throuohout part3 ot BS 7777 . This is because this section ;f the Cooe provides a set of recommendations (non-mandatorvl as opposed to Part 2 which provides a set of specificitions (mandatory).
To select a materialfor the colder products which will be suitable for the low temperature, it will be necessary to use g% nickel steel or stainless steel. However, anchoring the un-insu-
lated linerto the concrete wallwillcause stresses in the liner in the accident case (where at least for the flrst period of the incident, the liner is cold and the wall is warm)which can almost guarantee to give rise to linerleakage orfailure. So, it is simply not possible to design for liner survival for an un-insulated svstem: and if insulation is used, then why use an expensive lbw temperature liner material? The possibility of liner corrosion on the concrete side is sometimes a concern. The view most commonly adopted is that the alkalinityofthe local environment in this region is such as to inhibit corrosion.
-)
The metallic route is the more commonly adopted solution.

The material selected is usually a carbon steel without low temperature properties. This means that the liner is not expected to survive a major inner tank leak incident. lt is argued that such an event will result in tank decommissioning and possible demolition and problems of a failed vapour barrier are well down the list of concerns. For the tank bo! tom the liner is fillet-welded and can be laid like a conventional bottom, or can be attached to casfin inserts for better control of local flatness. The liner thicknesses often used are less than the minimum values specified by the Codes. 3 mm is a practical thickness for handling and welding. For the tank walls, it is usual to arrange for inserts of carbon steel to be cast into the inner surfaces of the concrete outer wall. These inserts may be vertically or horizontally disposed. The wall liner sheets are then fillet-welded to these inserts. The design of the wall liner must take account of a number of inputs such as changes in the concrete wall dimensions due to circumferentialand vertical pre-stressing, creep and shrinkage of the concrete, thermal movements, insulation loadings, vacuum loadings and welding shrinkage of the liner plates.
8.14 Connected pipework
The design and construction of pipework systems is a subject that in general belongs elsewhere. lt is howeverworth highligh! ing a few points where the pipes connecting to, and often supported by the tank, impact upon the tank structure.
Pipe connections are often anchors in the piping system and as such can be subject to high loadjngs and moments which a steel tank shell, bottom or roof is ill-equipped to cater for. Care in the piping layout and positioning of supports can minimise such loads and momenb.
lvlany companies are set up so that the piping engineer designs the pipe work and passes the loadings to the structural engineerwho designs the structure to support or guide the pipe workand in turn passes the loadings to the tank engineer who then has to design the tank to cope with these loadings. This compartmentalisation results in each indivjdualsolving his orherown private puzzle without considering the effects on their downstream colleagues. lt is important that these people talk to one anotherto minimise any problems, or indeed as often used to be the case, when a single person designed the complete system and had no interest in making his own life any more difficultthan it needed to be! The other problem with the separate discipline approach, is that factors of safety get compounded to produce an inefficient and expensive final Droduct
t
t
Atypicalwall liner system
is shown in Figure 18.60. lt is impor-
tant that the liner conforms reasonably closely to the concrete wall and that water is not allowed to accumulate behind the liner during the construction period.
.
l
.:
The practice of supplying a liner that is not expected or designed to survive an inner tank leak or failure is somewhat at variancewith the expressedwishes ofBS 7777: part 3 which in Paragraph 6.7.2 states "Where contact with a product occurs as a result of spillage or leakage, the materialof liners or membranes should be selected to withsiand the product temDerature".
Insulation for low temperature pipes is expensive and timeconsuming to fit. The use of prefabricated sections of piping
tempercture tanks
Figure 18.62 A typical.roof platfom fof a large LNG iank
.
I Part 3
Accessfrom localgrade to the tank roof. This can be via spiral staiMaysattiached to the outer tank shell, by access tow-
Code datory) ecifica3
ers (which may also support the pipework and cabling

running to the tank roof) or in the case ofsecondary escape facilities, by vertical caged ladders with suitable side-stepping platforms. In recent times it has become common practice to fit large tanks with hoists giving access to the roof.
)e suit-
se 9% f-insuliner in le Inclelmost srmply
Roof walkways and platforms giving access to roofmounted equlpment. For items such as in-tank pumps, the roof platforms can become substantial. ExamDles of these are given in Chapter 20 which deals with ancillary equipment.
Walkways from tank-to{ank, tank{o-bund or to other items of plant. Runway beams. These can be located within the tank for erection and shell inspection purposes or around the outer periphery local to the top corner for inspection and site painting purposes.
d sysr'e low
. .
=q--e
18.61 An unusual access/pipe insulation arrangement
romeat the
:.:'-.tesy of MB Engineeing Services Ltd
ito ln-
systemswhich can befabricated and pre-insulated in a suitable factory environment is ofren well worth considering.
.
rbject
rlight-
For LOX and LIN tanks in paftcular, as much of the pipe workas possible is run within the tank interspace so thatthe
tank insulation provides the pipe work insulation as faras is
Peripheral hand railing providing protection to those who may have to work on the tank roof away from the existing platform and walkways.
possible.
supstem
rents
)d to sup-
The combined access tubular spiral stairway/cold box arrangement shown in Figure 18.61 would seem to offer sav_ ings in certain circumstances. The tubular soiral stairwav was factory-fabricated in sections. The main pipe work running to the tank rcof passes within this structure which provides the thermal insulation to the vertical legs ofthe pipes by virtue of being filled with site-expanded perlite. Bespoke low temperature insulated pipe supports are very expensive and their use should be minimised.
Such equipment is designed and constructed in accordance with local codes relevant to the items concerned. Some further guidance on this subject is to be found in the tank design and other related codes. Many of the large process plant contractors and plant owners have their own standards reoardino the extent of access equipment to be provided for vario-us diff6rent types of tanks.
During the design ofsuch equipment the requirements for protection from the radiation caused by local and adjacent tank fires and the need to avoid damage by direct liquia impingement from roof liquid spillage shall be considered.
rdelrucuide
Atypicalroof platform for a large LNG tank with in tank pumps is

iense
ivid-
18.15 Access arrangements

:.cess arrangements are a necessary part of all tanks. The
required for low temperature tanks is similar to that ":Jipment earlier in Chapter 7 for ambient temperature tanks. -scribed
18,16 Spillage collection systems

The spillage of lowtemperature liquids anywhere on a storage facility is a source of potential risk. problems associated with flammability, personnel contact with cold Iiquids, toxicity and asphyxia make the quick and efficient collection and orooer storage or disposal of any spilled liquid a desirable event. For low temperature tanks fltted with roof-mounted liquid inlet and outlet conneclions, the main concern is one of collectino any leakage at the tank roof level and conveying this to loca] grade and thence to a safe impounding basin. The first step is to decide how much liquid is to be collected. For LNG the design spill is given jn Tabte 2.2.3.5 of NFpA59A. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 365
nng
tant
'ob-
-:w temperature tanks are more complex and have more tank
Ete
rest
-ounted equipment and instrumentiation. For this reason the
be!
l, is
'rcfs and operating platforms are more frequenfly visited by xrating personnel.
3enerally the requiremenb are:
..fineIng
Means of access to the inside of tanks and intersDaces.

This is usually by shell manways. or where the type of containment precludes these, then by way of openings in the tank roof and internal ladders.
the full rated capacity" has been the subject of much coniroversy and different jnterpretations over recent years.
For full containment tanks, which currenfly constitute the major_ ity of LNG tanks, the requirement of ,,the largest flow from iny single line that could be pumped into the impounding area witir the containerwithdrawalpump(s) considered to be d;livering at
Does for example, the liquid inlet from an unloading tanker, where rates of up to 12,000 m3/hr are common, form the basis ofthe 10 minute spill? lf this is to be collected and controlled. then this is an onerous design problem. The confusion may stem from the fact that the US codes generally do not conslder full containment and the rules consequenfly do not fit this type ofstorage tank. This is something which it is understood wilibe addressed by the appropriate committee in the near future. It is generally considered that the source of leaks at tank roof level is the pipe work and fittings such as valves. Flanged joints are obviously suspect in this regard and allwelded systems are to be preferred.
The consequences of a liquid spill are obviously related to the tank roof material. A roofconstructed of a non-low temDerature
such a system is shown in Figure 18.63. At the other end of this scale there is the view that the leakino liquid will be projected as far as the leak scenario and the liouid pressure will allow in the most unfavourable foreseen circum_ stances. In this case a large part ofthe tank roof, or indeed the whole tank roofwillform the collection system. Such a system is illustrated in Figure '18.64.
entlyfall from the damaged or defective pipe work and fittings into the troughs for collection and disposal. A photograph of
steel is clearly more susceptible to damage than one made from reinforced concrete. Steps can and have been taken to aD_ ply local thermal insulation to protect the materials which would otherwise be damaged by conhct with the cold liquid. Perceptions as to what constitutes a sensible spillage collection system vary widely. At the minimalist end of the scale the simple stainless steel troughs following the route of the roofmounted liquid containing pipe work is a cheap option which re_ lies for its success on the view that the leaking liquid will obedi-
Figure 18.63 Atypical minimalist lrough type roofspi age co ection system
Thh]ghtolthep|inihswllhi.lh6
sp
a9 6rca are sovefted by rhe
Figure 18.64 Atotal roofspittage co ectjon system
18 The design of low tempe@ture tanks
rnd fittings
tograph of
he leaking I the liquid )n circumndeed the system is
18.'17 Reinforced and prestressed con. crete component design

18.17.1
ceneral
--e
."ry much an area for the specialist exponents ofthls region of : . I engineering. Some of the loading scenados give cause for
:-e use of siate-of-the-art sophisticated analysis tools, which is :r:bably better left to those familiarwith and experienced in this
design of the concrete parts of liquid storage systems is
on gbund 3tab- slppon.d eithd on @mpete soiuock

or pil.d/imptuved r@d ba.ing soil
-,:e
of work.
--e design Codes
provide some general guidelines in this area these will be discussed in this Section. lt is probably fair to -_. that in the design ofthe concrete components, the designer ,< 1 many ways less constralned than is the case for the de-
r.l
:,;rer of the metallic components of a liquid storage system.
:.:.crete parts of lowtempeture liquid storage systems occur :--rughout the various types of bnks:
. . . . . . . .
:
lltl
Elevaled 3tab - Suproited bv stub @1umn; onro a gEund &sed stab or on exlonded oites
For all above ground tanks the base slab (which may be directlyon the ground or elevated)orthe foundation ringwall.
For single containment above ground tanks, the low bund walls remote from the tank (these may also be constructed of other materials).
For double containment above ground tanks, the bund walls close to the tank.
Figure 18.65 Base slab affangemenls
For full containment, conventional (i.e. the free standing metallic inner tank type) above ground tanks, the outer tank Jyalls, and in some cases the tank roofs.
The outer tank walls, and in some cases the roofs of memSrane tanks.
The inner and outer walls, and in some cases the roofs of mncrete/concrete tanks.
The caisson walls, base slabs and in some cases the roofs
during the hydrostatic test phase and service life, togetherwith any imposed loadings from events such as snow wind and earthquake. Whefe above ground full containment is the chosen type of storage, it is usual for a common base slab to support both the inner and outer (steel or concrete) tanks. In the case of above ground double containment systems, the base slab is usually required to support the inner tank and the outer concrete or steel bund wall, although there are a few cases where the outer wall is supported on a separate ring wall foundation. The base slab must be strong enough to span between points of local support such as piles or stub columns. lt must also accommodate the base heating system where this is fitted. There are two distinct types of base slab.
of in-ground tanks. Various parts offloating and gravity based systems.
On ground type. This is directly supported by the ground which may require to have its load bearing abilities enhanced by the use of piles, stone columns, replacement material or other means as discussed in Chapter 24. In nearly all cases, the use ofthis type of tank support will requjre the installation of a base heating system. Detailed de-
14 and Professor Bruggeling (Reference 18.78). Both are l:.trd starting off points in the study of this area of design. Other ,-ful information is contained in Refere nces 16.27 and 16.31. ,', -at follows is a very brief tour through a subject which could :;sily merit its own book.
p,-: books on the subject are by Harry Turner (Reference
;:eat deal has been written about concrete tanks. Two excel
',
scriptions ofthe various forms of base heating are included in Chapter 20.
--e design Codes
are variable in the extent of their specific re: - 'ements and advice offered in this area. API 620 has noth ino ': say. NFPA 59A, which it shoutd be remembered is specific t6 -'.G tanks, provides some general advice. The design of con::.:e containers is to complywith ACI 318 (Reference 1A.19\. - 3ddition it provides guidance on the allowable stresses in re-
Elevated type. ln this case the base slab is elevated above the local grade by the use of pile extensions or by stub columns or similar supports from an on ground slab or direcfly from the ground where the local conditions permit (i.e. a tank constructed on competent rock). Forthis type of base,
the heat input to prevent the formation of ice lenses comes directly from the air circulating beneath the base slab and no additional heating is required.
It is usual to arrange for the height ofthe elevated base slab to be such that access for personnel is possible beneath the slab for inspection purposes. Aspace of 2.0 m makes the inspection tasks comparatively pleasant, 1.5 m is a recipe for an inspector's bad back and 1.0 m is a thoroughly unpleasant place to spend protracted periods of time! Clearly, a higherspace belowthe base slab costs more and may give rise to other problems associated with the elevatinq of the centre of gravity of the tiank and its contents during ieismic events and the raising ofthe finished tank profile where this is a contentious planning issue.
-'rrcing bars and prestressing strands. BS 7777:pan 3 pto' .,:es quite a lot of detailed and general guidance. BS 9110
"ference
18.20)isreferenced as the main civildesign Code.
18-17.2 Tank bases
rr:st above ground low temperature tanks have base slabs. A :A are constructed with the ringwalland compacted filltype of --ndation where the ground conditions allow. lt is difficult to -f,arate any discussion on base slabs from considerations of
:-e complete tank foundations which are the subiect of Chaoter base slab arrangements are illust;ated in Figure :;
$in"t""t
--e
function of the base slab is to support the loadings which =-se from the dead weight ofthe tank structure and its contents
The means of supporting the upper slab where a ground base slab is used can be either by the use ofshort stub columns at suitable centres, or bythe use of a system offadial
walls. The arrangement shown in Figure 'l8.66 allows for a circumferential layout of supports around the tank perimeter to cater for the high line loads from self-weight and seismic loadings, and an orthogonal arrangement in the central area more suited to the uniform loading from the tank product.
Tank base slabs are usually constructed from reinforced concrete. There are some designs where some circumferential prestressing of the concrete base has been adopted, but these are comparatively rare. Where in-ground tanks are concerned, the base slab is subject to different loading conditions. The ground water pressure beneath the base is pushing upwards with considerable force and the base may be tied into the wall. Usually some form of ground water collection and removal is adopted to control these pressures. A typical tank base for such a tank is shown in Figure '18.67, where it is some 7 m thick and contributes to the anti-buoyancy system by virtue of its dead weight. The base slab for the 200,000 m3 LNG tank built at the Ohgishima LNG Terminal in Japan and described in Reference 18.21 is even bigger. At around 77 m in diameter and 9.8 m thick, this required a staggering 11,000 tonnes of concrete.
gure 1 8.66 A lypica I support ayolt for an elevaied base
sla b
il
1'
il
An unusual tank base was that on the island of Revithoussa, Greece, designed and constructed for LNG tanks. The base wasofthe elevated slab type (in this casefitted with seismic isolators), constructed within a pit. The rock forming the bottom of the excavation was found to have some unexpected discontinuities which gave rise to the need for a 2.5 m thick heavily reinforced pit bottom. This is shown in Figures 18.68 and 18.69
aI1
::-
ilEE
::i
18.'17.3 Tank walls

18"17.3.1 Above ground tanks Concrete walls of above ground low temperature tanks fall into a number of categories, each of which is described briefly
*l
The design of these walls is complex, having numerous mechanical and thermal load cases. Reference to Harry Turner and Professor Bruggeling's books (References 18.17 and
78.78)would be a good place to start for those intent upon mastering this area of expertise. Both books are now rather dated so it will be necessary to study some more recent publications as well.
Figure 18.67 The pit base arrangementfor an in-ground LNG tank
Caulesy af LNG Journal
One basic input to the design process is to decide what the in-
ternal liquid loading will be for the various types of concrete
Figure 18.68 A section through the Revithoussa lsland LNG tank base
Couiesy of Whessoe
18 The design of law tempercture tanks
)fa
netral
td-
work was carried out with an empty interspace between the two walls. The amplification factor of six is an onerous design condition and thought was given to ihe possible ameliorating effects ofthe perlite and glass fibre insulation which is normallv present in the interspace. especially for targe LNG and tiquid eihylene
lral )se
tanks. (This work is reported in References 18.23 and 18.24.\ The conclusion ofthese theoretical and test studies was that an amplification factor of six is valid for an empty interspace, but the presence ofthe insulation will reduce this factor to between two and three. The development of metallic materials less susceptible to sudden brittle failure and better understanding of the mechanisms involved in such failures together with means of predicting leak before failure scenarios, meant that sudden failure became no longer a design requirement. This was firsi voiced in EEN/IUA 149 where the sudden failure of the metallic inner tank was not a design requirement for the outer tank, unless specificallv requested by the client. Particularly for LNG tanks, where double or full containment systems together with large unit tank sizes were the norm, this resulted is significant cost savings. lt is currenfly normal practice to design the outer concrete tank for a non-dvnamic liouid loading. This presumes a gradual filling of the out;r rank Lo the equilibrium liquid level, frequently specified in terms of a time to fill or as the physical dimensions of the design leak. An extreme case of outer tank wall design Jor exceptional loadings are the 144,000 m3 LNG tanks built for Distrioas at Staten lsland. New York. Because of their tocation, lhe t;ks were required to be capable ofabsorbing the horizontal loadings from a fully-laden Boeing 747 lJavelling at 2OO knots without damaqe to the liqlrid conta;ni19 i11er tank. This was ach,eved by a wi I constructed from a combination of prestressed and mass concrete to a total thickness of around 3 m as shown in Fiqure
1B.70.
ect
lernd rnd
es-
Jfe
:he tse
: ;!re
18 69 The Revllhoussa LNG tank base stab during construction
:.tnesy of Whessoe
:3nks. The innertanks ofthe double concrete type will require to :e designed for the product liquid loading. lt is unusualforthese to =nks be subjected to a hydrosta c test as is always the case 'lr steel tanks. For the outer walls of double or full containment :anks, the liquid loading to be considered depends on the type 'inner tank failure that is envisaged. In the early days of full rcntainment tanks where the spectre ofthe eatar accident and
\G
'en
'ed
rse
to-
rof
lit'in)
:Jdden unzipping tank failure was paramount, the overridinq jes gn condition was the toading resulting from such a lailure. -'re first work to determine what this loadinq should be came .. J'r'r experimental work carned out by Cup;rus for the Shell lompany. These are reported in Reference 18.22.
- ner tank wall could be unzipped vertically for its full height. He :ên measured the resulting pressure profile on the inner sur_ '?ce of the outer tank wall. In simple terms, the peak pressures -easured were around six times the hydrostatic pressure. This
lJperus built scale models of double-walled tanks where the
Prestressed concrete wall
terer
nd
ised
IS
n;1-a
ll!01! !!q!q!g-
j6
This type of construction is the rnost commonly adopted for the outef concrete walls of full containment stofaqe svstems_ The teloons fo. tl-e 1or zonrar prest.ess ng io. peiha[s rrore co.'ectly post-tensioning ) o' the talk wal, a.e LSudl y of t1e .nLlt strand type running in ducts close to the mjddle ofthe walland anchored at stressing buttresses equally spaced around ihe outside of ihe wall. Figure 18.71 shows a typicat buttress. There are usually four such buttresses. These accommodate the anchorages which anchor the individual strands and provide suitable details for the attachment ofthe prestressing jacks which impart the required tension to the strands. Followino the stressing ofthe tendons. they can be grouted (i.e. of the bo;ded type) or remain non-bonded. These days the popular choice is the bonded type. This has the advantage that the failure of a strand or anchorage does not have the same detrimental ef_ fects as jn the non-bonded type where the total orestressino load of that strand is lost. the grout feeding the load from th; failed strand into the adjacent strands. lt is important that the grouting system adopted is proved to be satisfactory, i.e. that the grout reaches all parts of the tendon within the duct and bonds to it in a satisfactory fashion.
internal tendon type
test on site to demonstrate thar the maierials and instaltition
It is a commonly adopted practice to carrv out a full_scale orout
test ducvtendon sample to demonstrate Lhat the desiqners
procedures are suitable. This will jnvolve the sectioninq of the
. t-re
18.70 Details of the LNG tanks at Staten tstand. New york
commercially manufactured range available. These would tvDj_ cally use 19 strands of 0.6 drameter wire jn each duct. iire ducts in this case would be 100 mm in diameter and most usu_ ally made from a corrugated piastic or steel of suitable robust_ ness to survive the site conditions and handling. Larger ten_ dons are commercially available, but their use is restricted by STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 369
aims have been achieved under site conditions. For a larae LNG tank d is common to use medium-sized tendons from rhe
18 The design of low temperature tanks'
-th
r r
-
Figwe 1A.72 A typical multi-strand prestressing tendon and anchofage
nificant commercial and programme advantages to the contractorwho can produce a design avoiding the need for vertical prestress. Where access permits, the vertical tendons can be prestressed from the bottom end, i.e. where an elevated base slab design has been adopted. An example ofa tendon being stressed from the bottom end is shown in Figure 18.73. When an on ground base is adopted, this is not possible and either single tendons fitted with a blind anchor at the bottom end as shown in Figure 18.74 are used, or the 'U'shaped tendon is used. In both cases the prestressing must be carried out from the top corner of the tank.
It is usualfor the thickness of walls ofthis type to be ofthe order of 600 mm. There is a practical minimum thickness required to accommodate the circumferential and vertical tendons and to
provide cover for the reinforcing steel needed for local crack control. lncreasing concrete thickness means more reinforcing steel, but may provide increasing blast and missile protection. Clearly there is a construction cost versus the quality of accident condition protection argumenvquestion which is common in this area of design and construction.
t
Figure 18.71 Prestressing buttresses for a full containmeni type LNG lank
''I
practical spacing considerations. The steels that the tendon strands are made from have a very high tensile strength (typi cally in accordance with prEN 10138-1 1991 with a minimum guaranteed UTS of 1860 N/mm2). An example ofsuch a tendon
and its prestressing anchorage is shown in Figure 18.72. The vertical prestressing can be of the single bar (MacAlloy) type, which is usually reserved for smaller tanks, or ofthe same multi-strand tendon type as is used for the circumferential stressing. There are a number of current wall designs where vertical prestressing is deemed not to be required. These designs are at this time the sub.iect of an active, and occasionally acrimonious debate bet\,veen the interested parties which will doubtless be resolved in the near future. Clearly there are sig-
t
! !
.|
I I
:
Figure 18.73 Vertical prestressing from beneath the elevated base slab
:-
g!re 18.74 A blind prestressing tendon anchorage
The vertical prestressing is usually applied first to give the wall the capacity to accommodate the vertical bending induced by the circumferential prestressing.
BS 7777 gives some guidance in this area which is summarised as follows:
Figure 18.75 A view of the outer surface of a banded wire wound concrete
conrtical ssed
rsrgn
. .
Transfer and residual stresses should be taken into account. The amount ofprestress should be calculated takjnq
into account all losses.
The total loss of prestress is the sum ofthe individual losses
Earlier designs had the wire distributed evenly over the whole
outer surface ofthe wall. More recent designs have the strands collected into bands which may each contain some hundreds of individual strands, and distrjbuted vertically as required for the design loadings up the wall. This can clearlv be seen in Fioure 18.7 5.
from
)u
nd
tons
gure
ESES
arising from transfer, creep, shrinkage, friction, curvature and relaxation. Losses should be calculafed in accordance with BS 81'10 : Part 1 : 1985 :Annex C.
. .
f the
lt js necessary to use concrete of a high quallty level, with a strength of 40 N/mm3 or more.
The totaltensile load capacjty of the tendons, jncluding any
rrder )d to ro Io racK
cing
tron.
non-stressed reinforcement, should be greater than the tensile load capacity ofthe concrete tank wall. This is to ensure that in the event of overloading, sudden failure or bursting of the tank in a "brittle" manner js not a credible event.
The layout ofthe tendons, especially adjacent to the stress-
mon
ing buttresses, should be such practicable spacings are achieved and the placing and vibration ofthe concrete is not impaired.
The application of the strands is accomplished bv the use of a specially designed carriage which runs around ihe outside of the wall, usually supported by rubber tyres running on the top of the wall. This carriage is driven circumferentiallvvia a Revnolds chain placed around the concrete wall. lt also his the caoabilitv ro raise and lower providing coverage of tne complete outei surface of the wall. The stressing strand, which is initially some '10 mm in diameter, is passed through a die mounted on the car_ riage, as it revolves around the tank wall. This has the combined eftect of work hardening the wire strand and applying the required tension to it. As the wire is placed, a suitably strong grout is applied the wall to provide both bonding and weather protection for the strands. The positioning of the circumferential prestressing wires close to the outer surface of the wall has on occasions oiven rise to concerns of possible loss of prestress caused by-external fire events and of possible damage to the wires caused by missile impact. There have been a small number of cases where this orout has not properly performed its weatherprooflng duties. This was traced to bad application procedures and material selectjon, and should now not be a problem. lt did however pose an interesting technicalproblem for the owners ofthe affected facilities. Clearly some corrosion of the stressing wires had taken place. It was self-evidently between 100% and 0%, varying over the height and circumference of the wall. To add some iraction of the original stressing to the wall (i.e. on top of the existing)
WOUIO;
Under maximum design loading conditions, including the liquid and the temperature loading due to inner tank leak_ age, the minimum residual average compressive stress of 1.0 N/mm2should be provided inthe principal direction(s) of prestress. This is normallytaken as the hoop direction only.
Prestressed concrete wall
1is type ofwalldesign has been menfioned briefly in Chapter ' 7. lt is often known as the "preload" type of wall, as the design aas patented by the American company preload Inc. : 1as been used widely in the USAfor water storaqe tanks and :s some history of use in the UK as the chosen d;sign for the : -ter concrete walls of double coniainment tanks. The Datent is -:,v owned by another American company called Cryocrete of n-om Whessoe is currenfly a licensee.
-
wire wound type
. .
Crush the concrete if most ofthe original prestressing were present
-ê double concrete design (i.e. a prestressed concrete inner

type) uses this =-l -::nnology. The vertical prestressing is supplied by internal concrete outer tank of the full containment
Leave the wall understressed

prestressing were damaged
if
most of the orioinal
:?'s or tendons which run in the centre of the wall. The cir-'r'rferential prestressing is applied in the form of a continuous 4 'e strand wound around the outside surface of the concrete
:
An interesting quandary!
Considerable effort was put into trying to devise methods of
4:L
non-destructive testing
prestressing loss. This was eventually unsuccessful and the STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 371
to determine the extent of
the
t!9 !9:'s! o!l9rL9.p9,atu!93!lk!
only solution was to physically remove the existing prestressing system entirely and replace it. The author witnessed one such
repair. The thought was that the defective grout/shotcrete would fail if a band of highly stressed wires were cut through. Thus a complete band of the circumferential stressing material could be removed in a single operation.
l\,4uch worryingwas done concerning the energy locked into the prestressing bands and the potential problems if this energy were to be suddenly released. Would the band let go ofthe con-
crete wall in an explosive manner? Finally a suitably protected operative (in a substantial metal cage) was allowed to tentatively apply a disc grinder to the selected band of wire winding. He eventually cut through all of the wires in the band and nothing happened. The ability of the grout to hold the wires in place greatly exceeded the influence of the tension in the wires to separate the band of wires from the concrete tank shell. Having cut through the complete band of prestressing wires, itwas then necessary to remove the whole band manually, which proved to be a very difficult and time consuming task.
Fioure 18.76 LNG ianks wth reinforced concrete earlh erabankmenl walls
Forthe innertankofa double concretetankit is usualto provide a metallic barrier. This is usually made from carbon steel without low temperature properties and is applied to the outside of the concrete wall before the vertical prestressing and the circumferential wire winding is undertaken. The argument used to justify the lack of low tempefature properties for a component which will clearly see the full liquid design temperature in service, is that it will be in both vertical and circumferential compression due to the prestressing of the concrete throughout its
life.
Some of the wire wound concrete tank walls were constructed from prefabficated sections, something which may be worth revisiting in times where the finished cost of a project is often of less significance that the overall construction programme time.
Reinforced concrete wall with earth embankment

Following the Qatar incident, which has been described in Chapter 17,the first full containment tanks designed had outer walls of this type. For various reasons this design has fallen out
of fashion. An example of such tanks is shown in Figure 18.76. The majority ofthese tanks werefitted with steelouter roofs, although there is no reason why concrete roofs should not be fitFigure 18.77 Example ofa reinforced concrete wallwlth earth embankr.ent Fron BS 7777 : Pan2, figure 4
ted.
18.1 7.3.2
In-ground tanks
One interesting diffefence between this type of tank and the prestressed types is in the need to provide heating for not only the tank base, but also for the tank wall. The design ofthis heating system to allowfor maintenance and replacement of heater elements and to cater for base/shell movements during construction and service was no easy task. The uncertainty which surrounded the inward loading from the earth or rock embankment (the eouivalent of the circumferential prestressing) meant that this loading had to be viewed at its minimum to provide the inward load to resist the liquid loading from the inner tank failure condition, and at its maximum to des;gn the reinforced concrete wall to resist crushing during service. The accommodation of these two opposites could give rise to an expensive wall design. The early versions ofthis type oftank were designed for ihe full sudden unzipping failure of the innertank. This gave rise to a robust and expensive walldesign.
A section through such a tank, taken from BS 7777 is shown in Figure 18.77.
The in-ground membrane type of tank as shown in Chapter 17, Figure 17.42 will require a concfete wall for a number of reasons. During the construction sequence it allows the excavation of the pit and during service holds back the surrounding soil and prevents the ingress of ground water. The 200,000 mr LNG tank at the Ohgishima LNG Terminal of Tokyo Gas in Yokohama, Japan, is described in Reference 18.21 . lt ts built entirely underground, that is to say, even the tank roof is beneath the finished ground level as indicated in Figure18.78. lt has a caisson wall of 77.1 mdiameterx68.5m deep with a wallthickness of 1 .5 m. This was constructed by the slurry wall technique. This enabled the excavation to be completed and inner structural wall consisting ofa 0.15 m thick series of Drecast Danels and a cast in situ 2.2 m thick concrete element. The total thickness of the wall (i.e. the slurry wall, the structural concrete and the precast panels) was 3.85 m. The design for the external pressures from soil and ground water is usually quite straight forward, requiring only vertical preStTESS,
The reasons fof the current unpopularity of this type of tank are based on cost, construction programme time and the site areas required to accommodate the embankments. The slope of the embankment is usually around 1.0:1.5 (vertical to horizontal). So. for a 100.000 m3 tank with an inner diameter of 70 m and height of 28.5 m, a circular footprint of some 156 m in diameter will be required. The embankment does provide excellent resistance against external missile and blast loadings.
't
8.17.4 Bottom corner details
The issue ofthe type of bottom corner detailto adopt is mainly a concern of the above ground tank fraternity. Much has been written on the relative merits of the different types of bottom corner details by those in the industry who have frequently devel-
Woll
ind@tive (nornalty ur.d
rerf,
torasehl sh.vn
Ctrrunlrntjol prest.est
Rodiul stmp! to nuinloin
do.ts qi.horad ot buttreses
p.*tres3 rorpl.ted b.fde
V..indl dnd.i..!0feretidt
\rall .ointorsent
In
oddition foverti.ul pr6h.ss
i5
pfovided
0tuuf,terentiol
pr$hett
vertkol
pRrh.*
Figure 18.78 200,000 m3 in-ground LNG tank in yokohama. JaDan
Coutesy of LNG Jounal
oped strong partisan opinions on the subject. The three designs are:
.
17,
oil
of ce
he in
dial guides should be provided to ensure lhat all move_ ments are concentic with the base slab. A flexlble seal. frequently in the form of a stainless steel strip is provided to prevent leakage of liquid or gas at the joint.
under prestressing and service loadings. To ensure thai the wall cannot move laterally due to wjnd or seismic loadings, ra_
joint. In this case the wall is supported base slab and is free to move horizontallv
The sliding
Figure 18.79 Typicatjoints for prestress wa ,to_base iunciion
by the
From BS 7777 : Paft 2, figure 3
forthese high loadings appearto run into practicalspace limita_
!ons.
IF
e.
ere
The pinned joint. In this case the wall is supported by the base slab and during prestressing is free to move horizontally. After the prestressing operatjon is complete, the wallis pinned in position. The joint between wall and base slab is detailed such that it can transmit shear loads from wall to base slab, but not bending moments. Again a flexible seal will be required to prevent local leakage. The fixed joint. This is where the walland base slab are of monolithicconstruction. prestressing, servjceand accident loadings must be transferred from wallto base slab without through-cracking. The provision of local thermal insulation to allow the accident condition loadings to be accommo_ dated is described in Section 18.i.1.
base, whilst allowing for radialmovement, gives rjse to some in_ teresting design problems fortanks with the sliding and pinned joint details.
to the iank base slab, and indeed possibly to require the an_ chorage of the base slab. The anchorage of the wall to the
tank walland roofwould be more than sufficient to balance the uplifi due to internal operating and test pressures. With internal pressures rising to 300 mbar, this cannot be relied on and occa_ sions arise where it becomes necessaryto anchor the tank wall
The tendency within the industry to specify ever-increasing tank design pressures gives rise to another problem. Undei normal circumstances, the self-weight of the outer concrete
joint.
The current favourite within the industry seems to be the fixed
18.17.5 The top corner details

For full containment type tanks, a suitable joint is required be_ tween the wall and the roof of the tank for concrete walls with
n
r-
The three types ofjoint are illustrated in Figure 19.79. The cir_ cumferential prestressing system can be either by internalten_ dons or bywire winding in each case. The figure does not make this clear. The relative merits are briefly summadsed as shown in.F_igure 18,80. There is scepticism regarding the ability ofthe sliding jointtype to accommodatethe high lateral loadings usu_ ally associated with seismic events. The radial guides required
both concrete and steel roofs. BS 7777 : part 3 gives some guidance in the design of this detail. The loadings ihould mnsider the following:
. .
Gas tightness Radialand vertical loadings applied to the wall, both uDward STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 373
temperaturc tanks
Slresrs rre D..dicr.d rvith goorl

Second.ry slreses are relrtiaclr Pfrst.css is
Dependent on adequaa_ ofjoint seal Sone un.crtrinry ove. de$ee of sli.ling
tr{rii(l.ri \vith
good
Subsequenr selond.ry srr6ses
a..
lcss
..(u6 rn wall arv,y from lh{:.ioinl-s. rt level when 'cnd effects from ver'li.rl t.n.l,Ds
Ilaxinrun nlrm$l
l,alle shers and
hiru
la.ge mon.nls
,rc hrklv srnollcd oul
it(n,usl f.r N of lonshucti.n
PFdi.lnn otslrc$cs
is
un.dlxnr
LlEe rrnnents rn(l slrea':

!.{r1r.sse(l
(dnu)us
rhennal Uote.rnnr ar tlF l(,inl nrtry be inlri'(\rccd to rc(lu( rLl(litioral srrlsses duc to llrcmd niranrg
{rll! ne.essitrt,. lhe lsc ol presllBse{l basr 1d s!*itrl
]h\im!m
Figute 18.80 Summary of the advantages and disadvanlages of lojnls in ihe wal-to-base lunct on
nromenr o.rnF
rt
the ion{
Fron BS 7777 : Pan 3. bble
and downward vertical loadings
18.3
. .
To
Radial thermal loadings
Steel plate Engineering Data - Volume ll- Paft lll- External pressures on cylinders. Published by The American lron and Steel Institute in cooperation with the Steel
Abnormal loadings such as blast, fire or seismic this list should be added:
Intefnal pressure loadings
Plate Fabricators Association Inc., Washington DC

1992.
. .
18.4
Constructionloadings
Collapse by lnstability of Thin Cylindrical Shells under External Pressure, Dwight F. Windenberg and Charles Trilling, ASME proceedings Vol 56 No 11, November 1934.
Table 8.5.1 ofthe American lnstitute of Steel Construction - Manualof Steel Construction (Allowable slress deslgn), Ninth Edition, 1989, ISBN 1 56424 000 2.
The top corner is usually of the fixed type where a reinforced concrete roof is used. This is clearly a congested area with plenty of both vertical and circumferential stressing members and reinforcing to be accommodated. Where a steel roof is to be connected to a concrete wall, BS 7777 suggests the use of a sho( vertical steel shell section. The thinking being that this element will allow flexibility to accommodate ihe various differential movements between roof and wall. There are a number of
18.5
18.6
PD 7777 : 2000, Alternative steel selection and its effect on design and testing of tanks to BS ZZZZ, The British Standards Institution, London
cases where this cylindrical steel element has not been included.
18.7 ASTM E208: Standard method for
conducting dropweight test to determine nil-ductility tnnsition temperature of ferritic steel : 1995.
prEN 14620 : March 2003- Design and manufacture of site built, veftical, cylindrical, flat bottomed steel tanks forthe storage of refrigerated, liquefied gases with operating temperatures between -5 'C and -165 "C: Pafts 1 to 5 : CEN.
18.17.6 Tank roofs

It is usualfor concrete roofs io be constructed from reinforced concrete. A finished thickness of 300 mm to 500 mm is usual with reinforcing mats close to the upper and lower surfaces. A steel roof framework supporting the roof sheeting is usually utilised to act as forrnwork for the construction of the concrete roof. As mentioned in Section '18.6, it is possible to utilise the structurally redundant roofframe and sheeting to replace some of the reinforcing steel.
18-8
18.9 85 449 : Paft
2 : 1969, The use of structural steel in building ,fhe British Standards Institution, London.
1 : 1990, Structural use of steelwork in building Part 1:Code of practice for design in simple and continuous construction: hot rolled sectiors, The British Standards Institution, London.
18.10 BS 5950 i Pad
The main design criteria for the tank roof are the internal pressure, the self-weig ht of the roof platforms and any missile loadings. For the LNG tank at Revithoussa lsland in Greece, two missile loadings were specified. The first was a soft missile, which was a helicopter from the local army-training base, and
18.11 Recommended practice for LNG above ground storage:1981,
fhe
Japanese Gas Association
18.12
ENV 1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
thesecondwasa hardmissilefiredatthetankwithmaliciousintent. Both were defined in terms of their rnass, velocity, angle of
approach and area of application.
Paft 1-1 General rules and rules for buildings.
18.13 BS CP 3 i Chapter V: Paft 2 : 1972 Code of basic data forthe design of buildings- Chapter v Loading- Paft 2
Wind loads, The British Standards Institution, London.
18.18 References 18.1 Stability of API Standard
18.14 ASME Section Vlll Divisions 1 and 2, rules for construction of pressure vesseis, ASME, New York 2002.
Tank She/is, R.V.McGrath, Proceedings of the American Petroleum Institute, Section lll, Refining APl, New York, 1963, Volume 43 pp 458-469.
18.15 PD 550A :2000 specification for unfired fusion welded

pressure vesse/s, BSI London, ISBN 0580 33080 X.
18.16 Steei Deslgn Manual, Unlted States Steel Corporation,

Section 8.2.2.
1a.2
The design of lanks fo Reslsl External Prcssures,

PZick, Document no. 7'1l33508 dated ay 1971, Ptesented to the British Standards lnstitution Technical
L.
N,4
18.17 Concrete and Cryogenics,F.H.f utner, AViewpoint publication, The Cement and Concrete Association, ISBN o 7210 1124 1.
Committee PE/12.
18.18 Prestressed co ncrete for the storage of liquefied gases, Professor Dr lr. A.S.eBruggeling, AViewpoiht publication, The Cement and Concrete Association, ISBN 0
7210 1187 X.
18.22 Developments
in cryogenic storage tanks,
N.J.
Cuperus, Shell Intemationale Petroleum, Maabshappij 8.V., The Hague, LNG 6 Conference.
1Al9 ACI
318, Ameican Concrete lnstitate Building Code Requiremenb for Reinforced Conctete 1999.
18.22 Damping effect of pedite/fibreglass insulation on outer

tank dynamic loads in double-walled cryogenic tanks, A.S.Adorjan, bo(on Production Research, Houston; D.B. CraMord, M.WKellogg, Houston; S.E.Handman,
M.W.Kellogg, Houston; LNG 7 Conference.
18.20 BS 8110: Patt
1 : 1985, Structuraluse of concrete Code of practice for design and consttuction,fhe British S'tandards Institution, London.
18-21 Construction of an underground storage tank, Kenji

Yanagiya and Tomoyuki Ogawa, Kajima Corporation, Japan LNG Journal, Nov/Dec 1999.
18.24 Dynamic load attenuation for double wall tanks, R.A. Vater, Pitbburgh des Moines Corporation, Pittsburgh
Gastech 1984 Conference.
ExDC
nefl-
itel
nder mes
nber
luctde-
tect
ilish
op?n-
eot
nks ,er-
bt
{in
kin
''ld ish
s-
fr
n-
t2
p-
b
ra
19 Insulation systems for low
temperature tanks
Insulation systems for low temperature tanks form an essential part of the liquid mntainment system. The rlaterials used and installation techniques adopted are many and varied. This Chapter is of necessity a brief review of the thermal insulation for the different parts ofthe tiank, the guidance given by the various Codes and the calculation methods to be adopted to design an efiective thermal insulation system.
Contents:
19.1 General
19.1. 1 Basic requiremenb of the insulation system
1 1
9.1.2 Insulation categories 9.1.3 Installation considerations
19.1.4 Basic design and material requirements 19.1.5 Design Code requirements
19.2 Base insulation

'19.2.1 General
19.2.2 The central area 19.2.3 The peripheral area 19.2.4 Design methods 19-2.4.1 lnner arca 19-2.4.2 Periohe'al arca
'19.2.5 Detailed design Code requirements
9.2.5.1 EEMUA reouirements 19-2.5.2 BS 7777 rcouirements

1
19.2.5.3 Draft of new Euronorm DrEN '14620

'19.2.6 Base insulation materials
19.2.6.1 Cellular glass 19.2.6.2 PVC foam

1 1
central area
9.2.6.3 Polyurethane foam 9.2.6.4 Lightweight concrete
19-2.6.5 Composite systems 19.2.6.6 Blast furnace slag 19.2.7 Base insulation materials
19.3 Wall insulation

19.3.1 General
'19.3.2 General reouirements
peripheral area
19.3.2.1 Insulation for the walls of single-walled metallic tanks 19.3.2.2 Rigid insulation for the walls of double-walled tanks '19.3.2.3 Loose till insulation systems 19.3.3 Design Code requirements 19.3.4 Wall insulation materials
19.3.4. 1 Polyurethane foam '19.3.4.2 PVC foam
19.3.4.3 Other Dlastic foam materials 19.3.4.4 Cellular glass 19.3.4.5 Mineralwool 19.3.4.6 Perlite loose fill insulation systems
19.4 Roof insulation

19.4.1 General
'19.4.2 Externai roof insulation '19.4.3 Internal suspended deck insulation
19.5 Insulation of heat breaks for fittings
STORAGE TANK$ & EOUIPIIENT 377
19 lnsulation systems for low tempemture tanks
19.5.1 General '19.5.2 Heat breaks for roof connections 19.5.3 Heat breaks for tank sidewall connections 19.5.4 Heat breaks for tank bottom connections
19.6 Internal pipework insulation 19.7 External pipework insulation 19.8 Heat leak calculations
19.8.1 Basic calculation methods 1 9.8.2 Thermal conductivity values 19.8.3 The influence of different interstitial gases 19.8.4 Calculation of the hot face temperature 19.8.5 Overall heat leak
19.9 Heat leak testing 19.10 The use of the infra red camera 19.11 lnsulation problems from the past and their lessons
'19.1'1.1 Base insulation failure
19.11.2 External vaPour sealing 19.1 '1.3 Bottom corners 19.1 1.4 Perlite settlement
19.12 References
19 Insulation systems far law tempercIurc
tan|s
19.1 General
Systems for the thermal insulation oftanks storing lowtemperature liquids are areas ofinterestwhich could easilyform the basis of a book in their own right. What follows is something of a r'r'histle stop tour and is of necessity limited in the amount of in-
Protection from moisture. l\rany insulation materials will readily absorb water. This usually has a detrimental efiect on their thermal conductivity. Consequently care must be
taken to ensure that materials are maintained in a dry state during their transport to the construction site, during any storage on the site, during jnstallation and up to the point when the tank is placed in its intended service. There are numerous examples ol this happening, which have proved to be both expensive and time consuming mistakes, as wet insulation materials are often impossible to subsequently dry out in situ. Storage tanks are often large in both diameter and height and are frequently constructed on coastal sites. The combination of size and severe weathercan cause installation dif-
fofmation and detail provided. The subject has to be included, even in an abridged form as it forms an essential part ofstorage systems which must, in many respects, be considered as comtosite systems rather than a series of independent compo-
rents.
The following is based on the assumption that the tanks in question are vertical and cylindrical in form. lvluch ofthis chap:er is relevant to other types of storage tanks, but to include all rfthe possible variatjons and exceptions would tend to obscure :he various ooints made.
rhe insulation systems associated with the membrane type of :anks, both above and in-ground, are quite particular and are :iscussed in the Sections 17.9 and 17.12 in Chapter 17.
19.1.1 Basic requirements of the insulation system -he essential functions of the thermal insulation system are:
ficulties for external insulation systems. High winds can remove all but the most robust weather protection and a modest amount of rain, blown to one side ofthe tank can result in a virtual waterfall on the down wind side of the tank. Strong and well thought out protection systems are a necessity.
Some insulation materials are susceptible to mechanical

damage (i.e. cellularglass). Appropriate care must be taken during transport, storage and installation to ensure that breakages are kept to a minimum.
. . . . .
1
To limit the product boil off due to heat in leakage from the
atmosDhere to below the specified limib.

To protect the non low temperature parts of the tank system
19.1.4 Basic design and material requirements

The following considerations must be taken into account when designing a thermal insulation system:
from the temperatures of the stored product.

To provide structural support where required (i.e. to the tank
oase).
limitthe cooldown ofthe tankfoundations to ensure that cooling of the sub soil and possible damage as a result of "frost heave" is avoided.
To
Thermal conductivity of the materials used at the design tempefature. Any anticipated changes of thermal conductivity with time should be taken into account. Any long term structural loadtngs to be sustained by the insu ation. Any aniicipated changes in strength with time and any creep effects should be taken into account.
To prevent or at least minimise condensation and icing of the outer surfaces of the tank.
9.1.2 Insulation categories
':
:or simplicity and to give this section some structure, the insu:ted parts of the tank will be discussed separately under the
lowing headings: Base insulation Wall insulation Roof insulation
The chemical orooerties of the materials used should be

such that if they are in contact with the product vapour during service, theywillbe unaffected by long term contact with
it.
Intheeventthattheinsulationmaterialwillcomeintocon-
. . .
1
tactwith the product liquid during an accident scenario, then

the structural propertles in particular shall not be adversely affected. The materials shall be suitable for the anticipated operating and accident condition temperatures. The insulation system must not give rise to corrosion ofthe steel or other tank components. Some insulation materials can give rise to acidic conditions when subjected to water penetration. The insulation system, where exposed to the atmosphere, must resist the ingress of moisture. For cold insulation systems, the most harmful "aggressor" is the continuous tendency forwatervapourto invade the insulation and make its way to the cold face. For many insulation materials, small changes on moisture content can bring about major changes in their thermal properties. Problems arlsing from any envisaged fire scenario. Problems arising from installation difficulties. Considerations caused by commissioning and decommis-
9.1.3 Installation considerations
-êre are various installation related considerations which are ::ecific to particular insulation systems and materials. In addi: :n there are some points which are relevant to the installation :'insulation in general and these should be considered in all
Installation within a closed space requires careful attention

to the following:
Ventilation. l\y'anyof the materials used are problematic when used in confined spaces. For example many ad-
hesives, sealants and mastics give off harmful toxjc

and/or inflammable vapours.
Certain works such as the sanding offoamed insulation materials can produce fine particles which are susceptible to flash fires.
The provision of adequate access for personnel and

materials.
sioning requirements.
l\y'echanical damage by humans and birds.
19
lnsulation systems for low temperaturc :6ln(s
Cellular slass
loos ttu msulants; eleanded perlite or vetmiculite U*d h ohbinstion $trt to@
Flgure 19.1 insutation maiertals for refdgerated storage From BS 7777 : Patl 3. tabte 2
fi
insutdt3 nomeuy for tls mecharncal pbp.ni6.
19.1.5 Design Code requirements

ject of thermal insulation. The American Codes siill adoDt this approach, whilstthe British and European Codes have devoted more space to this subject with each new document issued.
BS 7777 has a section on thermal insulation in part 3. Table 2, Figure 19.1, provides a useful list of commonly used insulation materials and identifies for which component of the tank these
as the loadings from the tank and its contents are trans_ ferred to the foundation.
Traditionally, the tank design Codes had litfle to say on the sub_
Thermal insulation ofthe base of the storage tank. The sys_ tem chosen should limit the heat leak into the tank. Drevent the formation of ice on the underside of elevated base slabs and prevent ice lens formation for on ground type founda_
tlonS.
ripheral component. For low temperature tanks the thermal in_ sulation is an essential part of the overall storage arrangement, such that without a correcfly designed, installed and maintained insulation system the storage tank will not operate correc v There are also numerous Codes which deal with the production and testing of individual insulation materials. This is a specialist area into which the authors of Slorage Ia nks & Equipmenthave chosen not to venture.
The specific requirements ofthe tank Codes to the desiqn ofthe various pa rts of the tank insulation systems are discuss6d in the
materials are normally utilised. The forthcoming Eurocode, (prEN 14620), on low temperature storage will have a full section devoted to tank insulation and will dealwith the subject in considerably more detail. lt makes the important point th;t that thermal insulation system for low temperature tanks differs from ambient temperature tanks where it is considered a pe_
compressive strength. suitably low thermal conductiviW, the ability to sustain the low temperatures and at an appropriate cost. This limitation of choice has not been helped bv the es_
sentially conservative nature of the liquid storage industry and the unwillingness of its participants to be ,,guinea pigs" foi new systems and materials.
Despite these modest aims, it is interesting just how few materi_ als are available with the appropriate combination of lonq term
The base insulation for storage tanks divides into two areas. These are the central area and the peripheralarea. These are described in Sections 19.2.2 and '19.2.3.
19.2.2 The central area

For a single-walled tank it is quite clearwhatthe centralarea of the base insulation comprises. For cedain double-walled tanks.
sections which follow
19.2 Base insulation

19.2.1 ceneral
Although generally self-evident, it is worth repeating that the
base insulation systems for low temperature tanks perform two basic duties:
especially those with the base insulation placed beneath the outer tank bottom, there is also an area of the base insulation beneath the interspace between the two tank shells as illus_ trated in Figure 19.2. This part of the base insulation is sub_ jected to loadings which are similar to those applied to the cen_ tral area, particularly in the post leakage scenario. To avoid over complication, only the central area of a single_walled tank is considered. This is subject to the following loadings:
:'
;
Structural support for the low temperature tank. The materi_ als should have suitable long term load-bearing prope(ies to ensure that the tank is supported throughout its intended service life and is not subject to unacceptable setflements resulting from uneven compression of the base insulation
. .
A uniformly distributed load arising from the product liquid head and in certain circumstances, the product vaDour
pressure.
A uniformly distributed load arising from the watertest head and in certain circumstances, the air test pressure.
. .
Wind overturning loadings Seismic ovefturning loadings for botr OB= a^:
SS
:,
19.2.4 Design methods

19.2.4.1 Inner area For the inner area of the base insulation systern i'e.:-:-,< loadings described in Section 19-2.2, are surnmaT se: - :-: j: :.,.: most pessimistic combinations which may occu'. as
. . . .
:
gure 19.2 D agram of bottora corner ofdouble-walled tank
Normal operation Hydrostatic testing OBE seismic event SSE seismic event
. .
A uniformly distributed loading arising from the self-weight
These loading combinations are then assessed for acceo:e: itytaking into account the compressive strength (and in the ca: cases with seismic components, the shear strength) of the var ous materials making up the base insulation system togethe. with the factors of safety described in Section 19.2.5. 19.2.4.2 Peripheral area
of the tank bottom plates and the insulation system itself

(usually insignificant).
A non-uniform loading arising from the seismic loadings to
As in Section 19.2.4.1, the various loadings are summarisec

under the same headings. lt is common to assume that the llne load spreads out intothe base insulation at45degrees as llustrated in Figure 19.3. Based on this assumption it is usual to work downwards through the insulation system to assess the
which the tank is subjected (usually SSE and OBE). The

seismic loadings are made up from combinations of: Vertical loadings arising from the combined overturning moments from the action ofthe horizontal design event on the impulsive, convective and self-weight components of the tank and jts contents. This loading, in a sim;ys/ent
roa-
acceptability
of each layer taking account of the materal
ple analysis may be considered as triangular
in
distribution, but in a more complex analysis may well be of a different form. Vertical loadings arising from the action of the vertical event on the self-weight on the bnk contents.
The various combinations ofthe two horizontal components
strengths and factors of safety again taken from Section 1 L2.5. A worked example of this procedure in given in Figure '19.4. This includes the mechanical loadings on both the central and the peripheralareas otthe base insulation. lfthe simple triangular load distribution is considered inadequate, then a more e egant analysis may be undertaken, but the weight of past experience suggests that the simple method has served the industry well and there may be a relucbnce to depart from it. As is the case for the inner area of the base insulation, consideration must be given to the shear strength of the materials or composite system where seismic loadings are involved.
;er -
trm lhe
aIe esand
and the one vertical component of the loadings to be considered are described in Chapter 26 . A not uncommonly used rule for this combination is:
100%Fx +/- 30%Fy +l3Q'/oFx
31o/a Fz
ol
tew
+l-
1004/oFy +l-
3ookFz ol
30%FX
;as.
+l
30%f!/ +l- 100okFz
On occasions the 30% comoonent is increased to 40%.
. .
rof
ks.
Shear loadings resulting from horizontal loadings from wind or earthquake.
Point loads arising from internal fittings which rest directly
on the tank bottom, such as stilling wells, inlank pump

wells, fill columns etc.
ihe
ion
!rs3n-
19.2.3 The peripheral area

-ihe peripheral area for a single-walled tank is clearly that part
od
lnk
rf the base insulation which is beneath the tank shell. For dou!le-walled tanks there may be two areas of the base insulation ,'/hich are loaded in a similar fashion, i.e. the part beneath the rner shell and the part beneath the outer shell.
-hese areas are subjected to line loadings from the various

shells which are made up of combinations of the following:
JO li.rr
. .
Self-weightof the tank shelland attached parts including insulation as appropriate (i.e. during operation but not perhaps during hydrotest) Roof loadings including snow load, live load, internal vacu
Loading on section A - A
\Worst
insulaton
case for rinqwall
um.
Flgure 19.3 Lineload in the base
ng wall
:.:'
19
lnsulation systems for low tempenture tanks
l*4l6ldnl Jrrdr .f bdr hlElttd

i
I I
I I
I
5|'.{ }! bsrhn rtld
V.rtlcd
&rf!n.h.ll.drs tl *n r,t rirr

A!.d'.tbn (oE|,
q,
2M
ldlc.l ,^cd...it.||
(sse, o,
20. loJ
to,3
I I I
C'Fg0Lcorir.t!c{, &t qaqBnlc @irar" czo roi P.llt..iasbr0di9/# ll.O Fdif en6.r!t00olg,/# a5 Lrrii!oorwr.8t9/# 5p ?!,lit.c.isd. rck/ii 3A
FoiBrd HJt6o0 P..i'9lu}fgia{P f..indqrt|.llzoo Foi9brH3t000 Pl'liL 4r.rri. sftldi3
rl lt
t2
(t cda&fid. .snr. ! L'bad ?Fd. 0l) c.r$rorjtdrt|qrfi h.iiurdong.idt|*
q,
.aO
rO
ftidi*F
.'d C.hF-tw Snqdb
Pqlli.!olEvt700rq/n3
ll|{F.
20n
t0,3
c.E!t! 60ltlgir3
a2
Ntlt|!.!Er|!
t{ot:
I
Fd.lit @i.Er.000tq/il 6a0k/ri3
r .idlls anptdtt/t rtrr.. l6.ors.d.
h.. b.ar iEdtfird h o..odo*, $?h BS!ll0.
i)
fi@dffn long
'diml
dqrdiw
tcB.
OBEI a0?.4o tnyi

559
64.40 tfvn
varid d@t rarld
or d!
at =*!!4.J3txD
OBE
| 95E r
3,t6 ri^Vh 5.27 $Vft

0166 l{,hif
olE l,rtt Srnr c4Esr. Rdc40 ll?,5 /ktt C.tt. 6!.d C2O 322.! t.6a Pa.rlt dstt. Sq{r' 3 Q2.t tJZ lalit &'tcti.6o0l9/o3 !o2a.t L!r.
55E
srn'
607
2,?9
l.Bt
o.'o
i) $do.rofic hrld (ot+ri'r) rt ?r.q.. GF{tlrg)

irD r,i/'icdcfic
t..d (ir)
OD29 tVni 9,?3n |\yn#
0036 |yir# D
Tdorg'rdt dri|{&rqt h.d (O8O v..fl.d ..c.l.r!tid ot pnder (q8q ili) Trh'AddV drrdhtvn b{d (65q b) Y.rrk l cc..Lrrnon of pru4Er (Sse)
l)
Figure 19.4 Examplo ofa calculation ofthe loadings in an insuladon ringwall- pag6 Courtesy of Whessoe
9 lnsulation systems
lv
tow
tawane axs
Th" lin"
Ioods frcm the
3h.llonto fh" innsr tank ringben ar colorlard bdowr
i)
Concri. scrcd C4o lidxinlm conprcssivc sin9th
2O62
N/mm?
,qctudl conpfssive str55 (OBE) = lcnjql compr$ivc slross (SSE) :
4.30 6,07
1O.31
N/mm' Vmm?
N/rnm?
il)
Concr|. scred C20 lltoxinun conprc!3iv slrngith
+ + :+ :::::> + + -
FOS: FoS: FOs: Fos: FOS: Fos: = FOS:

FOS
4.80
3..1O
: : :
lctual conprlsiv. stre$ (OBE) Actudl coirprelrivc stre$ (sSE)
1.66 2.29
5.OO
Mnrnz
N/mn?
N/nrra?
6.2t 4.at
iii)
iv)
P"rlitc concrcle 800k9/n3 f{dxinlm cohprcssive !t cnglh = iciuql compresive rrresr (OBq : icnialco|nprlstivc sfr.ss (SSE) : P"rlir. con$et. 600k9/it3 conpr*live sircngth : ^lldxirnun Actualc.nprcasivc airess (OgE) =
Aciual .ornprar.6ive
1.32 1.81 2.2O 0,69 0.90
N/nrm?
3.77
Nhrn2
N/nrnrt
N/nvn? N/mnr?
2.7f
3.18
2.'06
slr.$
(55E)
ft
loqds on rhe inncr bdle insuhiion dre cdbukdcd below; bo3c
Inhcr
injuhtion
usd in design
Fomglas H.3 800
}{v.rog c.rnpr.ssiva strngth
Fcclor of sdfcty fo. opraling cond;lioE : Fqcror of sdfely fof hydroi.st condilions : : Focror of sdf.ty for OBE scisnic "vnt Faclor of Jdfery f6r SSE sebmic cvcni : Notcr POS vdlus idken from forthconing EN 265
i)
Op.roting loods
o_t65
Op.ratirq pr.6slrc
lnsu htion,
:
Plqte
scrc.d,
eic
:
TOTAL
o.o29 o.oo5
0.200
t
iD
N/nm'z
4.00
-os
Insuhtion, Scn .d, Platc ctc
O236 N/nrrf 0.036 N/nrrn?
rornl@uz^nr os:
0.200
O0O6 N/nnz
2.87
iii) szismic load (oB) Op"r6liB bo4t :

Verlicol o...l2ruiion of prodqcf Triorgulort disrribuf cd load
N/mmz
N/mm'?
0.O08
0.043
N/mha
roreL--T75E-p7amz
iv) Ssilnic lo{d (SSE) Operdtirts loods : Vrrlicol dccEl.rdiion of prcduct
===+os.
3.18
0.20O
N/nrna
N/mma
0.013
T"idrg'rhrv dirtribut.d locd
roleL--EE-p7- , :s
0.05,r
N/mn,
3.01
ok
F-rgure
19.4 Example of
a calculation
ofthe loadings
in an insulation fingwalt- page 2
Coulesy of Whessoe
19 lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks
19.2.5 Detailed design Code requirements

19.2.5.1 EEMUA 147 requirements
An appendix is provided which gives the basis of the Iimit state design methodsforthe twocategories of materials. This is very complex and may have to be simplified before it is let loose on
The EEMUA recommendations, first published in 1986. were

the first to include specific requirements for safety factors to be
the industry.
used for the mechanical design of insulation systems. These
19.2.6 Base insulation materials

19.2.6.1 Cellular glass
* central area
were, not surprisingly, confined to the base insulation and

aimed largely at cellular glass materials, at that time and almost certainly stillto this day, the most popular choice for this component. The requirements state:
Cellular glass is formed when powdered glass is heated together with other carefully selected chemicals which ernit
gases at the appropriate point in the manufacturing process to create a glass foam. The foam material is cooled down carefully resulting in a series of near spherical small glass cells containing an insulating gas. The material is 100% closed cell. verv stable at ambient and low temperatures and with zero permeability. lt can be made in various grades to have a range of difstrengths. As discussed, cellular glass is the most commonly used material for the bases of low temperature tanks. The manufacturing process is complex and must be subjected to a high level of quality control if the end product is to have consistent properties. Pittsburgh Corning Corporation (PC) was the first to devote the necessary resources in terms of research and development into the understanding of the material properties and influence on these properties of the manufacturing process. Thus for many years this company was, quite righfly, the almost exclusive source of cellular glass blocks for tank bases and its products were a specific requirement of many tank specifications and invitations to tender
"lnsulants placed beneath a tank bottom shall be able to withstand the loads imposed upon them. For service and test conditions, the safety factor for cellular glass should be at least 3.0 based on the average compressive strength properties of the grade selected, or 2.5 based on the minimum compressive strength guaranteed. Other materials should be viewed in the same manner, and it is preferable to use mrntmum guaranteed properties rather than average values."
19-2.5.2 BS 7777 requirements BS 7777 was first published in1993 and was based upon the earlier EEMUA 147 recommendations. ln the case of the quoted factors of safety for base insulation it has adopted slightly different values. The Code states:
fering thermal conductivities, densities and compressive
"lnsulation material located beneaih a tank bottom should be able to withstand the load imposed upon it. The allowable compressive stress for service and test conditions for cellular glass should be either 0.33 times the guaranteed average compressive strength or 0.5 times the guaranteed min jmum strength ofthe grade selected, whichever is less."
It also suggests that other materials can be used in the same manner (meaning presumably using the same factors ofsafety)
The materials manufactured by PC are marketed under the

proprietary trade name of Foamglas@. lt is an indication of this forms of cellu lar glass irrespective of the manufacturer. pC has. over the years, also devoted considerable efforts to the desion and installation methods for systems utilising their materials fo. which they should be given credit.
For tank base insulation the appropriate grades of Foamglas@ are the High Load Bearing (HLB)grades made and marketed in
and suggests that guaranteed minimum strengths should be

used rather than average values. 19.2.5.3 Drafl of new Euronorm prEN 14620 This Standard is at the stage of final editing having been issued for public comment. Although not in its final form, part 4 of this document probably represents the latest thinking on the sub-
company's dominance in this market over the years that Foamglas@ is often taken incorectly as the generic name for all
ject.
The structural design of the base insulation system may be

based on the allowable stress method or by using the limit state
rneory
The insulation materials are divided into two categories:
DENSITY AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
. .
Brittle materials, i.e. those not subject to creep under sustained compressive loadings. This category would include cellular glass and light weight concrete.
Gr.deof
Aver.Ce
Den
os@
.(*r4
b asrM
@o
k9/mr
Materials subject to creep. This category would include

plastic foams such as polyurethane foam (PUF) and potyvi-
nyl chloride (PVC) foams.
300 1000 HLB 1200

HLB
r35
140 145 1.20
HLB
0.6s 0.32
Forthe brittle materials methods are given to allowthe nominal compressive strength to be determined by test. For allowable
stress based designs, minimum factors of safety are applied to this nominal compressive strength as follows:
HLB HLB
14OO
16(x)
165
THERMAL CONDUCTIVIry
. . . .
Normal
operation
3.00 2.25 3.00

1.50
HLA 1@O HLBl2OO 0.053
Hydrosiatic Earthquake Earthquake
test
(OBE) (SSE)
For the materials subject to creep, a complex method of deter-
mining the nominal compressive strength is given based on

compressive creep testing, some tests being required to have a 10,000 hour duration. Safety factors are then given, to be applied to the nominal compressive strength to arrive at design values forthe various loadings forthe allowable stress designs
0,056
Figure 19.5 Basic propedies ofthe HLB grades of Foamglas@ Couftesy of Pittsburgh Caming Corporation
19 lnsulation systems for low tempenture tanks
fie
ry
)n
Thermal conduouvlty (lf l|nlq
7.
t>
lrit
/
'/a ./.,
ly r}
ry
.,'/
n
F.
19
./
6
r-
d
ssa
EeFqECSSq'P
Ttnperdrre (.Celsius,
ts
a-
Erre
9.6 Thermal conductivity vs temprature p'ot for the HLB gmdes of FoamglasrD
Property
CompesgivE at]englh, avetrge 6t brsaldng polnt
Ult
gsnralEervlca
1m (689)
e-CuF"to:ll
Ultra-CUF 929
cryognlcservlcs
87
* I
pti (kPal
(6m)
(ASTM C 165, c 24o, C 552)
n T
p.t'F
Den6lty, average, |l]sr''ts lkgltrql (A9TM C 93) Flerural strength, block average, psi (kPa) (A'snt Llnear coefficlent ot thermal expanslon,
I
C
(128)
5,0
tu3,
z4o)
80 (552)
7.5 O2O) 64 (441)
lpet'K) 6sru E 22a) Specific hoat, Btu/brF (Jftg."K)
4.8x10s(8,6x1f)
0.18 (830) 0.30 0.31 (0.043 (0.04s
@ 50"F @ 75"F
t 10{
(9.0 x
10{)
0.18 (83O) 0.28 @ 50"F o.29 @ 75"F (0.038 @ 0 .c) (0.040 @ 10 "c) 0-019 (4.9 x 10-1
Thermal conductivity, Blu-in/hr-ft2-"F (W/mrK) (ASTMCt77,C51e)
@ 10 @ 24
"c) "c)
Thermal diffusivity, tt2lhr
(m 2/sec)
0.019 (4.9 x 10-i)
Superior compressive strength for tank bases

Propony Compressive slrength, ASTM mlnimum
psi lkglcm2l (Lowet speciticaton with AQL = lo/" Det ISO 3951) psi {kg/cm2)
$-gr:l|t ujla-culg urrra.cuF rT4 uj:j::13

79.8
(5.61)
100.1
(7.04)
118.9
(8.36)
139.2 (9.79)
linit
116
Comprcssive stngth, ASTM avohge Nominal average densily. lb/fl3 (kg/m3) Thermal conductivity, maximum aveaage Btu-irthr-lta"F @ 75"F {W/m-"K @ ro"C) Thermal co.duclivity. highest single value Btu-idhr-fl."F @ 75'F (W/m.oK @ rooc)
(8.16)
(0-048)
14s
(10.19) (140)
(0.050) (0.053)
174
112.23)
203 (14.27J
10.2 {14S.e3) 0.380 (0.054)
9.2
(135.04)
(0.0s1)
e.5
LS
0.340
0.345
0.370
(144.97) (0.052)
0.368
0.382
0.396
(0.0ss)
0.410 (0.057)
Fgrrs 19.7 Basic properties
of various gEdes of Cell-U-Foam
htttesy of Ce -U-Foan Cwonlion
tsn
lve grades of increasing density and compressiv
strength
HLB 800 to HLB 1000. Asixth stronger grade (HLB 2000) b curently underdeveloprnent. There is the usual tmde-ofi be-
book has been published by PC covering the manufacture of Foamglas@, its properties and uses, together with a fund of other useful informalion (Reference 19.1).
xeen increasing density/strength and decrgasing thermal efficbncy. The basic physical properties are shown in Figure 19.5 and the all important thermal conductivity-mean tempeftlture crrves are shown in Figure 19.6. The significant reduction in
Overthe years a number of mmpanies from different countries
lErmal conductivity with temperature is clear. An excellent
have aftempted to gain i foothold as manufacturers of cellular glass products ofsuitable quality for the insulation of low temperature trank bases. Until recently none succeeded in producing a product suitable for this purpose. Some five years ago a STORAGE TANKS & ESUIPMENT 385
19
Insulation systems for low temperature tanks
10i
-//
'{
v
929
.d
l -t Themalconduciivity
I
---r-------r---
vercus remporature (Brirish units)
T
STFIAIN %
: ff '"n"":'#::;
4
Aare, ho cappins
NOTE:
l::,"..,.,".
used
lhErepresenlttypicalb.haviorand should nol b.
rd
Figure 19.8 Thermal conductivity vs temperature plot for various grades of Cell-U-Foam Coutlesy of Cell-U-Faam Caeoration
EigLre
'9
Tte
11Le,rce of rrlerleaving materalon i1e compresrve slrength
company which was a part of ACS Industries in the USAand trading underthe name ofCell-U-Foam made serious and successful efforts to break into this area. They have now become established as suitable suppliers of these materials by most, if not all ofthe world's tank specification writers and builders and produce a range offour enhanced compressive strength materials marketed as Ultra-CUF in grades from 116 to 203. The basic physical data and low temperature thermal conductivity curves are shown in Figures 19.7 and'19.8. It should be mentioned here that cellular glass is an unusual material. Without venturing too deeply into this subject which again could be the subject of a book in its own right, a few words of explanation should be given. The intrinsic compressive strength of cellular glass materials is quite high. The problem is in developing this strength (i.e. in getting the load ffom the tank bottom intothe insulation material and out again into the foundation). The manufacturing process for cellular glass ensures that the finished surface is irregular when examined in close up, consisting ofcutthrough part cells.
When two blocks are placed together, the actual area ofcontact is a minute proportion of the total area ofthe blocks, consisting in the main of glass cell walls crossing each other on the two faces at various angles. When any load is applied to this system local breakdown occurs atthese highlystressed contact points. This is clearly not a satisfactory situation. To enable a higher
glass tank bases, but suffers from a number of disadvantages. To ensure that the cells on the lowerside ofthe upper blocks are correctly filled with the bitumen, to make certain of the correct load transmission, is difficult to achieve and impossible to check in a non-destructive manner A great deal ofthe success ofthis method deoends on the skills of the installation operatives and their supervision. Another disadvantage ofthis method is that hot melt bitumen is carcinogenic and its use, particularly in confined spaces which may occur in partially constructed double-walled tanks, is increasingly unacceptable.
Damp-proof course material. These are proprietary materials, made for the building industry to be used as dampproof courses between bricks or other building blocks. The types most suitable for this purpose are usually about 3 mm thick consisting of a bitumen-impregnated hessian type of felt. Providing that they are used correctly and consideration is given to points such as: carefully butting the edges of adjacent rolls with no overlapping, the temperature dependancies of the hardness/soft ness of the material and
the capping of the roll ends to prevent edge damage on transit and handling, then this method provides a satisfactory solution without some of the disadvantages associated with the hot melt bitumen method.
A base insulation free of organic materials, which it
is
proportion of the intrinsic strength of the material to be developed, it is necessary to interpose other materials between the blocks. This effect is clearly indicated in Figure 19.9 which compares the compressive strength of cellular glass (in this instance Foamglas@ from Pittsburgh Corning Corporation)with no interleaving and with different interleaving materials. These materials must be capable of better distributing the load into the cut cells of the surfaces of the adjacent blocks. lvlaterials commonly used for this purpose are:
occasionally necessary to construct, (for example, for use beneath liquid oxygen tanks). The materials discussed above are clearly not acceptable in this case and substi-
tutes must be found. One commonly adopted solution in these circumstances is to use an inorganic powdersuch as
Kieselguhr powder. This is applied dry and it is clearly eas-
iertofillthe uopercellsofthe lowerblocksthan
it is to
fillthe
Hot melt bitumen. This material is applied in liquid form,

being dispensed onto the surface of the lower blocks whilst the upper blocks are placed into the liquid bitumen. This is probablythe mostcommonly used method oflaying cellular
underside of the upper blocks. Despite this practical difficulty, the method has been used successfully for many years. lt is perhaps fortunate that despite the relatively high specific gravity of liquid oxygen, the product is normally stored in smaller tanks than the other lowtemDerature liouid gases and consequentlythe loadings on the base insulation are lower Hence a lower load transfer is not so important in this case. Another solution to this particular problem is to use a glass fibre interleaving material.
19 lnsulation systems for low temperaturc tanks
ensure that the compressive strength data provided by the
ment. The lightaggregate concretesare usuallybespoke mate-
-3terial manufacturers are on the same basis and that inter:aving effects are equalised, the test methods are specified in ::nsiderable detail in various ASTM. Euronorm and ISO stan:3rds.
>'!rilarly the measurement oi the thermal conductivity of the -aterial, particularly when measured at low temperatures, is : .|cult and should only be undertaken by laboratories and test
- lL.rses
with the specialised knowledge, experience and equip-
rials and are consequently expensive to produce. Their use is more normal in the more highly-loaded peripheral areas of the base insulation. Air entrained concrete materials are produced on a much larger scale for the building industry and are marketed under such trade names as Thermalite@, UltraLiterM and SiporexrM. These do not have the same thermal efficiency as the materials described above, but are cheaper Clearlyan economic assessment is reouired here. 19.2.6.5 Composite systems
A system using a combination of perlite concrete tubes and free
-ent.
:.:turning to Reference 79.7, there is an interesting chapter on :ê cellular glass base insulation of the Ambergate LNG tank. - ris tank was designed and constructed in 1969 for the East ! dlands Gas Board at Ambergate, Derbyshire in the United r. igdom, as a strategic inland storage facility and extension of :-e Canvey lsland LNG importterminal. The subsequent devel: lment ofthe North Sea gas flelds made this facility redundant
perlite has been used on a number of occasions. The perlite concrete tubes are laid on end in contact with the adjacent tubes and the spaces filled with free site-expanded perlite particles. The perlite concrete tubes provide the compressive strength whilst the thermal efficiency comes from the perlite. Some suitable capping for this system is required before the inner tank bottom is laid. This system is illustrated in Figure 19.10. 19.2.6-6 Blast furnace slag Afew tanks have been built on bases consisting of blast furnace slag. When suitably graded, dried and compacted this material has a suitable compressive strength and thermal properties in the same region as the lightweight concretes. The advantage is the almost free raw material.
:rd
'986.
it was decommissioned and dismantled by British Gas in
-re
British Gas Engineering Research Station at Killingworth
.1as given a budget to use this tank as a research tool and car- ed out a number of tests, eventually leading to the collapse of
:-e inner tank under internal vacuum loading. These tests were ':ported at LNG I (Reference 19.2).lt is interesting to specu:ie if this opportunity to use a full-scale test piece would be ::(en and funded today. As a part ofthis investigation, samples :'the cellular glass base insulation material were taken and
:ent to the laboratories at Liege University in Belgium. The ma-
19.2.7 Base insulation materials
peripheral area
::rial was Foamglas@ S3S grade (which has subsequently

:een replaced by one of the HLB range of grades). The impor-
:ant properties of thermal conductivity and compressive

-r:rength were measured and found to be unchanged by the 17
,
?ars in low temperature service.
19.2.6.2 PVC foam generally acceptable material for base insuallon. lt has a history of being used successfully for membrane :., pe tanks in the prefabricated insulation panels and beneath :everal concrete/concrete type LNG tanks. lt is now being pro-oted for use with the more usual types of low temperature :3nks. lt claims certain advantages over cellular glass:
a
The higher loadings experienced by the peripheral areas of the base insulation means that frequently the materiais described in the preceding Section are unsuitable by virtue of their limited compressive strength and need to be replacedwith otherstronger materials, or be used in different combinations. Using the 45 degree load-spreading rules described in Section 19.2.4.2, the compressive loading decreases as the point in question moves downwards from the point of contact of the shell line load. 1t is important to maintain the best possible thermal efliciency whilst catering for the compressive loadings with
:VC foam is now
. . . .
The material is supplied in larger sized sheets, up to 2.4m x '1.2m. This will reduce handling and installation costs and
also installation times.
No interleaving materials are required again reducing installation costs and time scales.
The materialis considered to have bettertolerance of expo-
sure to moisture during installation.
The material is more elastic (conversely less britfle) than

cellular glass and thus perhaps better able to resist damage resulting from seismic loadings and locally imposed vibrations. There is some history of cellular glass bases being damaged by nearby pile-driving activity and proximity to rotating machinery
{t the end of the day the choice of material will probably be 3ased on economic considerations.
19.2.6.3 Polyurethane foam
rhis material has a considerable history of use in membrane

:)/pe tanks. Most of what is mentioned in Section 19.2.6.2 is
again relevant here.

1
9.2.6.4 Lightweight concrete
there are a number of lightweight concrete materials available. These obtain their light weight and consequent low thermal :onductivity either by the use of lightweightaggregates such as ,erlite, Lytag or blast furnace slag, or by the addition of a foamng agent to the concrete mix which provides ajr or gas entrain-
Figure 19.10 View ofcomposite perttte concreie tube/toose periite base insula
lnsulation systems for low tempenturc tanks
accepiable factors of safety required bythe design Codes. This is necessaryto minimise the overall heat leakfor reasons ofoperating costs, and to reduce the problems associated with base heating systems where large differences in the heat flux between the central area and the periphery can prove complex or expensive to design for. Commonly used solutions to this problem are:
quently concentrated at the tank wall to water fall like proportions
. . . . .
The insulation and its vaDour barrier/weathercover must be suitably attached to the tank shellorbe freesianding in their own right.
The use ofa composite system using layers ofcellularglass
The system must cater for the worst stresses caused by thermal and mechanical changes in the tank shape.
The system must caterforany loadings caused by external ice build up. Depending on local circumstances and fire protection systems, the insulation system must have the necessary resistance to anticiDated heat flux levels.
of different grades, frequently capped with reinforced concrete with suitable low temperature properties to allow for the high loading occurring immediately beneath the tank shell.
. .
Similarv the use of layers of different grades of foamed PVC or polyurethane foam, again frequently capped with
reinforced concrete.
Suitable resistance to loadings caused by fire water impingement.
The use of purpose-designed and factory-manufactured

blocks incorporating layers of reinforced concrete and differing densities of perlite concrete. The design and manufacture of such blocks should be entrusted to comoanies with the necessary experience and expertise in this area.
19.3.2.2 Rigid insulation for the walls
of double-walled
tanks Applied to the outer surface of the outer wall

The requirements ofSection 19.3.2.1 apply in this case.
The use of purpose-designed and factory-manufactured

blocks using wood. Balsa and pine have been used in this way. The compressive strength and thermal conductivity of wood materials are very dependenton the orientation ofthe grain with respect to the direction of loading. Again the design and manufacture of such blocks should be lefr to suif ably expert and experienced suppliers.
Applied to the inner surface of the outer wall

The attraction of this method of providing the wall insulation is that the outerwallitself provides the vapour barrier and weather cover In normal operation the outerwall is at ambient temperature. A number of new considerations need to be taken into account:
. . . .
The vapourtightness ofthe insulation system during normal
19.3 Wall insulation

19.3.1 General Wall insulation systems for low temperature tanks falls into
three calegories:
operation when the insulation is exposed to the product vapour(i.e. an open-topped suspended decktype oftank).
The liquid tightness of the insulation system in the event of inner tank leakage or failure. The chemical resistance ofthe various components ofthe insulation system to contact with the product vapour or liquto. The abilityto gas free and decommission the tankwithin the
. .
Insulation for the walls of single-walled metallic tanks fixed to the outer surface of the tank shell.
Rigid insulation systems for the walls of double-walled

tanks. For metallic outertanks this can be fixed to the outer or the inner surfaces of the outer wall. There are a few examoleswherethe insulation is attached to the outersurface of the innerwall. Fortankswith Dre-stressed concrete outer tanks this insulation is most usually attiached to the inside of the outertank. Again there are a few exampleswhere the insulation is attached to the ouler surface of the inner wall.
prescribed period.
Applied to the outer surface of the inner wall

This is quite an unusual arrangement. In this instance the following considerations must be hken into account:
Loose fill insulation systems for installation between the steel or pre-stressed concrete outer tank and the steel and less commonly pre-stressed concrete inner tank,
The inner tank leak case will result in the comolete loss of the insulation system. This will result in a very high heat leak, theevolution of largevolumes of productvapourwhich must be handled safely by the relief valve system to avoid the possibility of outer tank damage due to over pressurisation, and the possibility of substantial ice build-up on the outer tank shell, possibly giving rise to structural stability
proDrems.
9.3.2 General requirements
. .
19.3.2.1 Insulation for the walls of single-walled metallic
Careful detail design at the junction between the wall and roof insulation.
tanks
In addition to having suitable long term thermal properties, the systems used in this category must give due consideration to the following:
lfthe insulation materialchosen is permeable, provisions to orevent convection within the insulation itself.
19.3.2.3 Loose
fill insulation systems
The provision of a suitable vapour barrier with the ability over the design life of the system to prevent the ingress of
atmospheric moisture into the insulation material driven by the thermal gradient.
This usually means a system using pedite and someform ofresilient blanket. Conceming the perlite loose fill insulation material, allowance must be made for the following poinb:
The vapour barrier must also act as a weather barrierto prevent the ingress of rain water and to sustain wind loadings. Storage tanks are tall structures, frequently constructed in
exposed coastal areas where weather conditions are extremely onerous. Rain falling on a large tank roof is fre-
Settlement of the perlite during service. This is usually provided for bythe provision of a suitable hopper volume in the top corner ofthe tank above the product liquid level and by the use of vibration equipment during the initial installation ofthe material. The sizing ofthe hoppervolume is a function ofthe geometry and service ofthe tank in addition to the ex-
19
lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks
DTO.
perience of the tank designer and the insulation contractor/designer

N,'luch
of this information is of a proprietary nature, some-
trmes based on test work and is not discussed further other
ih,
:ma
]S S-
than in general principles. The techniques and equipment necessary for the vibration of perlite during installation are again of a proprietary nature, closely guarded by their owners and not for general discussion. Suffice it to say ihat a runway beam above the insulation interspace to supportthe vibration equipment is necessary that means for positioning the vibrating elements accurately are provided and means of determining the extent of vibration compaction by local level measurement are provided.
.
lled
Provision for topping up the perlite during the service life of the tank in the event that this is found to be necessary This
is usually accommodated by the provision of topping up

nozzles located around the periphery of the tank above the insulation interspace. A sensible size for these connections is 6 inches in diameter
gufe 19.11 Weaiher protection system for the insulation of an LPG tank
Courtesv of AntwerD Gas Terninal NV
19.3.3 Design Code requirements
--e design Codes give little gujdance

-ê various
on the detailed design of forms of wall insulation systems. The general points : scussed above are included. ' 9.3.4
?a-
the trouble and expense of providing an inflated dome roof attached to the top periphery of the outer concrete bund wall, air conditioning equipmeni and a suitable air lock for the entry of personnel and materials, as shown in Figure 19.11 to ensure control ofthese variables and to produce a suitable finished product applied to the outer surface of the steel inner tank. In this type of PUF applicaiion, the vapour barrier/weather cover must also be of the spray applied type.
Wall insulation materials
It can be foamed in situ between the tank shell and the

vapour barrier/weather shield. This method is only relevant to external shell insulation. The metallic vapour barrier is erected on all or part of the tank shell using suitable spacers, usually made from PUF slab rnaterial, to ensure the correci finished thickness of the foam. The tlvo constituents which react to fofm the foam are mixed and injected into the space between the tank shell and the cladding, either through holes pre-dril ed in the sheeting or poured over the top of the partially erected cladding. The reaction between the components produces a foam ofthe appropriate quality wh ch fllls the space and adheres to both the cladding and ihe tank shel . This sounds straightfoMard, but there are many possib e piifalls which can only be overcome by attention to deiail and expefience.
t-c:
--e following is of necessity a brief review of the more com-lnly used materials and some points regarding their correct ::p ication. As has been mentioned earlier, there is no substi:,:e for experienced designers and installation contractors
in
:^ s area. lvluch of the installation equipment and methodoloI es are of a proprietary nature.
9.3.4.1 Polyurethane foam : -obably the most commonly used material for the wall insula1
:n
of tanks discussed in Section 19.3.2.1.
: trlyurethane foam (PUF) can be applied to the tank walls ln a "mber of different ways: . lt can be supplied as factory-made slabs and attached to the tank wall by the Llse of a suitable adhesive. The factory-manufacture ensures a good quality of foam with consistent properties. The adhesion to the tank wall is more problematic, but good site quality control and attention to details such as the correct primer in a suitable condition on the steel wall should ensure success. For insulation thicker than 50 mm, it may be wise to consider using two layers of PUF with staggered joints. Clearly a vapour barrier/weather cover will be required where the insulation is exposed to the atmosphere. This could be a metallic sheeting of galvanised steel, aluzinc sheeting, aluminium sheeting or stainless steel sheeting, in all cases of either flat, corrugated or profiled section. Attention to detail in the design and installation of the joints between the sheets and the attachment of this barrier to the
19.3.4.2 PVC foam

PVC foam is a factory-made material and as such can only be applied to a tank shell in ihe first ofthe three methods described above for PUF.
19.3.4.3 Other plastic foam materiats

The tabulation in BS 7777 : Part 3, (see Figure 19.2), indicates
phenolic foam and polystyrene foam as possible materials for

this purpose. The use ofthese materials is outside the author's experience and is suspected to be an uncommon practice.
19.3.4.4 Cellular glass Cellular glass materials have been used successfully as the external wall insulation in numerous cases. The cellular glass can either be attached directly to the metallic iank shell bythe use of a suitable adhesive, or be installed as a free-standing wall. For thicknesses up to about 70 mm it is possible to use a single layer of cellular glass. For greater thicknesses it would be wise to consider the use of two layers, installed with theirjoints staggered. As always a suitable weathercover/vapour seal must be used.
tank are essential to ensure adequate long term vapour

tightness and wind and weather resistance. An alternative vapour barrier/weather cover may be of the sprayed non-metallic type. This could be of a number ofdifferent materials depending on the local conditions prevailing.
ltcan bespray-applieddirectlytothetankshell.
Theoverall
thickness being made up of a number of layers, each usually about 'l2mm thick. This requires considerable experience and skilled operatives if it is to be successful. The final quality ofsprayed PUF is notoriously susceptible to temperature and humidity. For this reason one contractor went to
The producers of cellular glass products have their own detailed designs and installation methods for such insulation systems. Typical details are shown in Figure 19.12.
Cellular glass is also used extensively as the bottom corner in-
sulation in numerous double-walled tanks with pre-stressed concrete outer tanks. This insulation is necessary to limit the
STORAGE TANKS & EQUTPMENT 389
19 lnsulation systems fot low temperaturc tanks
shear stresses at the junction of the wall and the base resukirE from the innertank leakdesign scenario. This is particularlythe case with the fixed orencastr6 bottom cornerdesign. The insl-]lation layer is applied to the bottom of the interspace and to rne lower part of the tank wall, normally to an elevation of 3m to Sm from the base slab.
A typical arrangement for a large LNG tank is shown in Figure
19.13. Most pre-stressed concrete tanks have a metallic liner on their inner wall and base surfaces. The cellular glass must be suitably attached to this liner and protected from the product liquid in the inner tank overfill or leakage design case. The case where the full inner tank contents are contained by the outer tank is the most onerous for the designer The most frequenfly used metallic barrier employed for this purpose is faced with rne following two interesting and conflicting requiremenb:
.
2 4 5
FOAMGLASo@llu|3rgless PITTCOTEo 404 (irspecitied) PCo FABRIC 79P {rf specilied)
To be of an economic thickness, the protective layer must rely on mechanical support from the underlying thermal in-
sulation material to resist the hoop stresses which the ful leaked product head will impose.
The temperature change brought about by coniact with the product liquid willcausethe protective layerthe contract inwards and loose contact with the supporting insulation
The various ways of solving this apparent conundrum is discussed elsewhere in Sforage Tanks & Equipment. Non-metallic solutions to this problematic area will require validation by suitable test work. One of the attractions of the use of cellular glass materials in this area is its ability to resist the heat generated by installation welding activities. 19.3.4.5 Mineralwoo
I 2 ? 4 5 6 7
Tankwall
Tank root FOAMGLAS@cetlutarglass PC9AA ADHFSIVE Resilienl insulaiing matenal
PITTSEAL@,144 sealei PITTCOTEO 404 + PC@ FABRIC 79P
For externally-applied wall insulation there are a few cases where mineralwool products have been used. This system will require even more careful attention to the weather cover/ vapour seal, as mineral wool has a low intrinsic resistance to the flow of air with in itself. For this reason the orevention of convection loopsbeingsetupwithinthe mineralwoolinsulationwill also have to be considered.
19.3.4.6 Perlite loose
fill insulation systems
Figure 19.12 Wall nsulation using Foamgtas@ Couftesy of Piltsburgh Corning Corporatian
qL49S EIBBE
Aloose fillinsulation system installed in the interspace between two concentric vertical cvlindrical tanks consists of two comDonents. These are:
{UNCOMPRESSED)
iNNERTANKSHELL
8AlNrcL.
350 IXPANDED PERLITE

ICOMPACIEO) 9% NiLINER (VARY NGTHICKNESS)
5000 mm l\,llN. UP VERTICAL
OUTERTANK
3 mnTTFICKCARBON
STEEL LiNER 9% Ni ]NNER TANK EOTTOIl CRYOGENIC CONCTE]E 250 rim THICK
50 mm SCREED 5 mm 9% Ni SECONDARY BOTTOM 50 mm SCREED
1
FOAMGLAS
X75 mm THICK (ILB
8OO)
SAND
.
4x t00mmTHIC(
FOAMGLAS (HLBSOO)
CONCRETE OUTER TANK
INTERLEAVEDWTH PLUVEX
s0 mm RESILIENT BLANKET
l00mmSCREED
3
mmc STEELVAPOUR BARRIER 50mn RES

ELANKET CONCRETE OUTER TANK
L
ENI
2r
100 mm Tl-llCK FOAMGLAS {HLB 1400) INIERLEAVED WITH PLUVEX
Figure 19.13 Boltom corner proteclion system
390 STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
19 lnsulation systems for low temperaturc tanks
. .
The loose fill insulation The resilient blanket.
The loose
fill insulalion :or loose fill insulation systems pedite
is reallythe only choice. )erlite is a naturally occurring volcanic glass rock. lt is a bound
j.uminium silicate which contains some 3% water of

:rystallisation. When the material is ground to a suiiable size :lrd subjected to rapid heating to around 1000 'C, the glass :articles melt and the crystallised water evaporates and ex:ands the particles to between '10 and 40 times their original . clume forming rigid foam cells. The resulting material is white - colour and has excellent thermal properties. In small quanti--es the material can be produced in a suitable factory and :ansported to site in bags.
-nis approach is a possibilityfor small tanks such as the small

=rd of the LOX, LIN and argon storage tanks. For larger tanks :-rs rapidly becomes impractical in view of the quantities in, trlved. For a large multi-tank LNG facility, thousands oftonnes
Figure 19.14 Line diagram showing a site-based perlite expansion plant
:' expanded perlite will be required. At 60 kg/m3 density, 1000

::1nes of perlite requires a volume approaching '17000m3. The ':ctory route is clearly not a sensible proposition in this case.
-'e
solution is the use of portable expansion plants. These can

1
:e set up on the construction site and the unexpanded perlite

:-e can be more sensiblytransported to site in :. in containers. tonne big bags
--e
perlite is produced by continuously feeding the graded ore
-:o a purpose-designed furnace. The expansion is almost im-ediate and the product is exhausted from the furnace in the -at gas stream which is filtered to separate the expanded
:dite. This is then pneumatically conveyed to the tank where it -ttles out of the air stream and fills the inter-tank void. Special ?re must be taken to ensure that this conveying process does -:t damage the perlite as attrition maytake place. To avoid this :-e conveying velocity must be kept as low as possible, the i.gths of hose should be kept as short as possible and any :nds as few as possible and of the maximum practical radius. I re diagram showing this process is shown as Figure 19.14. example of the vibration equipment required to avoid i,cessive settlement of the pedite as discussed in Section ': 3.2.3 is shown in Figure 19.15. The resilient blanket
Flgure 19.15 A perlLte vibraiion sysiem
I :/pical
The solution chosen to solve this problem was to suspend a glass fibre blanket from the top of the outer surface ofthe inner tank shell. This blanket acted like a spring and controlled the external loadings on the inner tank, especially when the inner tankwarmed upfollowing a period in service. Atthis point in the
tank's life cycle it is empty and most at risk from possible damage caused by external pressures. This test work enabled the design pressures to be predicted with confidence and the inner tank stiffening system to be designed. The design of the inner tank stifiening is discussed in detail in Chapter 18. The result of this work was that the resilient blanket system was the subject ofajointly held patent, and the technologywas licensed to other contractors until the patent cover expired in the late 1970s.
--e
guroose of the resilient blanket is to control the external :-3ssures which the loose fill insulation material exerts on the
--er :
liquid container These external pressures change in
- agn itude du ring the life cycle of the storage tank, but can gen:?lly be assumed to have their maximum value when the tank
lecommissioned following a period in service. In simplistic
:."ns
the wayin which this maximum design pressure is arrived s illustrated in Figure 19.'16. Perlite in its expanded form is : -3sumed to be incompressible at the low levelofloadings pre-
::
,,
:.'ite to break down in an irreversible fashion) and to be able to ':,v freely into any voids which may be created.
--e problem was first given serious attention during the design
-" ase of the LNG tanks at the Canvey lsland lmport Terminal.
ing in this situation (higher loadings will cause expanded
As low temperature tanks, and LNG tanks in particular, became bigger, the suspended method of blanket installation became a
problem. The glass fibre manufacturers could only produce

suiiably-faced materials in limited lengths and the vertical loadings on the blanket materials themselves became a limitation. Providing a second support ring at a point halfway up the tank shell and using two drops of blanket was one solution. Another was to impale the blanket material on pins which were attached to the outside ofthe innertank with suitable adhesives. Afurther solution was to arrange forthe inner tank stiffening to be on the outer surface ofthe innertank (these stiffeners are most usually to be found on the inner su rfaces of the inner tanks) and for the stiffeners themselves to be at a constant Ditch. The resilient blanket material was then installed between these stiffeners and held in place with wire laced between the outer edges ofthe stiffeners.
STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 39,I
--e client was the East Midlands Gas Board (EMGB) and the
was Whessoe Ltd. Ajointlyfunded research and de='rtractor ,E cpment programme was undertaken and a series of box :s:s weredevised which simulated the intersoace between the --er and the outertanks, the insulation materials which were to :: installed in this space and the thermally-induced move-e'rts of the inner iank as it cooled to LNG temperature and . -rsequently warmed up again. The test facility had the equip-elt necessary to measure the pressures on the outer sur-3:es of the simulated inner tank at various stages during the
:.s: cycte.
Outer
wall
'Perlite
Blanket
Over the years furthertest work has been carried out and British Gas (of whom El\,lGB was formerly a part) continued its interest in the subject and allowed some of its 50,000m3 LNG tanks to be fitted with pressure and blanket thickness measuring equipment. Thus a full-scale test facility, withoutthe unceriainties brought about by specimen end effects, which were alwaysa problemwith the box tests, was made available. Mostof the data collected was analysed by the late Dr lan Leadley of Whessoe.
The relationship between the perlite, the resilient blanket and the resultant pressures on the inner tank is complex and involves a bewildering numberofvariables. Amongst these are:
. . . .
The physical dimensions ofthe hnks and the interspace The product and ambient temperatures The materials of the inner and of the outertanks The density ofthe perlite The thickness of the resilient blanket The compressive properties of the resilient blanket
The angle of internal friction of the perlite (this varies with time)
The coefficient offriction at the various interfaces The number of full and partial thermal and liquid filling cycles for the inner tank
.
- inlorspace filled
wih Pedite
The numberof pressure cycles for the outertank (applies to steel outer ianks only)
'"1"'.1*:"*o"
All of the tank designers have their own ways of solving this
complex problem. These are usually closely guarded secrets.
The whole subject is shrouded in uncertainty because ofthe difficulties with the perlite/blankevpressure relationship, the large factors of safety used in the stiffenersize and pitch calculations and the small number of lowtemperature tanks which are sub-
jected to the full loading cycle and then decommissioned and

examined.
Cold - inn6r tank conlracts
19.4 Roof insulation

Innr tank warms up and oxpands
19.4.1 General
The most commonly found forms of roof insulation fall into two categones:
.
Pe
ite /
For single-walled metallic tanks the insulation system is attached to the external surfaces of the roof sheeting. For some single-skinned tanks and for the majority of double-walled tanks, the insulalion system is supported on a suspended deck supported from the tank roof framework and located within the tank.
bl.nket intBrface remains
in same position as c)
,bove
Ohis gives maximim exlamal prossure on inner tank)
19.4.2 External roof insulation

This is usually similar in form tothe externalshell insulation sys-
tems described above. The insulation materials used and the need for an effective weather cover/vapour banier are the
same. lf anything, the local environment on the tank roof is worse than for the tank shell in terms of exposure to severe winds, rain and chemical aggression. For this reason it is not
uncommon for single-walled tanks to be constructed with internal suspended decks. In addition to the advantages of removing the insulation from this difficult environment, there are other potential savings associated with the design temperature for the outer roof sheeting and its supporting framework being based on atmospheric temperatures and noton the lowerproduct temperature. The insulation material may be cheaper i.e.
Non-f n6ar lastic proprli6s of reslient bbnket
Figure l9.'16 Resilient blanket pressure history
19 lnsulation systefis for low tempercturc tanks
rit-
in!G
iJ
:r
l
r,
density glass fibre rather than polyurethane foam. The
monia where the supply of suitable in{ank pumps is problem-
eather cover/vapour barrierwill no longer be required. These
::vings may well offset the cost of providing the suspended

:eck and its supports and the longevity ofthe system is almost ::rtain to be jmproved.
atic. This is discussed in Chapter 21. Oxygen and nitrogen

tanks traditionally have side wallor bottom connections rather than in-tank pumps. Tanks which predated the general move away from single containment to the higher containment categories were also often fitted with side wall or bottom connections, mainly for liquid import and export. The function of the fittings heat breaks are:
r-
el
:o;
o'
19.4.3 Internal suspended deck insulation
i:c
It':
-.e
li
most commonly used insulation materials for this purpose :-e low density glass fibre ofthe type often found in domestic at: :s or lofts, (usually around 0.75k9/m3 in density), mineralwool, =!ain at the lower end of the range of densities available, and :dite. The pedite is most usually site-expanded and installed :.3se or in bags. For suspended deck insulation, the following ::nsiderations must be taken into account:
. . . .
To prevent excessive local heat gain

To provide a mechanical load transfer mechanism between the attached pipework and the tank roof, wall of bottom
To protect Darts of the tank which are constructed from materials which are not suitable for contact with the orod uct Iio-
uid design temperature

To avoid
Steps should be taken to prevent the roof insulation from contaminating the product liquid. For plate type suspended decks this is only a problem around the periphery of the deckand atfittings penetrations. A simple fabric shroud will normally suffice. Fordecks constructed from structural seciions and troughed sheeting where there are gaps between the sheets, this is more ofa problem and frequently requires a layerofsuitable material between the deck and the insulation to covef such gaps. A commonly used material for this purpose is a glass reinforced paper. Perlite in particular is a problem. lt has a tendency to flow through small gaps, and for an apparently delicate material, can cause problems with abrasion of the moving parts of certain downstream process equipment, for example pumps. Where fibrous materials are used for deck insulation and perlite for the wall insulation, the fabric shroud or the perlite retaining wall must prevent the perlite from getting onto the deck in addition to its other duty of retaining a sufficient hopper volume of perlite above the interspace.
Steps must be taken to prevent the deck insulation from being "rearranged" by vapour movements above the deck or from getting into the product via the deck vents. Steps should be taken to ensure that the final, installed deck insulation thickness is what has been specified and used in
condensation orlocalice build
uD
around thefittino
19.5.2 Heat breaks for roof connections

Figure 19.17 shows a typical roof heat break arrangementfor a
lull containment LNG tank. Roof fittings for product liquid or

vapour can become quite large. The in-tank pump columns for a typical LNG export terminal tank may well be up to 42" in di-
. .
the thermal insulation calculations. A commonly used device is to put adhesive tape markers on the suspended deck
supporting rods or wires to indicate the required finished thickness. By this means any settlement during installation 0ecomes oDVtous.
For tanks where there is a possibility of condensation of the product liquid on the underside ofthe outer roof (a problem for butane tanks where the ambient temperature can occasionally be lower than the storage temperature, and in areas ofthe world subject to very low temperatures, a similar problem for propane tanks), provision must be made to ensure that the condensed liquid can make jts waythrough the suspended deck. For double-walled tanks it is necessary to ensure that the condensation will also not enter the wall insulation interspace.
19.5 Insulation of heat breaks and

19.5.1 General
fittings
-he majority
of fittings in conventional vertical, cylindrical low :emperature storage tanks pass through the tank roof. The lack lftank wall penetrations is a prerequisite ofthe fullcontainment of storage and is strongly preferred for the single and =tegory :ouble containment categories.
-here are a fewcircumstances where side walland bottom conrections are used. One of these is for the storage of liquid am-
Fqure 19.1/ -ypical rool heal break arrange-lent for LNC se-vrce
ameter and it is not unusual for the liouid import line and the vapour return line for these tanks to be 32" in diameter
ln this case the tank roof is constructed from reinforced concrete with a non low temperature steel liner, i.e. the roof sheeting. With the product storage temperature at about -162 'C an efficient thermal heat break is required. The mechanical loads
to be transferred across the heat break arising from the

self-weight ofthe internal and external pipework and its insulation, the piping system anchor loads and any local valves and fittings will be substantial, particularly when the tank is to be constructed in an area subjectto a severe seismic environment and significant amplification of these static loadings can take place. Consequently a robust connection is required. Cleady the need for thermal efficiency and the need for mechanical strength are in conflict. This makes the design ofthese fittings interesting. A lot of experience in the use and behaviour ofthe various proprietary designs is useful here. lt is sometimes written in specifications that the heat breaks shall prevent ice formation orcondensation on the tank rooflocalto thefitting under allatmospheric conditions. This is a quite unreasonable requirement which is impossible to comply with. There willalways be some measure of cooling ofthe roof or the warm side components ofthe heat break adjacent to the fitting and under unfavourable atmospheric conditions, some condensation or ice build up is inevitable. lt would be more reasonable to require that the heat break design will seek to minimise this phenomenon. For double-walled tanks where the inner tank has a fixed roof, the situation is more complex as a means must be provided to accommodate the differentialthermal movements which will be present. These types oftanks are quite uncommon these days although there are some companies in the Far East who still remain wedded to this arrangement. lt is most usual to include a bellows in the penetration. This can be located between the two roofs or external to the outer tank roof. Atypical arrangement is illustrated in Figure 19.18.
For the heat break arrangement shown in Figure 19.17, experiFigure 19.18 Atypical roof fitting for a double roof type of tank
ence has shown that the most effective form of insulation is PUF. This can be installed in the fitting prior to its erection into the tank roof. The most convenient way of achieving this is to foam the PUF in situ into the inverted fitting using one ofthe proprietary foam kits available on the market. The use ofglass fibre or mineral wool packed into the insulation space has not been
good for the lowertemperature end of the product range. Problems of internal convection have frequently led to the appear-
ance of external ice spots. For warmer products such as butane. ammonia or propane, a simpler arrangement is frequently adopted. One such is illustrated in Figure 19.19. One of the significant savings results from the elimination of the expensive stainless steel cone piece. Forthese products the use of glass fibre or mineralwool insulation may be appropriate.
Gl.ss flbre, miner5l wool
19.5.3 Heat breaks for tank sidewall connections

For single-walled tanks, there is no need fora heat break, since the wall, fitting and the connected pipework all fallwithin the in-
sulation envelope.
For the now unusual, double-walled single containment type of tanks, a typical arrangement is shown in Figure 19.20. The design of such flttings was not easy, the accommodation of the thermal and mechanical movements of the inner shell and the reduction ofthe external loadings from the connected pipework to acceptable limits had to be considered. External spring supports and pipe loops were frequently required to resolve these pro0rems.
Figure 19.19 Atypical rcoffilting fot LPG or ammonia seruice
t,s,Eji9!:EE!:!!!9y!!29EyE !9!
Forthe much smallertanks for the storage ofoxygen, nitrogen and argon, the use of sidewall connections is common. These are frequently incorporated into a cold box built into the shell of the outer carbon steel tank. Atypical arrangement is indicated in Figure 19.21.
19.5.4 Heat breaks for tank bottom connections

Despite the apparent attractions oftank bottom connections in terms of maximising the use of the tank capacity and of enabling the operators to drain the full tank contents for rapid decommissioning, bottom connections are uncommon. For single-walled tanks there is no need for any form of heat
oreaK.
For double-walled tanks with small-sized iittings, the penetration of the inner tank bottom is connected by pipework running in the base insulation and exiting through the outer shell. Here a heat break arrangement similar to that required for Section '19.4.3 is necessary Figure 19.22 shows a detail which was used for a double containment liquid butane tank constructed at l\Iobil Oil's CoMon refinery This was a double-walled metallic tank where in;ormal service the inner pipe is cold and the outer pipe is warm. Under accident conditions both inner and outer pipes are cold. This was a fitting which was difficult to construct, but which has
Figure 19.22 The bottom connection at Mobil Oit's Coryton refinery
worked successfully for some 15 years. ln this case the heat

break is the bellows.
19.6 Internal pipework insulation

The only pipework to be found within the tank envelooe is nor-
mallythatwhich runs from the cold liquid orvapour roofconnection down to the suspended deck. The insulation is simDle usually consisting of multiple layers of a suitably-backed glass fibre, wrapped around the pipe and held in place with wire or plastic ties, or of preformed pipe insulation sections usually made from glass fibre or mineral wool.
---i-*
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-t,.l',+ atr-j.r.r,t
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fr ,./
--
19.7 External pipework insulation

The insulation of lowtemperature pipework is a signifi cantsubject jn its own right and more properly belongs in a publicatjon dealing with pjpework systems. Regularvisits to sites where lowtemperature liquids are stored and processed will rapidly revealto the observerthat the maiority of problems of ice build-up and condensation occur in ihe pipework. In addition to causing expense by virtue of excessive heat gain, the ice build-up can also be the source of safetv Droblems by inhibiting thermal movements at bellows and pipe supoorts. Good low temperature pipework insulation is the result of correct system design, specification, material selection and proba_ bly most importantly, the careful installation and site supervision by experienced specialists. Traditionally,pipework insulation has been fitted followino erection ofthe piping system. In recent years there has been Jmove away from site installation and it is now common for orefabricated pipe spools to be sent to an insulation specialist to receive the thermal insulation prior to erection in the field. This brings the benefits of controlled factory environments for this activity, leaving onlythejoints between spools to be insulated at site. Clearly good planning and dimensional control are a Drerequisite ofthe successful implementation ofthis method of in_ stallation. The most commonly used materials for the insulation are pUF and cellularglass. Both ofthese materials are available in factory-formed pipe profiles. lvlaterials commonly used for the vapour seal/weather protection are galvanised or Aluzinc steel sheeting, aluminium sheeting, stainless steel sheeting, polyethylene and vadous non-mebllic mastics.
For manyyears an argument has raged concerning the relative merits of the materials and combinations of materials in resist_
tiK
U .''
ll'1
"",""i
Fjgure 19.20 A typicat sidewall connection fora double-wa ed sjngle contain-
Figure 19.21 A typical sidewatt connection for a LOX or LtN tank
ing heat radiation loadings from various accident scenarios.
19 lnsulation systems fot low tempercture tanks
This still continues, with allsides frequently claiming victory. lt is not unusual for composite systems using PUF for the inner layers and cellular glass for the outer layer to be specified.
An area where particularcare is needed is in the fitting of insula-
l\4ost thermal insulation materials have thermal conductivities which change with temperature. This is illustrated for cellular glass by Figure 19.6. Hence the mean temperature of a layer of
tion to valves and other fittings. Infrared thermography discussed in Section 19.10 is a useful tool for inspecting low temperature pipe insulation systems. The identification of the causes of failure or lack of longevity of such pipe insulation systems is not always straightforward. A refinery in the UK had problems of early breakdown of its carefully installed cellular, glass-based insulation. The cause ofthis problem was eventuallyhaced to the fact that the workforce fre-
insulation material within the multi-layersystem must be known before the thermal resistance of that layer can be calculated, and the thermal resistance is required to establish the mean remperarure. The way out of this apparent impasse is to assume a temperature profile for the various interfaces within the system, use this to calculate the mean temperatures of the individual layers and this in turn to obtain the k values of the various materials to perform the initial calculation. The results of this calculation allow the interface temperatures to be recalculated and the k values to be revised. Asecond calculation is carried out and the results ofthis allow a further revision of the k values. A couple offurther iterations should show temperature values at the interfaces converging and this should be sufficient. Figure 19.23 shows a numerical example of this Drocess. This is a tedious calculation to carryoutbyhand and is ideallysuited to Excel spreadsheets.
quently used the larger insulated pipes as walkways to the

more inaccessible parts ofthe site. The brittle cellularglass was
no match for the workers' boots!
19.8 Heat leak calculations

The basis of the heat leak calculations is quite straightforward. Itisonlyin the detail that the subject becomes a little more interesting. The tank insulation system is divided up into the areas where similar materials or combinations of materials have been used. For a typical full containment tank these would be:
19.8.2 Thermal conductivity values

Initially, the source of the thermal conductivity values (or K values) to be used in the basic calculations is the manufacture's technical literature. Mosi low temperature tank designers will produce their own detailed technical specifications for the supply and installation of the different parts of the insulation system. Within such specifications it would be unusual if there were not some means of confirming the K values of the materials. This could take the form of regular samples being taken from the place of production, be this a factory for materials such as slab stock PU F, PVC foam, cellular glass, glass fibre or mineral wool, or the construction site for such materials as perlite or site expanded PUF.
. . . . .
The central area ofthe tank base The oerioheral area ofthe tank base The lower tank wall where thermal orotection has been installed The upper tank wall where no thermal protection has been installed The tank roof
19.8.1 Basic calculation methods

The basic equation to calculate the heatflux through a particular component to be adopted where a slngle insulation material is used is:
H=k
xAxAT
iL
equ 19.1
where:
H k
= =
heat flux through component (W) thermal conductivity of the insulation material
These samples would be sent to an agreed laboratory where the K values would be verified at the appropriate temperature (or range of tem peratures). lt is usual for the eventual owners of the tank to witness this testing, either themselves or via their hired engineering or inspection companies. As has been mentioned earlier, the measurement of low temperature insulation properties is noteasyand should be leftto those skilled and experienced in this work. Note that this testing is usually conducted in air.
(W/m'K)
area of component (m2)
hot to cold face temperature range ('K)
A = AT = L =
For porous materials such as perlite, glass fibre or mineral wool, the vapour within which the insulation material is operaf ing wiil have a significant effect on lts effective K value. Thus the test results which are based on air as the interstitial gas will have to be adjusted to account for the presence of a different gas. This is discussed in Section 19.8.3. Where the insulation material has been penetrated by items
made from different materials, such as is the case for resilient blankets supported by being impaled on pins, the effective K valueto be used in the calculations must be adjusted to take account of the short circuiting effect ofthe pins. Asuitable calculation method for making this adjustment is given in section ,q3 of
thickness of component (m)
Where more than one material is used the following method taken from section A3 oI Reference 79.3 is used:
U = 1/ (R1+ R2 + R3+.....+Rn)
equ 19.2
wnere:
U
R1 & R2 etc
= =
thermal transmittance (Wm'? 'K)
Reference 19.3. Certain insulation materials have thermal properties which

change with time. PUF used as external insulation may display an increase in its K value as the original foaming gas within the cells is progressively replaced byair.ltis importantthatin these circumstances a suitably aged property is used in the calculation.
thermal resistance ofthe various insulation components (m2'K iV) - calculated from equation '19.3 below
equ 19.3
R=L/K
Hence the equation to calculate the heat flux through a multilayer component is:
H=U
xAxAT
equ 19.4
19.8.3 The influence of different interstitial gases

The various equations which allow the K values of the vapours ofthe various low temDerature oroducts to be calculated at dif-
It is not normal to include surface resistance in these calculations.
19 lnsulatjon systems for low temperature tanks
ABumptions for the exercise: Outer surface tamperature lnner sutfsoa ternperature Intef,stltialgas Installed perlle density lnstallsd glass fibre dn8ity Section through wa[:
To Ti
+40'c
-165 'C Methane 60 kglm3 24 relm3
Matedal Thickne6s(mm) 600 5 Sleel linet 960 Psdite 240 Glasslibre 10 Inside 90/6 ni inner tank Assumed thermalgradienl ('C)
Outside Concte
Air/concrelg
Conc|Eie,/perlite Prlite/gla8s tibre Glass fibr/product
lgnor
h thermalcalculation
lgnore in thermalcahulalion CK) 313

3{X}
40 30 -125 -'165
148 108
3'13.0000 310.C015 117.1301 108.0000
313.0000
310.256
313,0000
310.7349
174,7136 174.5*1 108,0000 108-0000
'
TRIAL No 1 Calculate K values: Concrete
Perlite
step l
Taken as 1.60 Wm'K tiroughout calqiation calculate K value of hterstitial gas (f1) 155 'K ATp 0.0243158 w,lm'K
step 2
Gla6s
fibre step
step 2 step 3
KS1 8.252384i| R y 0.137422 0.0401584 Wm'K Kp calculate K value of interstitial gas (lQ2) 40'K ATfg 0.0133521 dm"K l{gz fuctor ftom Figure 19.25 1.455 f calculale K value of glass fibr 0-0194273 Kg
calculate K value of petlib (KP)
Total hat f,ux (tdal 1) Matedal
Thidmess (mm) K
ConaGte Perlite
Glass fib|e
value Themalresistance(rn2 "K iv) AT 2.0985 1.6 0.3750 600 960 0.0401584 23.9054 133.771407 6S.1301 240 0.0194273 12.3538 36.6341 m5.0000 Total
Heat
FlI(
(dmz)
5.5959
Figure
9.23 An sxample of a multilayer ln6ulation @mponent cslcllation - page
t
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIFII'ENT 397
19 lnsulation systems for low temperdturc tanks
TRIAL No 2 Calcxrlate K values:
Concrets
Pedite
step
stp 2
Glass
fib|
step
.l
step 2 step 3
ATp 133.7714'K Kgl 0.0266994 w/m'K calculale K value of pertite (Kp) R 7.87Tt517 y 0.1374?2. Kp o.o428oa w/m'K calculale K value of inteGfitial gas (Kg2) Arfu 69.1901 'K Kg2 0.01499s6 w/m'K factor from Figure 9.2S t 1.455 calculate K value of glass fibre Kfs 0.0218187
1
Taken as 1.60 Wm'K thrcughout calculation calculate K value of intersfital gas (lg1)
Total heat flux (biat 1 )
Material Concret Perlfte cfass fibr6

(dmz)
Thlckness (mm)
Kvalue Thermal resistance(mr.XLn) at 600 1.8 0.3750 2,2744 960 0.042808 22-4287 136.012036 240 O.O21B|B7 10.999g 66.7,13 Toiat $.9005 208.0000
Heat Ftux TRIAL No 3 Calculale K values:
6.0650
Conqeie
Pedite
step
Taken as 1.60 w/m'K throughout clculalion

1
step 2
Glass
fibr step
step 2 step 3
ATp 136.0i20 'K lQl 0.0285485 w/m'K calculate K value of pedite (Kp) R 7.9020321 y 0.137422. Kp 0.0426242 wtm'K calculale K value of interstitial gas (Kg2) ATfs 66.7136 'K Kg2 0.0148s87 dm'K
factor from Figure 1 9.25 1.455 calculate K value of glass jibre
calculate K value ot interstitiat gas (Kg1)
Kfg
0.02i6194
Total heat flux (trlat 1)
Matedal Concrete pedite Glass fibre
Thickness (mm)
Kvalue The.malresistance(flf "tgu/) AT 600 1.6 0.3750 2.2611 960 0.0426242 Z2.Sn4 135.8027i18 240 0.0216194 11.'1011 66.936.1
Total
33.9986
205.0000
Hat Flux
(dm2)
6.0297
Figure 19.23 An example
ofa multi-tayer insulation component calcutation - page 2
lnsulation systems for low temperaturc tanks
'efent temperatures are given in Figure '19.24. The source of tis data is Reference 19.4.
Fomula for themal conductivity In wm"K
o oorou
19.8.4 Galculation of the hot face temperature

The design specification will require a certain maximum heat leak into the tank contents as described in Section 19.7 Ofren the only data given is the maximum design ambient temperature, which is a shade temperature at the tank's geographic loca on. The actual maximum temperatures to which the tank roof and walls will be subjected influenced by the local solar radiation maximum levels, the attitude ofthe surface in question, the prevailing weatherconditions (clear orcloudy skies)and the nature of the external surfaces. Data and calculation methods allowing the actual maximum temperatures to be calculated for any set of circumstances are given in section AG ot Reference 19 3 For the tank base. two possibilities exist:
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For tanks built on the ground, the hot face temperature is based on the operational settings of the base heating control system. lt is clearly unwise to have the base heating
system maintaining the base temperature at too high a

T,-T, fK)
T+12CK)
d
g u
re 1 L24 Formulae for calculating the K values of various gases at
ifferent
Forcalculating the Kvalue ofperlite with the air replaced byone cf these gases at a particular set oftemperature conditions, the 'ollowino formula can be used:
level. Purchasing expensive energy, be it electrical, steam or heated brine to boil off more product than is necessary incurring further costs in terms of re-liquefaction or product loss to atmosphere is clearly a nonsense. Consequently a design hot face value as low as possible is used. -5 'C is a not unusualvalue to use in the calculations in these circumstances.
xo=Kn(-v)+
vhere:
/^,+o-1f
equ 19.5
For tanks built on elevated foundations, a hot face design temperature equal to the maximum shade temperature would seem to be a sensible choice. There is perhaps a case for using a lower temperature. Experience suggests that the space beneath the base slab of such tanks is a cold place to be, even on hot days.
Kp = Ks = R" = y = p =
thermal conductivity of perlite in the replace' ment interstitial gas (Wm 'K) thermal conductivity of the interstitial gasatthe appropriate temPerature (Wm "K)
0.114i Ks+ 3.608
19.8.5 Overall heat leak

Acommon wayforthe tank maximum heat leakto be specifled to the tank and insulation system designer is to express it in terms of the escape to atmosphere of a percentage of the full
tank contents perday. Hence for a large LNG tank we may see:
3.9x10'3xp087
installed perlite density (kgim3)
For calculating the K value of glass fibre or mineral wool, the graph shown in Figure 19.25 can be used. (Both equation 19.5 and Figure '19.25 are attributed to the late Dr lan Leadley of Whessoe.)
"The maximum heat leak shall not exceed 0.05% of the full tank contents per day on the assumption that the tank contents are considered to be pure methane." The latter requirement to consider the tank contents as a pure product is to avoid the complication of working out the latent heat ofthe LNG which may have a range ofcompositions and to
lhermal conduclivity glass fibre gas = factor x average conductivity of
Figurc 19.25 K value ofglass fibre of mineralwool
19 Insulation systems for low temperature tanks
avoid subsequent contentious arguments. lt is normal to make the same form of wording for any tank containing a mixed product, expressing the permitted heat leak in terms ofa percentage ofthe major constituent. The following points are worth bearing in mind:
. . .
lt may be necessaryto run the in-tank pumps during the test period to ensure proper mixing. Allowance for the energy inout from this source must be made.
Boil off is known not to occur at a uniform rate, but rather as a series of irregular "burps". This is another reason why the
lt is importantto use the correct density in the calculation of
test must be conducted over a protracted period. Arrangements must be made to record and take account of the effects of wind and solar radiation.
the permitted heat leak. For LNG a latent heat of 507.0 kJ/kg should be used with the pure methane density of
0.422. Using the design density of LNG (frequently given as 0.48) will give too high a value of the permitted heat leak.
These difficulties combine to make a physical heat leak test time consuming, expensive and inconclusive. To avoid this
problem area, the following procedure is often adopted:
lt is often presumed that the worst conditions pertaining at any point on the tank outer surface at any time during the whole day will persist for the full 24 hours. This has occasionally become a point of dispute beh,veen the owner and the designer, with the tank designer claiming that it represents an unnecessarily conservative interpretation. The full tank contents is usually taken to mean just that, i.e. with no deduction for in-tank pump NPSH etc.
The tank designer must prepare detailed heat leak calculations together with the appropriate certification (and possibly QA records if these are available at the time) to demonstrate that the materials used havethe required thermal properties. These calculations and the associated documentation will be submitted to an expert third party, previously agreed by both the owner and the tank contractor, who would review the calculations and whose findings would be binding on both parties.
. .
Whilst the calculations seek to cover all of the sources of possible heat leakage from tank to atmosphere, there will
probably be some which have been ignored or overlooked such as the smaller connected pipe connections. To cover for these uncertainties, it is usual for the designer to aim for a calculated heat leak lower than the full target value. A not unusual starting point would be to aim for 85% of the full value in the first instance.
A well
set out heat leak calculation for a large full containment type LNG tank is shown in Figure 19.26. This makes use of a series of linked Excel soreadsheets.
One of the added advantages of this procedure is that in the event of a shortfall being found in the thermal insulation provided, then this can be made good prior to the tank entering service. This could perhaps be by a simple addition to the thickness ofthe insulation on the suspended deck, an action with no knock-on effects. With the physicaltest route, this pre-commissioning adjustment is not possible.
19.10 The use of the infrared camera

An infrared camera will produce images which will identify areas where the heat leak is abnormal or merelydifferentfrom the surrounding areas of insulation. lt is a useful tool both at the
time of tank commissioning and as an occasional maintenance device to locate any changes in the thermal insulation system and its performance, perhaps due to such time dependent phenomena as insulation material degradation or perlite settlement. The equipment is nowadays quite cheap to purchase, or there are companies who will come and perform this service.
19.9 Heat leak testing

With the customer or his engineer setting a heat leakage requirement for the tank and the distinct possibility that at least
some of the process equipment will be designed based on this figure, it would seem sensible to test the finished storage system to see that it fullllls this performance criteria. This is not as simple as it would appear for a variety of reasons:
lvleasuring the heat leak will require either a significant change in the tank liquid level to occur, which may take some days depending upon the accuracy ofthe level measuring equipment provided, or will require the accurate measurement of the vapour flow through the vapour outlet line, something difficult and expensive to achieve. Vapour flow measurement is not a normal part of the tank instrumentation. For a large LNG tank with a specified boil off rate of less than 0.05% (a typical figure for such tanks) the level change will be of the order of 15 mm/day. To get a sensible measurement which will be sufiicient to negate any uncertainty caused by tolerances on gauging accuracy, it is clear that the test duration must run into several days.
Insulation problems from the past and their lessons

19.1 1 19.11.'l Base insulation failure
Two LNG tanks belonging to GAZ Metropolitan in lMontreal,
Canada, had been in continuous satisfactory service until July 1990, when instrumentation in the tank base ofone of the tanks began to show evidence of cold spots. After double checking and adding new thermocouples, the problem persisted and it
. . . . .
became obvious that the tank required to be taken out of

service. Following decommissioning it was found that the cellular glass base insulation was the subject of massive cracking and mechanical breakdown.
This damage eventually necessitated the lifting ofthe innertank andthe complete replacement of the cellularglass base insula-
The tank must be fullor close to full at the time of the test to avoid contentious arguments revolving around the extrapolation ofthe heat leakfrom a lowerliquid levelto a fulltank.
The tank must not be subject to any liquid movements during the test period.
The test must be carried out at a time when barometric

pressure is anticipated to remain relatively constant.
tion, an expensive and time consuming process.
Ambient temperature must be monitored throughout the

test period. For LNG LPG and other mixed products, it is necessary to determine the composition of the liquid in the tank. This will require sampling as the iank is filled.
An investigation into the cause of this base insulation failure was carried out and this is reported in Reference 19.5.
The investigation revealed that in July 1990, blasting work had been carried out within 200 m ofthe two tanks. The tank nearest to the blasting was full of Iiquid at the time and undamaged. The tankfurthest awayfrom the blasting location was fllled to 20% of
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9.26 A typlcal heat leak calculalion for a laBe LNG tank
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19 lnsulation systems for low tempenturc tanks
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19 lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks
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19 Insulation systems for low tempemture tanks
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Figure
9.26 A typical heat leak calculalion for a large LNG tank - page 5
19 lnsulation systems for low temperature
knks
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9.26 A typical heat lek calculation for a large LNG tank - page 6
19
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Figure 1 9.26 A typical heat leak calculation for a large LNG tank - page 7
19 lnsulation systems for low tempercture tanks
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Figufe 19.26 A typ cal heat leak calculation for a Lafge LNG tank - page
19
Insulation systems for low temperaturc tanks
:s capacity and was damaged as described. The investigation :ound that the partiallyfilled tank had a higher natural frequency
. . .
Exposed to frequent waterfall events, due to concentrated rainfall from the roof and shell. Complications to detailed design caused by holding-down anchors.
:han the fuller tank and was thus more susceptible to damage iom the blasfinduced ground motions. -lhe lesson from this incident is clearly that any blasting on the same, or adjacentsites should be avoided, and ifthis is not possible, then detailed investigations should be carried out to deiermine the susceptibility of tanks with brittle base insulation naierials to damage.
The correct selection of materials, detailed design and

careful installation together with regular inspection all have their part to play in this area.
19.1 1.4
Perlite settlement
19.11.2 External vapour sealing

A number of low temoerature tanks with external thermal insuation on their shells, and in some cases also on their roofs, rave come to grief over the years. The reasons for these failJres are usually associated with poor performance of their ex:ernal vapour sealing arrangements. This has allowed moisiure-laden air to invade the insulation material and form ice /vithin the insulation or on the tank shell beneath the insulation. The damage can manifest itself immediately following the tank cool down or following several years in service. Double walled tianks using perlite insulation have on occasions had a history of poor performance. Aring of condensation orice at. or close to the top ofthe outer shell, is an indication of excessive perlite settlement. The reasons for this can be:
. . .
Lack of, or inadequate, or ineffective vibration ofthe perlite during its site expansion and insiallation. The provision of insufficient hoppervolume atthe top corner
of the tank.
On at least one occasion, the location of a large diesel-powered generatoradjacentto the tank following perlite installa-
Higher than anticipated heat in leak and consequent product Soiloff, the appearance of external condensation orofice spots or (in at least one case) sudden failure and collapse ofallor part of the shell insulation are the usual signs.
tion.
The use of experienced perlite installation companies using ap-
The lesson here is that the external vapour seal and its
ong-term abilityto keep atmospheric moisture out ofthe insulation material is viialto the survival ofthe insulation system. Corr.ect material selection, sDecification and installation are all aclivities, which will help to ensure that the required performance and service life are obtained.
propriate methods and equipment will help to avoid this problem and its solution, expensive in service topping up of the perlite.
19.12 References
19.1 19.2 19.3
Foamglas@ lndustrial lnsulation Handbook, Pittsburgh
19,11.3 Bottom corners

The bottom corner of tanks where the wall insulation is on the outer surface ofthe shell and the base insulation is beneath the iank bottom, have on occasions given rise to problems. Again, the cause is moisture ingress and the reason is poorwaterand vapour sealing materials and details. This is a difficult area of the insulation system to design for, for a number of reasons:
Corning NV Waterloo, Belgium.
Research into the structural integrity of LNG tanks, D. Neville and G. White, British Gas Engineering Research Station. LNG 9. October 1989.
The lnternational Heating and Ventilating Guide, Chartered Institution of Building Services.
fhe
J.G.
19.4 The Handbook of Cryogenic Engineering,

Weisland ll, Taylor & Francis, London, 1998.
. .
Large radial thermal movements caused by tank contraction.

High shell line loadings, requiring materials with good, mechanical and thermal DroDerties.
19.5
Damage to base ofLNG tanks from blast loadings - A case study, R. Tinawi, A. Filiatrank, C Dor6, Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities. Vol 7. No 3. Auqust 1993.
410 STORAGE TANKS & EQUTPMENT
20 Ancillary equipment for low
temperature tanks
This Chapter provides a brief review of the ancillary equipment which goes to make up a low temperature liquid storage system.
Contents:
20.1 General 20.2 In-tank pgmps and their handling equipment
20.2.1 In-tank pumps 20.2.2 In-tank pump removal systems 20.2.3 Pumo columns
20.3 Filling columns 20.4 Base heating systems

20,5 Tank
cooldown systems
20.6 Internal shut-off valves

20.7 Venting systems
20.8 Fire protectlon aystems

20.8.1 Detection systems 20.8.2 Safety systems 20.8.2.1 Fire water system 20.8.2.2 Foam systems 20.8.2.3 Dry polvder systems 20.8.2.4 Local proteclion of vulnerabb equiprner
20.9 Instrumentation
20.9.1 Level measurement 20,9.2 Pressure measurement
20.9.3 Temperature measurement 20.9.4 Level/temperature/density (LTD) measurement 20.9.5 Leak detection
20.9.6 Internal cameras
20.10 Civil monitoring systems 20.11 Refurences
20 Ancillary eguipment for low temperature tanks
20.1 General
The ancillaryequipmentassociatedwith lowtemperalure tanks
falls into two categories.
Equipmentwhich is generally uniqueto the lowtemperature

tiank category such as in-iank pumps, base heating sys-
tems, civil monitoring systems and some items of inslrumentation.
The modern land-based in-tank pumps owe much to the ship ping industry where similar pumps have been used for many years and from whence they were developed. These pumps are required to lifr the product liquid out of the storage tank, eitherto deliver it to external pumps which willimpart the required pressure to the product, or to impart this pressure themselves without the assistance of external pumps.
As would be expected, the biggest pumps are associated with LNG tanks which are in general larger in capacitythan the tanks for other products and require greaterthroughput. lt is generally accepted that in order to avoid excessive demurrage charges, a large LNG tanker should be loaded at 12,000 m3/hr. Presuming thatthis tankeris being loadedfrom two land-based storage tanks each fitted with three in-tank pumps, then pumps with a discharge rate of some 2000 m3/hr will be required. A typical in-tank pump assembly is shown in FigUIe 2o.2.
Equipment which is similar to that normally provided for tanks for ambient temperature service, but in certain ways different, perhaps by being required to be more accurate or to be made to higher safety standards. Certainly such equipment is generally more expensive than the equivalent items for ambient temperature service. Into this category
would fall level, pressure and temperature measuring instrumentation, venting and fire protection equipment.
20.2 In-tank pumps and their handling
equipment
20.2.1 ln-tank pumps
As has been discussed in earlier Chapters, in-tank pumps have become very much a standard item of equipment for low tem-
Pump manufacturers are currently developing pumps with unit capacities of 3000 m3/hr. Awide range of pressuremow combinations are available and these are illustrated in Figures 20.3 and 20.4. Clearlythe capacityofan in-tiank pump willdepend on the situation and function ofthe storage tank. For a liquid exportterminal the requirement may be for a large capacity to speed the loading of shipping, but a comparatively modest delivery pressure, sufficientto liftthe liquid from the tank and deliver it through the connecting pipework and loading arms to the ship. For an import terminal, the requirements in terms ofthroughput are more modest being related to the needs ofassociated processes, but the requirements in terms of delivery pressure may be signiflcant. Where external pumps are notto used in the system, it is not unusualforthe in-tank pumps to be required to raisethe liquid pressure to that of the final user, who may require a line pressure of 40 bar or greater.
Pumps for high throughput but lowpressures tend to be large in
perature tanks, especially for double and full containment systems. The pumps and their driving motors are fitted into pump wells which are immersed in the product liquid. The pump wells run verticallyfrom the bottom ofthe liquid-containing tank upwards,
through the suspended deck where this is fitted and exit

through the pressure-containing tank roof. Such a pump is illustrated in Figure 20.1. The pump motor is cooled directly by the passage ofthe product liquid for all of the low temperature liquids with the exception of ammonia. The reasons why liquid ammonia is the odd one out are described in Chapter 2l .
diameter with a single stage. High-pressure pumps with low
Operalionsl condilion
Figure 20.1 Alypical section lhrough an inlank pump Court$y of Nikkjso Cryo Eurcpe
Figure 20.2 A complete in-tank pump assembly Cou esy of Mkkjso Cryo Europe
2A
Ancillary equipment fot law tempercture tanks
-a_..
HEAD(m)
50HZ
2ooo
1500
500
r; l---\ N 5r+ rl -;-*r<i ,r /l< il L >{ ,l >L
}:# );
= "r--K :D\N\ ',) !x ;)l -/.\! \ - -,1 xl'
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.#
/1, .}] /\ 1=4, s4
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)/
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200
JD\
FLOW(m3/h)
: lure 20.3
Pump pressure/flow rate curves
HEAD(m)
60Hz
zoc{
r500
r000
7m
500
4C0
300
200
150
- lure 20.4 Pump pressure/flow raie curues
:lroughput tend to have many stages and be smaller in diame-
.:r
lne
area of concern for ihe tank designer is the ability of the
cooled and lubricated by the product liquld and restarting at low levels may have pump wearand frequency of major servjcing effects.
:td
: Jmp to pump down to a low liquid level without losing suction
-he variables are;
the minimum liquid level at which the pump may be re:iarted. These characteristics combine to dictate the unusable :pace at the boiiom of the storage tank, which economics reruires to be minimised. What was at one time expressed as a :lngle NPSH figure has in recent times become more complex.
The unravelling of these is usually decided by discussion between the owner, the pfocess engineers, the tank designers and the pump suppliers.
The electrical power supply to the pumps is usually made via cables which penetrate the pump column head plate and pass down ihe pump column to the pump itself. They are supporied from ihe lifting cable. There is another less ffequently adopted system which uses power cables that run inside a tubular support, which is also used to lift the pump.
. .
The minimum head at which the pump willcontinue to pump at its full-rated capacity is of interest from overall process reasons.
The minimum head ai which the pump willcontinue to pump
For service and maintenance reasons the in-tank pump arrangements must be such that the pump can be safely removed from the tank without any form of interruption to the tank operation. For this reason it is usual to fit one spare pump and its associated equipment. The most commonly used purnp removal system is described in Section 20.2.2.
at reduced capacity is of interest from tank decommissioning reasons. The minimum level of residual liquid left in ihe tank after the pump has ceased to function will have to be removed by other means and will have an influence on the ovefall decommissioning period and consequent costs.
The minimum liquid level at which the pump can be restarted will have process consequences. The pump is both
ensurethatthe pump is notdamaged bythe ingestion ofany construction debris which may have been left in the tank or in
To
20 Ancillary equipment for low temperature tanks
the connected pipework, it has become usual practice to install a coarse filter around the bottom of the pump column. The pumps should not be installed prior to the tank hydrostatic test.
The European code for the design of onshore LNG installations
is EN 1473 (Reference 20.1). This document requires that there shall be no penetrations of the primary and secondary container walls or bases of storage tanks. This requirement makes the use of in-tank pumps mandatory for all classifications of containment (i.e. single, double, full, membrane, double concrete or spherical above ground types).
20.2.2 ln-tank pump removal system The system described here is the most commonly adopted
within the industry. The pump column is fifted with a head piate which is bolted to the top flange of the pump column. This head plate is fitted with a lifting device which can slide up and down for a limited distance through a suitable gland arrangement. The pump body is attached to this lifting device by the pump support cable. There is a second cable attached to the pump which also runs up the pump column to the head plate and the surplus of this longer lifting cable is stored beneath the head olate. The head olate also contains the electrical connections which pass through suitable pressure tight glands to an externaljunction box. Atypicalhead plate arrangement is shown in Figure 20.5.
The bottom of the oumD column is fitted with a foot valve. This is a spring-loaded valve which is held shut by the spring loading and the product liquid pressure until it is opened by the imposiFOOT VALVE OPEN
Figure 20.6 A typical foot valve
FOOT VALVE CLOSED
gas which forces the liquid out of the pump column through the foot valve. This then allows the removal ofthe head plate from a
nitrogen gas purged column, a much safer arrangement than would be the case if product liquid and vapour were present in the column during this operation. The head plate is lifted sufficiently to allowfor the pump weight
to be suDoorted whilstthe lift cable is attached to the drum ofthe
pump lifting arrangement. With the head plate removed, the

pump can be lifted and the power cables, which are attached to the support cable, can be wound onto a suitable drum for safe storage. This sequence of events is illustrated in Figure 20.7. The replacement of a pump is simply a reversal of this proced
tion of the dead weight of the pump which has been lowered down the column onto this valve. Atypicalfoot valve is shown in Figure 20.6.
The function ofthe foot valve is to allow the pump column to be
ure.
emptied of product liquid prior to removing the in-tank pump. Before removing the head plate, the pump weight is lifted offthe
foot valve allowing it to close. This is done using the pump support cable. The pump column is then pressurised with nitrogen
Hoists for lifting the pumps, which can weigh as much as 4000 kg, are either of the gantry U beam or pedestal type. The lifting arrangements must clearly cover all of the pump columns, any other associated equipment such as cable storage drums, and be capable of lowering pumps and other items down to the local grade. lt is occasionally felt necessaryto provide a canister at roof levelforthe pump to be placed in immediately following removal to permit it to warm up and safely release any product vapours.
There is an alternative in-tank pump support and removal system which uses a system of connecting stainless steel tubes. The use of this system is relatively uncommon. These operations require considerable space at the tank roof
level and result in large platforms, an example of which is

20.2.3 Pump columns

Pump columns are usually sized by the pump supplier A Iarge pump column would today be around 42" in diameter' The majority ofthe column length is a comfortable clearance fit around the pump. The lower portion, foraboutthe heightofthe pump, is a closer fit and serves to locate the pump accurately onto the footvalve and contains a means of preventing pump rotation. lt is usual for the tank builder to provide a dummy pump of the same physical dimensions as the real pump. This is used to demonstrate that the pump column will allow the pump to pass without obstruction. The column is designed to pressure vessel Codes and Standafds for the pump delivery pressure and usually for full vacuum or maximum externalliquid pressure ifthis is happensto be greater. lt is usualto blank off and carry out an in situ pressure test of the pump column.
The most commonly adopted material for pump columns

Figure 20.5 Atypicalpump column head plate affangement
is
stainless steel. This is due to the ready availability of suitable large diameter tubes in this material. There is no reason why
20 Ancillary equipment for low tempemture tanks
Headpr.G
'e@r
INIIIA! UF'
Figure 20.7 The pump lifting sequence
other materials such as 9% nickel steel should not be used if these could be shown to be economical. Pump columns may be supported from the base of the tank or suspended from the tank roof. The former arrangement would reouire some device such as a bellows to accommodate differential thermal movements between the tank and the pump column and a suitably strong base insulation material to allow for the local loadings. lf the suspended route is adopted, guides must be fitted to restrain the bottom of the column. For both solutions it is not uncommon to provide guides or restraints between the column and the tank shell at higher levels, especially when seismic sloshing loadings are to be allowed for. To evaluate seismlc sloshing loadings, it is usual to use the work of
Wozniak unless more sophisticated methods are readily availaote. It is wise to position the liquid outlet connection on the side of the column some way down from the head plate. This allows a vapour cushion to exist betvveen the maximum liquid level and the head plate, especially at start-up when the product liquid rapidly ascends the column. Early experiences where this connection was placed close to the top resulted in the liquid contacting the head plate and flange which promptly contracted whilst the bolting remained at ambient temperature. This frequently caused a transient leakage situation on start-up which challenged the operators fleetness of foot.
20.3 Filling columns

These have become a common feature, especially for the
larger tanks with high liquid inlet rates. Theirfunction is to sepa-
rate the liquid and the flashing vapour as they enter the tank. They are fitted immediately beneath the main liquid bottom fill line and are suDoorted from the tank base. The most commonly found detail for this purpose is the proprietary design owned by MW Kellogg Ltd. A typical detail is indicated in Figure 20.9. These fittings can be substantial in size. The columns forthe DabholLNG tanks were 2.2 m in diameter. Such large and heavyfittings must be accommodated in terms of base insulation loading and must be located sufficiently far from the tank shell not to inhibit the uplifting of the tank shell in unanchored tank seismic design. Doubts have been exDressed as to the usefulness ofthese expensive fittings, however a large number of tanks have been fitted with these details, and there is no evidence thatthey do not perform their intended function.
20.4 Base heating systems

Figure 20.8 Atypical roof platform for pump handling Courtesy of Chicago Bidge & kon Conpany (CB & l)
Low temperature tanks require base heating, and in some cases wall heating, to avoid the possibility ofthe occurrence of
The temperature of the supporting soil or concrete during normal operation should not be less than 4'C. When the soil is sensitive to drying and shrinkage, a maxi mum temoerature should be defined. The heating system should be designed to minimise excessive temperatures, which could lead to high boil-off rates. There is clearly little merit in purchasing expensive energy to boiloff more expensive productthan is absolutely necessary and then purchase more energy to reliquefy it.
SECIION
A-A
VAPO1IR OIJTLFI
The arrangement should take account of differences in the thermal characteristics of the base insulation. For instance the difierence between the central area ofthe base and the
peflpnery
The system should allowfor the replacement of any heating
element or temoerature sensor

The design ofthe system should be such asto allowthe regular monitoring of its performance.
.
Figure 20.9 Deiails of a lypical bottom llllconnection Caunesy of M W Kellagg Ltd
The thermal design ofthe system should be based on the heat leak calculations. Two sets of boundary conditions should be considered, the design temperature of the product and a soiltemperature at a depth belowthe tank. Forthis latter flg u re a value of 7'C at a depth of20m is suggested.
A factor of safety of 1.3 is suggested for the heat input.
a phenomenon known as frost heave. This is
wherethe zero'C isotherm can penetrate the subsoil and cause the formation of
an ice lens, most usually beneath the tank base. This ice lens continues to grow and will eventually lift the tank bottom giving rise to damage and possible leakage. Different types oi subsoil are more susceptible than others to the formation of ice lenses and the location ofthe localwatertable is clearly important An early paper on this problem is given as Reference 20.2.
Tanks with elevated bases do not require base heating Above ground tanks, with bases located directly on the subsoil, are al-
. . . .
The heating circuit output should be contlolled bytemperature sensors. These should be strategically located through the system.
All temperature controllers should have spare sensors available and permanently installed to allow for rapid
changeover in the event of sensor failure. Electrical heating should consist of a number of independent parallel circuits designed such thatthefailure ofanyone circuit does not decrease the power supply to the remaining circuits. Heaters should be located such that the deficiency caused by the failure of any one heating circuit is spread evenly throughout the heated area. Electrical heating should be designed sothat in the event of the failure of a main supply cable or a power transformef:
most alwaysfitted with base heating systems. There are a few examples ofground-based tanks for the warmer products such as normaland iso butane where no base heating is provided. In ground and earth-bunded tanks will also require heating of the tank walls.
. . -
The most common heating systems are electrical These use

cables running in conduits such that any individual heater unit can be removed and replaced. This is simple for the above ground tanks, but requires more care in the detailed design phase to ensure that a heater unit traversing both tank walls and base is readily removable and replaceable. The less commonly adopted system uses warm water or brine circulating through pipework. BS 7777:Part 3 gives some guidance relating to base heating systems. In brief these are:
Sufficient time is available to repair the equipment before damage occurs due to excessive cooling.
Provision is made for connecting to a stand by heating

power source.
The general flow diagram for a brine-based heating system is shown in Figure 20.10. For LNG tanks, EN 1473 requires 100% redundancy to be provided in the design of base heating systems.
Brine slorage
,t')a
-'t...\
tt
Healing coils in tank base slab
/r/..,.)..
Figure 20.10 A flow diagtam lor a brine-based heating syslem
20.5 Tank cool-down arrangements

The cooling down of lowtemperature tanks is an important part
of the commissioning procedure. The rate of cooling and the permitted differential temperatures between various parts of the tank structure should be determined in advance of the cool down operation. lt is usualto cool the tanks with the product liquid to be stored. The one exception to this general rule is the case of a number of recently-constructed LNG tanks which have been cooled with liquid nitrogen rather than with LNG The means of cooling is to spfay the cooling liquid into the tank through a roof-mounted connection located close to the centre line of the tank. Clearly for tanks with suspended decks, the spray connection should be beneath the deck. The spray arrangements should create finely dispersed liquid droplets which will result in a symmetrical convection loop which will hopefully cool the tank in a suitably uniform fashion. lt is important that the arrangement chosen produces a fine spray of liquid droplets over the full range of cool-down liquid supply flow rates and pressures. A device which simply rains liquid down onto the tank bottom immediately beneath the spray location when the supply of cool-down liquid is throttled back is of no use. A number of different arrangements are in common use:
Figurc 20.12 A removable spray nozzle arrangement
necessary steps to ensure that damage due to overcooling

does not occur.
In addition to the primary function of allowing a controlled tank cool-down, the cool-down system may be used during iank operation as a means of controlling tank pressure.
Figure 20.11 A typical propr etary spray connecUon
20.6 Internal shut-off valves

The use of internal shut-off valves is uncommon for low temperature tanks with the exception of those storing liquid oxygen, nitrogen orargon. BS 7777 : Pat14, which is specifically applicable to tanks storing these products, makes lheir use mandatory for all shell and bottom conneciions of 50 mm or laroer in diameter.
Asingle spray nozzle. The nozzle is a proprietary design selected to provide the required dispersion over the full range
of anticipated supply conditions. A typical spray nozzle is

shown in Figure 20.11. This arrangement is prone to blockage and should be used in conjunction with a suitable filter.
. . .
An internal ring pipe with a series on drilled holes. Unless

carefully designed these can turn into watering cans which is not good.
An internalring with multiple proprietaryspray connections.
A removable spray head. This arrangement allows for the single spray nozzleto be removed from the tank without any
decommissioning. The spray nozzle can be cleaned or replaced if the original is not found to be performing correctly. A sketch of this arrangement is shown as Figure 20.12.
Having decided on the intended cool-down rate (usually between 1'C and s'C/hour) it is possible to calculate the rough range of liquid flow rates required. Precise control of the flow using a suitable valveand flow measuring device is necessary A number of temperature measuring points are located within the tank around a dozen distributed over the tank floor and wall with-one located immediately below the spray arrangement. An assessment of what constitutes an acceotable temperature difference between adjacent thermocouples and what
the maximum temperature difference between any two thermocouples should be made prior to commencement of
cool-down. The coofdown operation follows tank purging so that the tank will be full of nitrogen gas. Spraying a cold liquid into a nitrogen atmosphere can produce sub-cooling belowthe temperature of the incoming liquid. Those carrying out the cooldown should be aware of this Dossibilitv and take the
Figure 20.13 A typical internal shuloff valve and iis opeior
20 Ancittary equipmenl [ot low temperature lanks
The most commonly found valves of this type are simple flap
valves which are held open during service by cables running to tank roof connections. In the event of a mishap being detected by the instrumentation provided for that purpose, operators located on the tank roof release the cables and shut the valves lt is normal to reset (i.e. reopen) these valves manually from the tank roof. Atypical valve and operator is shown in Figure 20 13.
20.7 Venting systems

As is the case for ambienttanks, the function ofthe venting system is to protect the tankfrom excessive levels of internal posF tive pressure and negative pressure (i e. vacuum).
b) c) d) e) f) g) h) .
Maximum rate of withdrawal of liquid product Possible escape of product under emergency conditions Suction capacity of comPressor Heat leakage to the tank from atmosphere Barometric pressure variation Fire exposure Any other special circumstances (e.g roll over)
The tankdesign Codes have contributionsto make in thisarea
API 620 requires that: Automatic pressure relieving devices shall be fitted to preventthe pressure atthe top ofthe tankfrom rising more than 1O7o above the maximum allowable working pressure (usually taken as the tank design pressure) except as provided
DCIOw'
The design and description of venting systems for ambient

tanks has been described earlier in Chapter 8. The design and types of equipment used for low temperature storage systems is essentiallythe same with a few differences to allowfor the low temperature and higheroperating pressures commonly assocF ated with low temperature storage and in some cases to cater for the very high throughputs required. For the larger, more sophisticated tanks, it is usual to provide two pressure relief systems. The first of these is connected to a system of pipes which will deliver the relieved vapours to a remote location, usually a flare stack. where the vapours may be safely disposed of. The second system relieves directly to atmosphere. lt is usualto set the relieving pressure ofthe system to flare at a lower setting than the relieving system to atmosDhere. This ensures that the safer option istriedfirst and onlyif this fails or is of insufficient capacity for the particular process circumstance causing the upset, does the less desirable option of relieving direct to atmosphere become operational A typical series of pressure and vacuum settings for a large LNG tank are shown in Figure 20.14. The basis of the design of pressure and vacuum relief valve systems is API 2O0O (Reference 20.3). Fot low temperature tjnks, the section on refrigerated tanks is to be applied This document is, unusually, also quoted in BS 7777 : Part 1 lt is quite unusual for American Standards to be referenced in British Standards. The design of product vapour (for pressure relief) and air (for vacuum relief)flow capacities are made up ofthe most onerous combination of the following:
Where an additional hazard can be created bythe exposure of the tank to accidental fire or another unexpected source of heat external to the tank, supplementary pressure relleving devices shall be installed. These devices shall be capabl; of preventing the pressure from rising more than 20% above the maximum allowable working pressure. A single pressure relieving device may be used if it satisfies the requirements of this Paragraph low temperature tanks to 25% overthe design pressure The 20% maximum external fire induced excursion is then less than the pressure to which the structure has been tested.
Note: lt is normal practice to test
Vacuum relieving devices shallbe installed to permitthe entry of air (or another gas or vapour if so designed) to avoid the collapse ofthe tank wall ifthis could occur under natural operating conditions. These devices shall be located on the tank so that they will never be sealed off by the tank contents. Their size and pressure (or vacuum) setting shall be such that the partial vacuum developed in the tank at the maximum specified rate of air (or gas) inflowwill not exceed the partial vacuum for which the tank is designed.
The system shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of API 2000. Pressure relieving devices shall be installed such that they are readily accessible for inspection and removable for repairs. The practices suggested in API RP 520 (Reference 20.4) shall generally aPPlY. lf the relieving devices are not located on the tank roof (a most unusual situation), they shall be installed on the piping connected to the vapour space as close to the tank as is practicable. lf the relieving devices are vented to atmosphere, they shall be at a sufflcient heightto prevent chance ignition. The opening from the tank leading to the relieving device shall have a diameter at least equalto the inlet size ofthe relieving device. When a discharge pipe is fitted to the outlet side of the relieving device, itshallbeofan area at leastequaltothe area ofthtoutlet ofthe relieving device, or if a single plpe is provided for the discharge of several relieving devices, it shall have an area not less than the aggregate areas ofthe multiple valves. The discharge pipe shall have an open drain to orevent wateror other liquids from accumulation on the discharge side of the relieving devices. Discharge pipes shall be installed such that no undue stress is placed on the valve body. open discharges shall be placed and orientated such thatthe oumowis directed away irom thetankand willnot cause a hazard to walkways, stairways or operating Platforms.
a)
Vapour displaced during filling at maximum rate
MRP, RVs oischa.gi.q to al,nospne6
319
sP, RYs Oischarging lo Almosphere

MRP, Rvs D6chrrglng lo FlaE
290
245
sP, RVs
schaE ng Io Fla
255
Maxidum Nodal OPe6ling P(essuE

Minimum Nofral Opling Pessure
100
30 15 0
vaclum RlEf FlllFloe
laEc
Glossaryi MRP
RV=
PAH
= Manmum Relieving Pessuc
PABH = HEh Pressure Tdp {PressuE Alam High HEh)
PA!
.- High Pressure Peal.m = LN Pessure PE-alam
Figure 20.14 Atypical LNG tank pressurc setting tabulation
courlesy of
l\4
W Keilogg Ltd
20 Ancillary equipment for low temperaturc tanks
. .
A vacuum relieving device shall have as direct an inflow to the tankas is possible, and shallhave no pipeworkahead of the inlet apart from a weather cover. Stop valves, if used between the relieving devices and the tank to allow seryicing of these devices, shall be locked or sealed open, and an authorised person shall be present if this situation is changed. lf the tank is in use, the authorised person shall remain there until the locked or sealed open state of the relieving devices is restored.
Normally the pressure and vacuum relief valves are sepa-
rated from each other However a combination may be used. This is taken to mean that valves with a combined pressure and vacuum relieffacility may be used. There are such valves on the market and the minimising of the roof
connections and isolating facilities makes this an attractive choice. However, care must be taken to ensure that full system capacity is maintained at all times and the distribution of vapours beneath the tank roof is carefully thought out.
For a full containment tank, the pressure relief system shall
It is interesting that API 620 does not make mandatory the provision ofa spare valve in any set and the use of stop or isolation
VAIVES.
BS 7777 : Part 1 make similar demands. but with some minor differences:
For "normal" pressure relief (i.e. as determined from a)to e)
be designed such that it can accommodate the vapours generated from an innertankfailure. For this purpose a hole in the flrst course ofthe tank shell of 20mm in diameter may be assumed. The origin ofthis notional leak is a mystery not least to the authorwho served on the committee which creaied these rules! Clearly a concentration failure!
The number of pressure relief valves required shall be calculated based on the total product vapour outflow specified. ln addition, one spare valve shall be installed for maintenance purposes. The inlet piping shall penetrate the suspended roof, where such a roof is fitted, thus preventing cold vapour from entering the warm space between the outer roof and the suspended roof under relieving conditions.
listed above), the internal pressure at the top of the tank shall not exceed the design internal pressure by more than 10v..
. .
For vacuum relief, the internal negative pressure shall not exceed the internal negative design pressure by more than 2.5 mbar. For "emergency" pressure relief (i.e. as determined from f) and g) listed above), supplementary pressure relief should be installed. These pressure relieving devices should not allow the tank internal pressure from exceeding the design internal pressure by more than 20%. Where a single valve will satisfy the emergency venting requirement, a duplicate valve should be installed to facilitiate inspection and maintenance.
The number of vacuum relief valves shall be calculated

based on the total air intlow specified. In addition one spare valve shall befitted for maintenance purposes. The vacuum valves shall allow air to enter the vapour space located directly under the roof. Because the design pressures of low temperature tanks are generally higher than is the case for ambient tanks, the use of dead weight valves for pressure relief is unusual, and in the larger valve sizes, becomes impractical because of the physical size of the weight required. lt is normal practice to use pilot operated valves which have advantages of not leaking at pressures close to their set point, having a reduced blow down and being more suited to operation with pipe-work on the inlet and ouilet sides. This is discussed in some detail in ADDendix C of B57777 : Pat11. Atypical pilofoperated pressure reliefvalve is shown in Fioure 20.15.
. .
Where multiple pressure relief valves are required for the venting duty, they should allbe ofthe same capacityand at least one additional valve should be fitted of the same capacity as a standby for inspection, maintenance and possible replacement purposes.
The use of isolating valves installed between the pressure relief valve and the tank should be agreed between the purchaser and the contractor, i.e. is optional. Appendix C ofthis part of the Code suggests rather more strongly that this should be the case and normal industry practice usually demands this facilityfor all pressure and vacuum reliefvalves. Appendix C repeats some of these requirements and provides additional guidance on this subject.
The newprovisional Euronormfor low temperature tanks, prEN 14620, is strangely reticent on the subject of pressure and vacuum relief bearing in mind the amount of detail that its ambient tank counterpart (prEN 14015) has chosen to go into. Annex L of this document provides comprehensive requirements forthe design and installation ofventing systems, which for once is not
based upon API 2000. Summarising the requiremenb of prEN 14620:
Venting to atmosphere shall be excluded from tanks designed to contain toxic product.
For tanks designed to store non-toxic products, sufficient margin shall be provided between the operating pressure (i.e. the reliefvalve set pressure) and the design pressure of the tank to avoid unnecessary (i.e. too frequent) venting.
The relief valve capacity (pressure and vacuum) shall be designed based on normal operation and abnormaloperation scenarios. Failures at interconnecting facilities, i.e. pro-
cess plants, vent or flare systems etc., shall also be

considered. Note however that the responsibility for specifying the flow rates forthe relief valve system is given byAnnex C, Part 1 of this document to the tank Durchaser.
"....:r+,..,.':F
Figure 20.15 Atypical pilot-operated pressure retief valve From BS 7777 : Patl 1, figurc C.3
f,T*;r I FT]"r ll-ul ll'.:>|
l3 I r+ 'T/-_l -T --l
20 Ancillary equipmentfor low temperaturc tanks
e!'
A{nedyGs.e!5.Body xg|b.|qb.
2x3
t'x4' ft 4x6' wo
6xa AxlO' !, 10\17 t, l2'x 16 .q
NOIE vImN isan eunpl ol a suluble produd a\aihnF.onner.rxlv Tlis infomauv. s sven rof ihe eneenihce ot LsE or rhis Pan of BS 77?7
Figure 20.16 A typical dead-weighi vacuum relief valve From BS 7777 :Paft 1, figure c.4
Figure 20.17 An example of a range of pilofoperated pressure relief valves Coulesy of Tyca Valves & Conttols
Vacuum relief valves are commonly of the dead-weight type and an example is shown in Figure 20 16 Proprietary designs for pilot-operated vacuum valves and valves which combine the pressure and vacuum relieving elements within the same valve are available. These provide the possibility of reducing
need to design for a rollover has been largely removed by the orovision of level/temperature/density (LTD) measuring equip-
the number of roof connections and consequent cost savings' For tanks of the suspended deck type using the conventional system of separate valves for pressure and vacuum relief, it is usualto locate the pressure inlet to the valves beneath the suspended deck and arrange for the vacuum valves to discharge directly into the roof space above the deck The use of combinedvalves clearly does not permitthis arrangementand decisions have to be made aboutthe configuration beneath the tank roof. Adjustments to the suspended deck venting system may be fequired if these combined relief valves are used
ment together with provisions for top filling, bottom filling and product mixing via the in-tank pumps. These provisions gave ihe tank ooerator an indication ofsituations within the tank contents which were prone to initiate a rollover and the means to take the appropriate preventative action.
ln earlier times the rollover had to be considered, and one com-
ior this puipose. tnis valve was made in large sizes (24" and 36" diameter) and had correspondingly large throughput of vapour. The basis of operation was a frangible link within the
pany designed and manufactured a large capacity relief-valve
usualto mount pressure reliefvalves, vacuum reliefvalves pressure and vacuum valves on individual rooffit combined or tings. The fittings for pressure and combined valves in non low temperature roofs willrequire heat-breaks to be fitted Vacuum valves, drawing in air at atmospheric temperature will have no need of heat-breaks. Similarly pressure and combined valves will require to be manufactured from materials with suitable low temperature properties whilst vacuum valves have no such requirement. There are occasions where two valves or more are mounted on a single roof penetration For pressure relief valves, the higher tank pressures for low temperature tanks means higher flow velocities and consequently larger pressure losses in the connected pipework on both the inlet and outlet sides of the valve. These losses must be calculated and subtracted from the total pressure difference between the tank and atmosphere to give the pressure drop across the valve itself which is used to calculate the flow rate through the valve. Some relief valve manufacturers provide software to assist the tank designer with this task
It is
vaive which held the valve closed in normal service and would fail at a predetermined over pressure to allow the valve to fully open. The valvewasfitted with a spring which closed the valve' albeit at a much lower pressure than the opening pressure' These valves were also used when sudden inner tank failure was a design requirement. An example ofsuch a valve, known as the reserve capacity relief valve, is given in Figure 20 18 For LNG tanks, EN 1473 suggests the use of rupture discs for rollover relief and references the French AGT Code forthe basis oftheirdesign. The use ofrupture discs has not been a popular choice for this purpose, possibly due to the proportionate uncertainties in the actual failure pressures of bursting discs at the comparatively modest pressures associated with low temperature storage tanl(s. Where pressure relief valves are fitted in a system where multiple relief valves are manifolded into to a system of closed oipe-work (i.e. to a flare) it is necessary to provide isolation valves on both the inletand outletside ofthe relief valveto allow for valve removal from the system
Fire orotection for relief valve tail pipes is covered in Section

20.8.
Reliefvalves are available in a range of sizes depending on the vapour throughput required. An example of a range of piloloperated pressure reliefvalves is shown in Figure 20.17'
The orecise evaluation of the vapourflow rates resulting from a tank rollover event is difficult to calculate. In recent times the
20.8 Fire protection systems

Fire protection systems for above ground, low temperature tanks are generally a part of the overall facility fire protection svstem. The development of such a system, sultable for addiessing all ofthe equipment on the site and all of the perceived
20 Ancillary equipment for low tempercturc tanks
vate the situation, increasing the vapour formation rate which may increase the burning rate. The fire water system for the storage tanks is fed from the site fire watersystem. This may be based on the use of fresh water, sea water or a combination of both. A large diameter fire main runs around the site passing the various items of equipment, adjacent to which suitably sized off-takes are situated. lt is important that this fire main is itself suitably protected from fire. This is usually accomplished by burying it. Thefire main is in its standby state filled with fresh water which is maintained at the desired operating pressure (commonly around 9 bars) by jockey pumps. Two fire water pumps must be provided with independent powersources, such that if one system becomes inoperative, the second willfulfil the full capacity required.
Tanks with steel outer shells and roofs are clearly more suscep-
tible to damage from adjacent tank fires than those with concrete outer shells and roofs. Not withstanding this fact, it is not unusualfor cjrcumstances to conspire to require the use ofdeluge systems for concrete tanks.
ohn.ioN,l.che.lmnl \6lE C
D
lbllsl
Fdl lsl
trirt tsiol
@q tE4
Fl3| tr164
l4| t4t
trsl
wl
:igure 20.18 A reserue capacity relief valve aauttesy of Anderson creenwood
'rsks is a majortask, which is best lefl to companies and jndivid-
Jals who possess the necessary expertise. Codes such as NFPA58, NFPA59, NFPA59Aand EN 1473 give some general
guidance on the subject, but this falls a long way short ofwhat the system designer will require. The design of a facility's fire protection system is intimately connected to the riskand hazard assessment process. What is included in this Section is a brief look at some of the aspects of fire protection systems as they relate to the storage tanks themselves.
The tank deluge system used to be a simple matter of a water pipe to the crown of the tank roof, which delivered the desired quantity of water to a distribution crown arrangement. This caused the fire water to flow to the periphery of the roof and thence down the iank shell to local grade. The coverage of the roof and shell provided by this arrangement was extremely approximate and was adversely affected by roof mounted obstructions and wind. Where steel tanks had external stiffening and outstanding compression areas, rings of deflector plates were needed to ensure that the fire water ran down the tank shelland did notmerely run clear ofthe shell from the stiffeners.
lvlore recently, where tankdeluging is a requirement, the Codes and facility owners require that a system ofdirect impingement offire water on both the tank roof and shell be used to ensure a better distribution of the fire water This requires a series of fife water pipes running over the tank roof and shell to distribute the water to suitable spray nozzles. One such arrangement is indicated for an LNG tank on Figure 20.'19. The water flow rates for a tank deluge system arise either from detailed calculations or from flre protection Codes. A commonly adopted figure is 10.2 litres/min/m2 which is derived from NFPA 1 5 (Reference 20.S).
It is common to arrange the layout ofthe deluge system to suit the local situation. For example, where two storage tanks are located adjacent to one another, the adjacent tank fire risk for
20.8.1 Detection systems

EN 1473 (which it should be remembered is applicable onlyto LNG facilities) lists the various detection systems as follows:
. . . .
Gas detection Cold detection Smoke detection Fire detection
each tank is associated with only one half of the shell and part of, or perhaps all of the roof. For this reason it may be thought wise or economic to concentrate the fire protection on the exposed parts of the tanks, or to arrange a zoning system which will allow different parts ofthe target tanks to be selectively protected.
It is clearly an essential part ofthe protection system to have a good detection system which will trigger the appropriate re-
sponse from the fire fighting equipment provided.
20.8.2 Safety systems

These are the various items of equipment provided to address problems arisjng from gas leakage, cold liquid leakage, pool fires and adjacent tank or plant fires.
Fire protection systems are eitherclassified as being active (i.e. water spray systems, deluge or sprinkler systems) or passive (i.e. fireprooflng coatings or shielding systems).
20.8.2.1 Fire water systems The application of water to items of plant and equipment has more to dowith keeping them cool, when theyare the subjectof heat radiation from fires in adjacent areas, than its contribution to the efforts to extinguish fires. Indeed, in certain circumstances, the application ofwaterto liquid poolflres may aggra-
Fjgure 20.19 An LNG tank rcof water drench system
20 Ancillary equipmentfor low temperctute tanKs
lf insufficient fresh wateris availableon the site, itwillbe necessaryto feed the fire water system with sea water in the event of
20.9 lnstrumentation
The level of instrumentation which is supplied with a low temperature storage tank is usually specifled by the owner or his engineer in the tank specification documentation The tank de-
an emergency. In the interests of corrosion protection following exposure of all or part of the system to salt water, it will be necessary to arrange suitable facilities for flushing the appropriate parts of system with fresh water.
It is usual to require the system to be tested on at regular intervals. This is normallycarried outwith fresh waterand limitations
in the available quantities of fresh water may necessitate the subdivision of the system such that it can be tested in smaller sections. The system illustrated. which is for roof deluging only. is for this reason divided into six sections. The equipment used to set the deluge system into action ls often large, sophisticated and expensive Roof-mounted deluge valves will themselves require a high level of fire protection of fire monitors. A monitor is a means of providing a spray or stream ofwaterfrom a fixed station to a locaiion where it is required for fire fighting or equipment cooling. The control of the waterspray and its direction can be achieved by either manual or remote operation. 20.8.2.2 Foam systems For areas where liquid may accumulate such as tank bunds or spillage impounding basins, it is usualto installa system of high expansion foam generators These will allow remotely-controiled blanketing ofthe spilled liquid which will either douse the fire or reduce the flame size and consequently the radiation rate. Suitable systems, designed and tailored for the specific circumstances, are supplied by fire protection companies who specialise in this type of work. Asystem would consist ofthe following elements:
In addition to the deluge system, it is common to add a number
sign Codes such as API 620, BS 7777 and prEN 14620 give littl; or no guidance as to the extent of instrumentation which would be appropriate to supply with a low temperature tank to ensure its correct and safe operation
Codes and regulatory documents which have a wider scope dealing with the overall storage and handling facility such as NFPA 58, NFPA 59, NFPA 59A and EN 1473 are more forth-
coming on the subject. The latter Code outlines what is now a pretty huch agreed industry standard level of instrumentation for LNG tanks.
20.9.1 Level measurement

necessaryto measure the levelofthe product liquid reasons such as inventory controland avoidtheiankfor within
It is clearly
ance of overfilling. The normal form of level measuring equipment used for these tanks consists of a roof-mounted servo gauging unit connected via a suitable roof connection to a float iitnin iperforateo stilling well inside the tank itself. Atypicalarrangement of this type is illustrated in Figure 20.20. The level gauging unit will be located where it can be readily accessed f-ronithe roof-mounted platform and may have a roofreading facility.
oauoinq unit (proprietary equipment on the market often has 6uiliin iransmission equipment within the gauging unit) to send
It is usual to have a remote transmitter associated with the
the various level signals to the terminal control room lt is usual
. . . .
to provide each tank with two separate level measuring sys-
High expansion foam generators Stoo valves Foam concentrate storage tanks Foam inductors
tems, indeed EN 1473 insists upon this (with the exception of peak shaving tanks where the level changes are slow and predictable). The level gauging equipment is almost always fitted with a set of levelalarms. These would normally be low low level (LLA), low level (LL), high level (HL) and high high level (HHL) It is also normal to install another instrument which is specifically to detect the HHL only The setting up of this system
It is usual to test the system at least once per yeat
20.8.2.3 Dry powder systems

Fires in pressure relief valve tailpipes are not unknown Forthis reason it is common practice to fit a dry powder extinguishing system. This will inject into the relief valve tailpipes a mixtureof carbon dioxide and fire extinguishing powder in the event of a tailpipe fire. The system is fitted localto the reliefvalves on the tank ioof and should be capable of local or remote operation lt is usualto allowsufficient storage of powderand propellantgas
to allow for two attempts to extinguish the fire. These systems are the product of specialist companies and are often supplied skid mounted.
20.8.2.4 Local protection of vulnerable equipment It is imoortant that certain equipment associated with low temperatuie storage tanks continue to perform their intended funciions when the tank is exposed to heat radiation, perhaps arising from an adjacent tankfire. ltems which fall into this category arL relief valves, deluge valves and certain parts of the structural steel supporting critical equipment. These are roof-mounted and may require specific fire protection. This is usually passive fire protection and can take the form of proprietary intumescent paints, cementious coatings or purpose designed shielding.
The principal value of this fireproofing is realised during the

earlystages of
a fire when efforts are mainly directed at setting fire suppression equipment and preventthe various in motion ing exacerbation by way of the addition of further fuel to the evlnt. lf the fire is intense and prolonged' then passive fireproofing may prove ineffectual in preventing damage
Figure 20.20 A typicallow lemperalure iank level gauge serup
should be such that a safety shut-down of the pumping equipment(often the delivering ship's pumps) is triggered bythe various high level alarms.
20.9.4 Level temperature density (LTD) measure-
ment
As has been mentioned elsewhere, the need to have knowledge ofthe temperature and densitydistribution within the body ofthe product liquid is important to avoid situations which could
resultin a rolloverevent, with the possible vapour release which may be difficult or impossible to accommodate within the normal tank operating parameters. For this reason, and especially on tanks containing mixed products like LPG and LNG, the LTD instrument has been developed. EN 1473 makes the supply of these mandatory for LNG tanks. The instrument is in essence a very sophisticated servo driven level gauge. Like the levelgauges it is roof-mounted and has a sensor head which can track up and down inside the tank within a stilling well. lt can measure the product temperature and density at each location and convey this information to the control room where suitable software will produce a level/temperature/density plotfor the tank contents. Armed with this information and perhaps detailed knowledge of incoming shipments, the experienced tank operator should be able to spot potential roll over situations and take the appropriate actions. These actions could be to top fill, bottom fillor stir up the tank contents by running the in-tiank pumps on recycle or by other means.
lfthe tank level measuring equipment is to be used to measure the exact capacity ofthe tank, or the amount of liquid product introduced to or abstracted from the tank for commercial or customs purposes, it is important that the equipment is as accurate as Dossible and that the tank has been calibrated. Calibration is the precise measuring of the finished or as built primary liquid containing element of the tank. When the measurements have
been made, and appropriate corrections have been made for thermal contraction and mechanicalexDansion. a set ofcalibration tables are produced which relate the measured liqujd level to the liquid capacity. This activity is the preserve of specialist companies who carryout this service. lt used to be the case that ihe various measurements were made by mechanical strapping of the structure, but nowadays there are clever electronic surveying instruments which can gather the necessary information from a single site within the tank.
20.9.2 Pressure measurement

It is clearly important to know what the pressure ofthe product vapour is within the tank. Too high a pressure would give rise to unnecessary and expensive venting, and in the extreme, endangerthe tank structure, and too low a pressure would create a vacuum and cause air to be introduced into the tank, which is a minor disaster from an operating point of view
It is
The relationship between the many variables associated with roll over and the various remedial actions are ouite soDhisticated and not alloperators are conversantwith what represents a dangerous situation and what actions should be taken. Gaz de France has developed some proprietary software into which the LTD parameterscan befed and which willprovide advice on
usualto provide equipment to monitorthe following paramAbsolute tank pressure Gauge tank pressure
Tank pressure alarms (high and low) and local pressure in-
eters:
. . .
the appropriate acfions. Both the measuring instruments and the operator's software are expensrve.
dication
usualfor provisions for the continuous pressure data to be transmitted to the control room to be incorporated into the system together with the triggering of suitable safety related activities (i.e. stopping the boil-off compressor when low pressures are detected).
As with level measurement, it is
It is usualto mount pressure measuring equipment on tank roof penetrations.
20.9.5 Leak detection

The provision of leak detection systems is usually confined to double-walled tanks. The function ofthe leak detection system isto identifyant leakagefrom the innertank. This could befrom the innertankshell, bottom or (foropen-topped innertanks)the result of overfilling or seismic sloshing. The most commonly adopted system consists of a number of RTDS installed on the inside of the outer tank at the bottom of the intersoace and at various levels close to the bottom of the interspace. These record a temperature change in the event of a liquid leak which will be relayed to the control room and raise the alarm. lt is normal to install a number of RTDS at each level, say four equally spaced around the tank. Another system involves the installation of an optic fibre within the lower interspace to detect leakage.
For double-walled tanks where the inner tank has a fixed roof, it
is particularly important to measure and control the pressure in
the interspace around the inner tank to ensure that no excessive external loads are applied to the inner bnk shell or roof.
20.9.3 Temperature measurement

There are three areas where temperature measurement is important. These are:
. . .
During tankcooldownto controlthe operation and avoid ex-
20.9.6 lnternal cameras

These are thought to be an expensive luxury by manywithin the industry They are normally only to be found in large LNG tanks. The camera can either be located within the tank and subjectto
cessive temperature gradients During normal operation

To monitor the base heating system
The normal temperature measuring elements are three wire platinum resistance temperature detectors (RTD). The number required for the various functions are either for the owner to specify, or to be based on the tank contractor's experience. It
should be remembered that the temDerature elements cannot be replaced with the tank in service. Any redundancy required must be in the form of additional RTDS. It is usual to arrange for a special fitting on the tank roof with suitable glands to allowthe RTDS to penetrate the pressure envelope of the iank.
the low temperature, or be external with suitable optics to be

able to view within the tank. In addition to the camera, lighting and camera manipulation and focussing systems will be required. Some tanks have been fitted with cameras. Films taken within LNG tanks show that the cameras have remarkable resolution and can identify small marks on the innertank bottoms. LNG is a very clear liquid. Quite what the realfunction ofsuch a system is, and whether it justifies the price tag (some $'1.00 million) is an interesting question. Technically it is an impressive feat.
20 Ancillaty equipment for low temperature tanks
20.10 Givil monitoring systems

It is not uncommon, especially in the case of large LNG and LPG tanks, for instrumentation to be required to monitor the
performance of the tank foundauonFor tanks which sit on ground-based slabs or slabs which are elevaled above local grade, the measurementof the global settlementand the tilt at the peripheryof the slabs are quite simple. Allthatis requjred isthe esiablishingofa site datum and a number of equally spaced points around the base slab plus some basic surveying skills. The behaviour ofthe slab away from its edge, particularly for ground-based slabs, is more difiicult. The casting into the base slab of two inclinometer tubes, set at right angles to one another, and the use ofsuitable inclinometers will provide the dab required on anychanges ofshape. lt is usualto take readings after construction, during and afier the hydrostatic test and at intervals during service. The LNG tanks on Revithoussa lsland in Greece, were built in an area of high seismicity. The elevated base slabs were fitted with a seismic isolation system. To monitorthe performance of these isolators, a number of accelerometers were fifted to the iank, some below the level of the isolators and some above.
its full speed- Thus following an earthquake, there should be suffcient realdata to pmvide adetailed description of the event itselfand ofthe modification ofthis event caused by the seismic isolation system. This will allowthe tank and the isolator designers to check the anticipated behaviouragainstthe recorded be-
haviour. At least one seismic event of sufiicient magnitude to trigger the system has occurred. No doubt when the data becomes public, learned papers will appear and theories will be mnfirmed or will have to be revised.
20.11 References
2O.1 EN1473:1997,
lnstallation & eqaipment for liquefied natural gas, Design of onshore installafions, CEN
20.2
Problems in connection with the foundation of tanks containing a lower temperature media, E. Zellere\ Linde AG, Munchen, Paper ftom LNG 1.
Venting atmosphertc and low pressure storage tanks, non-refigerated and refrigerated,'fhe American pefoleum Institute, API 2000, Fifth edition, April 1998.
20.3 2o.4 20.5
Under normal operating conditions these accelerometers would not be remrding, but in the event of a seismic event above a certain th reshold, the system was triggered to record at
Sizing, selection and installation of pressure relieving devices in refineies, API RP 520, Part 1 , sizing & selection, The American Petroleum Institute.
NFPA 15 : watet spray, fixed system
21 Ammonia storage
- a special case
Ammonia is a much used chemical in a number of industries and as such it is in need ofsystems for its safe and economic bulk storage. Ammonia is different from the other liquefied gases discussed in chapter 17 These differences in turn give rise to a variety of challenges in the search for suitable storage systems. In particular the toxicity ofthe gas, the ability ofthe liquid to conduct electricity and the susceptibility of carbon steels in contact with either the gaseous or the liquid phase to stress corrosion cracking, give rise to problems. The problems related to toxicity speak forthemselves. The truly lethal nature of the gas means that special measures are required for the design, construction and especially the operation of storage facilities. The significance of the electrical conductivity of the liquid is less obviously a problem area, but this has, or at least has untilvery recently, prevented the development of in-tank pumps, and as a consequence, offull containment storage systems for this product.
The stress corrosion cracking of carbon steels in contact with ammonia caused problems for the
early ambient temperature pressurised storage systems and more latterly has been found to occur in refrigerated storage systems as well. This subiect has been researched extensively, and would indeed probablyfurnish sufficient materialfor a book in its own right. The problem and the main findings are discussed and references provided for further study if required. The commonly adopted forms of refrigerated storage are described as well as an interesting alternative system. The requirements for periodic inspection and repair of liquid ammonia storage systems are also described. Finally, a dramatic incident involving a liquid ammonia tank in Lithuania and the lessons to be learnt are discussed .
Contents:
21,1 General
21.2What makes ammonia storage special?

21.2.1 Flammabiliiy
21 21
.2.2 f oxicity .2.3 Latent heat
21.2.4 Eleclrical conductivity 2'1.2.5 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
21.3 Refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia

21.3. 1 Conventional systems
21.3 2 An alternative storage system

2'1.3.3 Chemical Industries Association guidance
21.3.4 Recent developments 21.3.5 Insulation systems
21.4 Inspection and repair of liquid ammonia storage systems

21.5 Incidents involving liquid ammonia tanks
21.6 References
21 Ammonia storcge
- a special
case
It is estimated that there are currently around 1000 fully-refrig-
21.1 General
Ammonia is manufactured in large quantities and has numerous uses in the chemical industry Amongst these are:
erated liquid ammonia tanks in ooeration worldwide of which

some 50 are located in Europe.
The manufacture of nitrogenous fertilisers The manufacture of explosives The manufacture of dyes The manufacture of man made fibres
As a chemical reagent in the forming ofamines and ammo-
21.2What makes ammonia storage special?

Liquid ammonia differs from the other liquid gas products listed in Chapter 17, Figure 17.1, in a number ofways.
nium compounds
21.2.1 Flammability
ln common with allof the gases listed in Figure 17.1 with the exception of oxygen, nitrogen and argon, ammonia is flammable with flammable limits of between 16% and 25%. lt has the relatively high auto ignition temperature of 651 'C and for this reason liquid ammonia storage installations are not regarded as representing significant fire hazards in the same way as is the case for the bulk storage of LPG, ethane, ethylene and LNG.
As a refrigerant
Fof these reasons safe and economic bulk storaoe ofthis material is clearly necessary
Ammonia can be liquefied bythe application ofpressure alone. At a maximum design temperature of 38 'C, the comparatively modest pressure of 14.7 bar is required to maintain the gas in liquid form. For many years, smaller quantities of ammonia (say
between 500 and 3000 tonnes) were stored in cylindrical or spherical pressure vessels. For reasons which will be explained in Section 21.2.5, this practice has virtually ceased.
Liquid ammonia has also been stored in semi-refrigerated facilities. At a storage temperature of 0 'C the pressure required to maintain the liquid state is only 3.0 bar. Semi- refrigerated stor-
21.2.2 Toxicily
Ammonia is also highly toxic and it is this property that requires particularcare to be taken with the design and operation of bulk storage systems for this product. The health hazards are summarised in Figure 21.1 taken from References 21.1 and 21 .2 mentioned above. lt is to some extent fortunate that ammonia can be detected by the average person at the low concentrations of around 50 ppm, well below the 500 - 1000 ppm levels which are considered dangerous. lt is important that due attention is given to operator training and that the necessary site safety facilities are provided. Reference 27.2 provides guidance !n this regard. One example of the special provisions required is that ammonia storage facilities must have one or more wind socks fitted in high and prominent positions and that these must be illuminated at night to allow personnelto choose the correct escape route in the event of a leakage incident.
age is usually in spherical vessels, again in the 500 to 3000 tonnes range of unit capacity. This form of storage is also now quite unusual. Fully pressurised and semi-refrigerated storage systems are the subject of a Chemical Industries Association (ClA) Code of Practice (Reference 21.1). This document is now no longer published, perhaps an indication of the falling out of favour of the pressurised and semi-refrigerated methods of
storage. The majority of liquid ammonia storage facilities are now of the fully-refrigerated type in which the liquid is stored at its atmospheric pressure boiling point of minus 33 'C. Lowtemperature tanks with capacities of up to 60,000 m3 are not uncommon. The fully-refrigerated storage systems are also the subject ofa CIA Code of Practice (Reference 21.2).
Vapour concentration (ppm v/v)
Generrl effect
Expmure period Thrshold Limit Value
Maximum for I hour working period. Odour detectable by most

persons.
100
No adverse effect average worker.
for
Deliberate exposure for long periods not permitted.

1/2 -
lmmediate nose and
hour erposure ceuses
throat irritation.
700
no serious effect.
Immediete eye irritation. Convulsive cougbing severe eye, nose and
12 - t hour exposure causes
ro serious effect.
1,?00
Could b fat'al after l,2 hour
thrort irritation
2,000 - s,000
Convulsive coughing severe eye, nose and
Could
be
fatal afler 1/4 hour
throal irritation
5,000 - 10,000
Respiratory spasm. Rapid
Fatal within minutes.
asphyxit,
Figure 21.1 Vapour concenlrauon health hazards
21 Ammonia storage _
a special case
21.2,3 Latent heat

Liquid ammonia is also unusual in having a high latent heat (327.10 kcal/kg as opposed to the next highest listed gas which is methane at 121.86 kcal/kg). This makes it relatively easy to achieve low atmospheric boil ofifigures, usually expressed as a 70 of the full tank contents per day, for liquid storage systems. The commonly used insulation systems for liquid ammonia tanks are discussed in Section 21.3.5.
Although the main thrust ofthis effort was aimed at the storaoe of ammoniaasa liquid in spherical vessels at ambienttempeLtures, the findings are of interest and relevant in part to refrigerated ammonia storage systems. The main conclusions were: a) SCC initiation is influenced by the water and oxygen content of the ammonia as shown by Figure 21.2. b) Sufficient water addition to avoid cracking in liquid ammonia may not always prevent its occurrence in the vapour phase, in the event ofcondensation, due to adverse oartition of oxygen and water
21.2,4 Electrical conductivity

Liquid ammonia in its pureform hasa high dielectric constant. lt does however have a high affinity for water In addjtion, for reasons associated with the propensity of carbon steels to suffer from stress corrosion when in contact with ammonia as described in Section 21.2.5, water is deliberately added to stored liquid ammonia. This generally gives a water content of beiween 1000 and 2000 ppm and at this level the liquid will conduct electricity. The significance of this is that until recenflV it wasnot possible to develop an in-tank pump for liquid ammonia serytce.
c) d) e) f)
Under conditions typical of those known to cause SCC (3 ppm oxygen and 50 ppm water) crack growth rates found in the studies were similar to those found in service, i.e. 2-6 mm/year dependent on stress intensity. Crack grolvth rates decreased markedly with time. Lowerstrength steels showed generally lower susceptibility to SCC for both parent materiat and weld metal. The initiation of SCC is more djfficult and its propagation slower at -33 'C than at 18 'C, and is less affected by the oxygen content at the lower temperature.
Conventional in-tank pumps as described in Chapter20foruse with the other low temperature gases rely on the product liquid being pumped to both lubricate and cool the pump motor by
flowjng directly through the motoritself. This is clearly not possible in the case of liquid ammonia. The influence of the lack of availability of suitable in-tank pumping systems on the containment systems is discussed in Section 21.3.
Both References 21.1 and 21.2include the following text: "ln order to minimise the risk of stress corrosion crackino the welding consumables should overmatch the tensili
properties ofthe plates by the smallest practicable amount
and carbon molybdenum electrodes shall not be used in

any circumstances. Furthermore, the tensile strenoth ofthe plates shall not be allowed to exceed the maximum-detailed in the plate soecifications."
21.2.5 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) has been known for many
years to be a problem for the storage of liquid ammonia in carbon steel vessels at or close to ambient temoeratures. paoers
The original versions of these guides to good practice were published before the studies mentioned above had been carried out.
It is clear from the volume of work published during the 1970s and 1980s that SCC, particularly in the ambient temperature pressure storage area was seriously under the microscope. Work published by Cracknell in 1982 (Reference 21.5\ and Towers in 1984 (Reference 21.6) lutlnet explored the problem and served again to confirm the importance of variables such as oxygen content, water content, steel strenqth and stress re_ lief. Both suggest that refrigerated storage is l;ss tikely to suffer
were published on this phenomenon as early as 1956 (References 21.3and 21.4). Although the potentialfor SCC to occur in carbon and low alloy steels in ammonia service was recoonised, it was not until the 1970s that inspection technology ha-d developed to the point where the problem could be identified and the effects quantified. This led to the discovery of widespread SCC in liquid ammonia storage spheres. For this rea-
from this phenomenon than ambient temperature pressure
son, many of the facilities which stored ammonia in the fully-pressurised or semi-refrigerated form were decommissioned and were replaced by fully-refrigerated storage systems.
To provide more data on the problem of SCC in liquid ammonia
storage, but in the light of more recent findings, were wise notto have been too adamant that SCC will not occur at all in refrioer-
storage systems using carbon steel containment vessels. a corporale research programme was Set up at the Institute for
Energy Tchnology in Oslo, Norway. This was sponsored join y by BASF, DSN/, Kemira O! Norsk Hydro AJs, tcl, E I Dupont de Nemours Company Inc. and the UK Health and Safetv Executive. The work was all carried out by Lunde and Nyborg and the early work was published in the proceedings of various conferences and in papers listed as References 21.7 to 21.11.
A
t !
e
3
1000
7
B
100
The general terms of reference for this work were:
a) b) c) d)
To investigate the effect of operating parameters (especially water and oxygen concentrations and temperature) on stress corrosion cracking.
To determine sfe/unsafe operating conditions for ammonra slorage spheres.
1 A B C
Itrsp.t rt normlt fftquency,
10
orys.n
in trquid
100
ph.$ ippn
w/w)
t0o0
To investigate the influence of material composition and mechanical properties on susceptibilityto stress corrosion cracking for both parent material and weld mebl.
To investigate possible means of preventing stress corro_
Insp.ct rt le8l rwice mrnrt frequeng_
Donolopfut in lhisrrer.
rrr
bdng
op.nring .ondi.iois
iib
zom
A or B_
sion cracking in ammonia environmenb.
Figure21.2
S-C-C,
contents at 18
'C
susceptibilily of C,lVn steels wilh diffefenl oxygen and water
21 Ammonia
storcge
a specialcase
ated storage systems. Alan Cracknell ends his paper with the following sensible suggestion:
construction using backing straps. lMany of the cracks were found in the tank bottoms and were repaired by fitting local
cover strips, a procedure which the authorwould not endorse. lt would be interesting to find out how these tanks have fared following their subsequent inspections.
"ltwillbe appreciated that if SCC does turn out to be a problem in refrigerated storage, it is likely to affect all companies using as-welded equipment. Proving thatit is absentortak-
ing precautions against it can prove expensive. lt is suggested therefore thatthe companies involved should set out to share information on their findings in much the same way as companies involved in the bulk (ambient temperature
pressurised) storage of ammonia. Hopefullythe information derived will benefit not only the refrigerated storage industry, but will also give clues to the solution of the general problem of avoiding SCC in ammonia storage."
The earlyworkdone by Lund and Nyborg suggested that stress corrosion cracking was also a possibility at the temperature of
The industrywas atfirst slowto hold its hand up to the existence of this problem. Indeed, it is probably unfair to blame those involved in the refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia of an ostrich-like disingenuous self-interest for their failure to immediately acknowledge the difficulty. ldentifying stress corrosion on the internal surfaces of carbon steel liouid ammonia tanks was not easy until detection techniques became more sophisticated, largely due to workdone in the UK by NationalVulcan. Separating the evidence of SCC from original construction defects and from hydrogen cracking is not easy. Since the publication ofthe reports of the BASF ammonia tank problems and the availability of the means of detecting and identifying this phenomenon, most of the liquid ammonia storage tanks in the UK and Europe have been inspected. Some have been found to exhibitthis problem and some have been found free of any sign ofthe complaint. The reasons forthese apparent differences in behaviour between storage tanks (all builtfrom carbon manganese steels) is not clearly understood. The signiflcant variables would seem to be the same as those identified for ambient temperature pressurised storage, i.e.:
the low temperature storage systems, i.e. -33 'C. This was
something altogether new for the industry which had up to this time believed that refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia was not susceotible to this oroblem.
The inspection of the 12,000 tonnes liquid ammonia tank

owned by BASF at the Seal Sands site in the UKwas something of a turning point. This tank was designed and constructed by Whessoe to BS 4741 and the CIA guidelines and entered service in 1978.
The tank was previously owned by Monsanto who at that time were devotees ofacoustic emission (AE) methods of non-intrusive inspection. The owners decided to override the CIA guidelines for the first internal inspection at six years after entering service, by carrying out an AE examination in 1984 and a further examination in 1985. These test procedures had the advantage that the expensive de-commissioning, internal examination and re-commissioning could be avoided. No defects were found during these tlvo examinations.
Stress in the parts ofthe tank exposed to the product liquid
oxygen content within the tank during its early life (ie during commissioning) Water content ofthe stored product Stress relief Welding techniques related to heat input and local hardness The selection of a weld metal which closely matches the strength of the parent plate
ln 1985 the ownership of the site transferred to BASF. This

company did not favour the use of AE testing and arranged for an internal insDection to take Dlace in 1987. This examination found a large number of internal stress corrosion cracks, many associated with original hydrogen cracks. The defects were in the main associated with welded seams and areas of construction attachments (such as blank nuts and erection brackets) in the lower shell where the stronger steel (minimum yield strength 355 N/mm2) had been used. The upper courses where steels of lower strengths had been used (minimum yield strengths 280 and 245 N/mm2) were found to be almosi completely free of signs of SCC. This tank insDection is reDorted in considerable detail in References 21.12 and 21.73. The defects were dressed out by local grinding and the tank was re-commissioned wlth suitable care. Some years following this inspection the tank was again decommissioned and subject to an internal inspection. By this time the SCC was such that it was decided to remove and replace the tank bottom and annular plating and the lower five (higher strength steel) shell courses. This was an expensive and time-consuming modification and suggests that if SCC can be avoided by the use ofweakerand less economical materials (in the short term), by correct selection of welding procedures and consumables and by careful commissioning, de-commissioning and operating procedures, then this is money well spent.
It is uncertain if this Iist includes allof the important variables. lt is also uncertain which individual variable, or indeed combination of variables is the most important. There is however considerable circumstantial evidence to link these to the problem. lt has become common practice to use a low strength steelforthe inner tank in contact with the product liquid and vapour (i.e. a 275 N/mm2 yield strength grade steel rather than a 355 N/mm2 grade whichwould otherwise provide a more economic storage tank) and to pay particular attention to the othervariables listed
above. Later work, again by Lunde and Nyborg of the Norwegian Energy Institute and sponsored by the ammonia storage industry was presented to the A.l.Chem.E. Ammonia Safety Symposium held in Vancouver in October '1994 (References 21.15 and 2t. t6). These papers are well worth reading for those with a special interest in this problem area and contain a large number of useful references for further study. The figure comparing the stress corrosion susceptibility of carbon steel as a function of oxygen and water content at temperatures of 18 'C and -33 'C is interesting and is shown in Figure 2'1.3.
BASF also owned and operated two refrigerated ammonia tanks at Ludwigshafen Germany. These were each of 25,000 tonnes capacity, constructed in 1969 and 1981 by Ktockner. Alerted by the Seal Sands experience, BASF decided to inspect these tanks internally. Both were found to have indications of SCC. This is reported in Reference 21 .14.lnteteslingly, the older tankwas less badly affected than its newer partner (27
reported defects as compared to 214). The report is at a loss to explain this difference. The tank bottom was of butt-welded
21.3 Refrigerated storage of liquid
ammonia
21.3.1 Conventional systems
The early liquid ammonia tanks were of the single containment type with remote low bunds as illustrated in Figure 21.4. As
safety standards increased, the tank type most commonly

adopted by the industry became the double containment type
21 Ammonia storage
a special case
as illustrated in Figure 21 .5. The final move through the types of containmentfrom double to full, which was made in the cases of many of the other low temperature gases, was not followed in the case of ammonia. The reason for this is associated with the
8^l
last of the properties listed in Section 21.2.4, i.e. the ability of the liquid ammonia to conduct electricity. For many years this precluded the industry's ability to develop an in-tank pump for
use with liquid ammonia, a central requisite for the elimination
yl
u
of bottom or lower shell liquid outlets required for full containment systems.
BaYrl .! 8!5
{l
As has been stated in Section 21.2.4, in-tank pumps for the

83
other low temperature products are directly cooled and lubricated by the pumped liquid. The first of these is clearly not possible with Iiquid ammonia. This problem was not aided by a fur-
ther unhelpful property of liquid ammonja
attacking copper bearing alloys. Recent developments which will hopefully overcome this problem are described in Section 21.3.4.
E
its affinity for
The liquid containing metaltanks weredesigned in accordance with API 620 appendix R or to BS 4741 and more latterly to its reolacement Code BS 7777.
e.<
-.+'
0.1 1
Oxygen ppm
10
The outer wall may be constructed from low temperature carbon steel or prestressed concrete designed to contain the full liquid contents of the inner tank without leakage. l\ilany of the concrete wallswere prestressed using the "Preload" wirewindIng system.
100
The tanks were most usually supported on elevated unheated reinforced concrete base slabs supported on pile extensions or by other suitable arrangements. The connection between the concrete wall and the base slab was usually ofthe sliding or the
:igure 21.3 Comparison ofihe susceptibilily of cabon steelio SCC as a luncron ofoxygen and waler content at temperatures of 18'C and -33 'C
On ground
gure 21.4 Single containment storage arrangements
: qire 21.5 Double conlainmenl storage arfangements
21 Ammonia storage
a special case
Thin
waalh.rp@nno
dudntum $cdon b Pdvido
hof2.nbl
@6trEt
M tll(t, vt
of
!@l & bnk b bto cla6
Prsbrn d ctc6d 6ll polytrm
Figure 21.6 Interspace roofdetailof
lcl North Tees ammonia tank No.2
pinned type. The insulation systems were quite unsophisticated as described in Section 21.3 5
It is important to prevent
21.3.2 An alternative storage system

The storage arrangement shown in Figure 21.7was developed
rainwaterfrom entering the interspace between the inner insulated steel shell and the outer steel or Drestressed concrete wall. The undetected accumulation of rainwaterand possible condensation within this interspace has
led to a number of tanks of this configuration having to be de-
between the plant owner and the tank contractor for a 22,000 m3 ammoniatankat a site in the UK and seemsto getas
close to full containmentas the lack ofsuitable in-tank pumps at that time would allow. The outertank is designed to contiain the full liquid contents ofthe innertankwhich are assumed to reach
commissioned and be the recipients of expensive and time consuming remedial work. Clearly an effective roof covering the interspace is a necessity.
The design of an efficient roof with a sensible lifespan would seem straightfoMard, but for the reasons listed is not easily achieved and requires carefuldesign and careful construction:
The roof is some 30 m above local grade and consequently subject to strong winds.
Ammonia tanks are mmmonly built at coastal locations

and are subject to adverse corrosion regimes.
The roof sDans between the steel inner tank which is sub-
ject to thermal movemenb and the concrete outer tank

which is not subject to thermal movements (at least not to the same extent).
The roof is difficult to inspect and repair.
The arrangement indicated in Figure 21.6 was adopted by lcl for the reolacement roof for the No. 2 ammonia tank at North TeesWorks. This has served its purposewelland seems to answer the various problems posed.
It is also important to inspectthe interspace regulailyto ensure an early indication is obtained of anywateraccumulation and to
have a suitable drainage system together with site operating Drocedures to remove such water before it can damage the tank base insulation.
O @ @ @
InBrsh.rl oui*3hn shlbtrv.N. Bsh.lt.lloi
@ @ @
Figure 21.7 An alternative storage anangement
21 Ammonia storcge
a special case
the equilibrium level in the outer tank within 5 minutes of the leak commencing, i.e. a fast but non-zip type of failure.
The outer tank shell and bottom are cold in service which
means that there will be no thermal shock in the event that the inner tank leaks its contents into the outer tank. The cold outer tank also means that there will be no significant evolution of vapourinthe inner tank failure case. The vulnerable lowershell
liquid outlets are protected by shut-off valves within the

interspace between the inner and outer tank shells as indicated in Figure 21.8.
Figure 21.9 Bottom corner details forthe altemative arrangement
sons associated with the stress corrosion cracking problems. The ability to get as much product liquid out of the tank as quickly as possible leaving the minimum volume to be removed via the atmospheric heatleak route willclearly be useful in mini-
@ @ @
Figure 21.8 Liquid oullet details for the allernative arangement
mising the decommission/inspecvre-commission period and consequent costs associated with unavailability of the tank. A small drain connection also protected by two interspace valves with a suitable external pump arrangement maywell be a good
investment. A photo of this facility is shown in Figure 21 .10.
The first valve (i.e. thefirstvalve that the exiting liquid meets) is a manually-operated valve whose purpose is to allow the second valve to be serviced. This second valve is open during nor-
mal service, but is pneumatically-closed in the event of liquid leakage being detected by instrumentation located close to the liquid outlet connection. The purpose of this arrangement is to protect the plant and its surroundings from an incident involving the liouid outlet externalto the outertank and before the first ex-
ternal shut-off valve in the outlet pipework. Without this arrangement, this incident would cause the tank to dump its entire contents through the liquid outlet connection. With this equipment in place, the amount of liquid escaping to the environment would be that which would flow out ofthe tank during the period that the detection equipment took to identify the problem and the second pneumatically-operated shut-off valve took to close. This is bad enough with a toxic product like ammonia but much preferable to leakage of the full tank contentS. The apparently curious arrangementwhere the inner and outer
Figure 21.'10 An ammonia storage tank ofthe alternative lype
21.3.3 Chemical Industries Association guidance

Much ofwhat is discussed in Sections 21.3.1 and 21 .3.2 is also covered by the latest version of Reference 27-2. This divides the types of tanks to be used for the storage of refrigerated liquefied ammonia into the nowfamiliar three categories. The ex-
tanks share
common roof
is important. This allows the
interspace between the two tank shells to be filled with air. This air space is within the insulation envelope and consequentially at the product temperature of -33 "C. Cold and inhospitable though this interspace is, it allows the valves in the liquid outlet lineto be accessed and serviced which is vitaltothe overallviability of the system. This arrangement does require the inner tank to be fitted with holding down bolts or straps as the internal pressure is predominantly applied to the part of the single roof attached to the inner tank shell. The design of the anchorage system which must penetrate the outer tank bottom can prove interesting. The bottom cornerdetail for this tank is illustrated in Figure 21.9.
As a side issue, when designing such a system it is importantto remember that ammonia tanks are likely to have to be decommissioned, probably more than once during their careerfor rea-
act definitions vary from those given in Chapter 17, Section

'17.6 onwards which were derived from BS 7777 and EN 1473, and for this reason are ouoted in full:
Single containment
This is a tank designed and constructed so that only the containing element in contact with the refrigerated ammonia is required to meet the lowtemperature ductility requirements for storage of the ammonia. Any outerwall ofa single
containment storage system is primarily for the retention and protection of insulation and is not designed to contain liquid in the event of ammonia leakage from the innertank. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 431
21 Ammonia
storage
a special case
A single containment tank is traditionally surrounded by secondary containment in the form of a low bund wall to
contain any leakage.
the inner tank and wall. An isolation valve is required to be fitted betvveen the remote closing valve and the tank and should be located as closetothetank as possible Asingle
Afootnote elsewhere in the document shtes: "storage tanks, for example tanks containing petroleum products, are frequently surrounded with low earthern or
concrete bunds which will contain the liquid in a large open Dool should failure ofthe main tank occur. lfthis method was adopted with an ammonia tank, evaporation from the pool of ammonia would cause toxic concentrations considerable distances downwind and is not considered desirable, nor acceotable in the UK." We also find:
"lvlany tanks were originally built as single containment type
outlet is permissible.
4. 5. 6.
ln the event of power failure, the remote closing valve(s) should close automatically. The consequences to downstream operations should be evaluated The outlet pipe (or pipes) shall be anchored into the base slab (or wall if this is preferred in a structure which is not oost-tensioned) and due allowance made for the movements which will occur when the bnk cools down The tank should preferably be fitted with two liquid outlets. Both shall be fitted with internal valves capable of remote closure.
but have been retrofitted to become double containment

type". These are quite strong indicators that single containment is not currently preferred.
Items 1 to 5 apply to double containment systems with concrete outer walls. ltems 1 to 6 apply to double containment systems with steel outer tanks and to full containment systems with both steel and concrete outer tanks/walls.
Double containment
This refers to an inner tank designed and constructed with secondary containment in the form of a wall or outer tank Both the inner tank and the wall or outer tank shall be capable of containing the refrigerated liquid ammonia. To mini-
The document makes it mandatory for steel shell plates with mountings (penetrating fittings) to be stress-relieved. A sensible SCC precaution. The document has a section on commissioning and de-commissioning. Again SCC raises its head and the following advice is offered: "Recognition should be given to the possibility of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) occurring in ammonia storage tanks. Appropriate design and construction techniques wlll minimise this risk but it should also be noted that research work has shown the following:
mise the pool of escaping liquid, the wall or outer tank should be located at a distance not exceeding 1.5 m from
the inner tank. The innertank shall store the refrigerated liq-
uid under normal operating conditions. The wall or outer

tank shall be able to contain the refrigerated liquid ammonia leakage from the inner tank.
The outer tank is not designed to contain vapour released due to ammonia leakage from the inner tank
. .
SCC does not occur without the presence of oxygen The oresence of water may inhibit
Scc
Full containment
This refers to a tankdesigned and constructed with secondary containment in the form of a wall or outer tank. Both the inner tank and the wall or outer tank shall be capable of containing the refrigerated liquid ammonia The innertank shall store the refrigerated liquid and vapour ammonia under normal operating conditions. The wall or outer tank shall be capable of containing both the refrigerated liquid and vapour ammonia resulting from ammonia leakage from the inner tank
Therefore the purging ofthe tank with inert gas priorto the addition of ammonia, and the maintenance of a water content in the ammonia of 0.15% to 0.20% should be considered The inert gas purging ofa tank priorto the addltion of ammonia is recommended as a standard industry practice."
21.3.4 Recent developments

Quite recently in-tank pumps suitable for use with liquid ammonia have been developed. The pump is described in detail in Reference 21 17.fhe design of this pump incorporates the following features to deal with the problems of liquid ammonia's electrical conductivity and its highly corrosive action on copper and copper bearing alloYS:
It is a shame that the authors of this document have sought to modify the definitions which were developed in EEN'4UA 147 and repeated in BS 7777. The wording of the full containment definition suggests a fixed inner tank roofto contain the product vapourduring normaloperation, whereas the figure (taken from BS 7777) clearly indicates that a suspended ceiling is accept-
able. The outer containment of double and full containment systems is oermitted to be of steel or reinforced or postlensioned concrete. For steel components the rules of BS 7777 are required to be adopted. As has been mentioned, when this guide was written (1997), in-iank pumps for ammonia service were not available. Consequently, liquid outlet connections which penetrated the inner and outer tank walls could not be avoided. The guide gives the lollowing advice regarding liquid outlet connections:
1
. . . . . .
Electric motor housed in a liquid and gas tight enclosure Magnetic coupling to connect motor to pump Motor cooled indirectly by the product liquid
Nitrogen-purged motor enclosure and electrical containment system Power cable assembly enclosed in a flexible bellows type hose assemblY
2. 3.
The liquid outlet pipe (or pipes) should be taken from the side oithe innertank, as close to the base as permissible' Each outlet pipe shall incorporate a valve for remote closure. Where internal valves are the preferred type of remote closing valve, two outlet pipes are recommende0' When a remote closing valve is fitted externally to the inner tank, it should be sited in the annular space between
Filtered product liquid bearing and coupling lubrication system The Dumps can be installed with the usualtype offootvalve, operated by the pump self-weight and allowing the pump column to be purged and freed from ammonia Iiquid and vapour priorto removal or replacement, especially important for personnel safety with this particular product. Pumps of this type have been specified and installed at the plant operated by Shanghai Golden Conti Petrochemicals in China. They have been in service for some four years and other
21 Ammonia storage
a special case
e
o
than problems relating to the product cleanliness, have operated successfully. For land-based storage systems, this development opens the way to true full containment for liquid ammonia. These new pumos could also be a useful addition to the marine transport of liquid ammonia where external motors and long drive shafts have traditionally been used.
Careful visual inspection of: All other welds in floor and shell plates All other internal brackets and attachments
Although it is not expressly stated, it is presumed that this inspection will be confined to the internal surfaces ofthe primary liquid container. The outer surfaces ofthe primary container are often inaccessible due to the presence of the thermal insulation. Some guidance is given regarding the methodology of MPI to be used, but this is in outline only and would not impress those organisations skilled in the techniques necessarylor the detection of SCC. The sensible observation that "Those carrying out the tests should be experienced with the techniques and of the interpretation of the results obtained." is included.
21.3.5 Insulation systems

Because of the high latent heat of this gas, the tank insulation systems are usually quite straighforward.
For the tank base, two layers of cellular glass with a load bearing ringwall dependent upon the seismic environment normally
suffices. For the tank walls, polyurethane foam, either foamed n-situ behind metallic cladding or spray applied with a mastic weatherproof coating are commonly used on the outside surfaces. There are a few double-walled tanks which use perlite insulation.
The tank roof could have a similar arrangementto the tankwalls orfor reasons associated with weather protection, befitted with an internal suspended deck supporting a glass fibre or mineral
External inspection is confined to looking for insulation cold spots and ammonia leakage around fittings and pipework. For this the tank should be three-quarters full oi liquid ammonia. Four holding down bolts and their boxes or holding down straps should also be inspected.
An interesting more recent development is the "Recommendations for safe and reliable inspection of atmospheric, refrigerated ammonia storage tanks" published in October 2002 by the European Fertiliser ManufacturersAssociation (EFMA) (Refer-
wool insulation.
21.4 Inspection and repair of liquid
ence 21.18). This document brings attention to the fact that there are major differences between the national regulations
and/or Codes of Practice from different EuroDean countries regarding the frequency of inspection of liquid ammonia tanks. This is illustrated in Figure21.11. These regulations and Codes of Practice also do not discfiminate between tanks of diflerent lypes of construction, different operating practices and posing different risks to the surrounding envifonment. This new guidance is based on Risk Based Inspection (RBl). and seeks to evaluate the pfobability and consequences of failure of each lndividuaL tank. This process is in turn intended to optimise the lnspection frequency to obtain knowledge about the tank and its cond tion and the negative effects of opening the tank for intefnal lnspection which could increase the potential for the occufrence of SCC An inspection procedure is suggesied (Figure 2'1 .'12). A procedure is given for determining the maximum tolerable defect size
ammonia storage systems

Reference 27.2 also provides guidance regarding inspection and maintenance of refrigerated liquid ammonia storage tanks. Clearlythe possibilityof SCC is the reason why rules specific to ammonia storage are required. The Reference suggests: "All tanks should be thoroughly inspected, both internally and externally, not more than 6 years from the date of inltial commissioning. Thereafter, the interval between major inspections should be determined by the tank owner, depending on past experience. For example, if SCC was found at the first inspection, then it may be necessary to carry out subsequent inspection at an interval of less than 12 years, and if it (the extent of SCC) was sufficient to warrant substantial repair or rebuilding, then it is recommended that the next major inspection should be carried out within a further 6 years."' For such an important issue in terms of public safety, these guidelines are remarkably non-specific and non-mandatory The Reference goes on to say:
"For guidance, inspection intervals in the region of 12 years are considered an appropriate balance between the need to
Maximum inspcctioD iotcrvrl for 2tnrosph(flc.
20 years, but a notijled body can de(jde shoner
monitor the tank and the risk incurred during de-commissioning and subsequent re-commissioning." And: "lf, outside the recommendations of this guidance, a single containment design of tank is operated, then the inspection period shall (mandatory) not exceed 12 yearc."
It recommends that the first inspection should include:
None (VAWS, weter protection act, state 5, 1 0 or I 5
. .
Magnetic particle flaw detection (MPl) of all tee welds in floor plates, for a length of 230 mm along each arm of the
weto.
l\y'agnetic particle flaw detection in accordance with BS 6072 of lojo/a of first course vertical and horizontal welds (including the shell-to-floor weld), plus at least 50% of the
depending on inspecuon rsults. according to CLA C!eicrl
tee welds in the remaining shell plates, for a length of

230 mm along each arm of the weld, plus all internal attachment welds below the first to second course circumferential weld. This shall include all areas of temporarv attachment wetos.
.rny.LM ql@olia
lldst
y Ass@iatiod Cuidd@ for &c lege scale sromge in ihc UK Jue 1997.
offtly
Figu re 21 . 1 1 Nalional rules or recognised standa rds for th e frequ ency of in speclion of atmospheric (lquld) ammonia storage tanks n Europe
Fram EFMA document. Abjendix
21 Ammonia storage
a specialcase
SteD
Step 2
Step 3
B;ftom plates
Dlat6, T-wlds ir co@e I &d 2 Shll plales, honzontal atrd verhcsr welds itrcowse I ed2 Shell Dlats. T-welds in @us 3 !o top Shell plat6, horizontal md vertic.l welds in couie 3 to tot Marhols, pip cotne.tio&s, purnp sink dd other sDeaial details clamp marks or t@pomry fabrieiion
SheLl
I00% 100% 50%
r00%
ICD%
t00% t0% to%
tank of carbon steel to retiain and protect the perlite thermal insulation. The tank was supported on an elevated base slab and was surrounded by a concrete wall supported at local grade level and described as reinforced (as opposed to prestressed). The inner tank was 30.3 m in diameter and 21 3 m high. Itwould seem thatan operating erroralloweda small quantityof warm ammonia liquid to enter the tank and this caused a large quantity of vapour which over-pressurised the tank. Failure of the shell-to-bottom joint and of the holding down anchors then occurred and the failure sequence is illustrated in Figure 21.14 which is taken from the SUPRA report.
In much the same way as the Qatar LPG tank failure' the tank was moved sideways by the reaction to the exiting liquid and smashed its waythrough the concrete bund wall, tlnally landing some 25 m from the originalfoundation. The tank bottom was left on the elevated foundation slab.
50%
ILD'/O
to%
1rfro/o
tatJ%
l0/o
100%
100./"
100%
89qq!@!e
poeeadon welds
Ar.a! s biect to prvious repaiB
Figure 21 12 Inlernal nsoeclion Iecommendatol Frcm EFMA docunent, Aq?endix
The liquid ammonia vaporised and caught fire, in turn setting E6

fire to an adjacent 15,OOO tonnes store of NPKwhich continued to burn/decompose for 3 days. The official number offatalities was 7, a surprisingly low figure for the magnitude of the event
and the number of employees. Jonava was evacuated for a

short period of time.
10yrs
It is a pity that there is so little published information relating to this incident. The lessons which can be learnt would seem to
be:
12
24
3.0
4.8
60
72
Fallure Probabllity number
Figure 21.13 Inspection frequency diagram From EFMA dacunent
The necessity for careful process control, especially during unusual operating conditions such as start up or re-commissioning activities, to avoid the unforeseen import of warm liquid.
based on BS 7910 (Reference 21.19). An RBI evaluation method is provided which results in arithmetic scores forfailure
probability and failure consequence. These scores are entered in the inspection frequency diagram (Figure 21.13)and indicate an inspection frequencyforthe particulartank in question ranging from greater than 20 years to a minimum of 3 years This seems a sensible and disciplined approach in an area where there is a confusing amount of non-specific advice.
The design of a pressure relief valve system adequate to cater for all uPSet conditions. made modes must be reviewed and that failure cannot occur in elements which will cause the tank to release the contained liquid, i e failure in the roof sheeting or the shell{o-roof compression area ratherthan the shell, the shell-to-bottom junction or the holding down arrangements.
incident, the tank failure - ln an extreme overpressure provisions to ensure
21.5 Incidents involving liquid ammonia
tanks
The history of liquid ammonia storage has been comparatively free of incident. A number of minor incidents involving vapour releases to the atmosphere, non-performance ofvacuum relief valves and foundation problems usually associated with pooror inadequate base heating systems have happened over the years.
The reinforced concrete secondary liquid containing wall must bedesignedto containthe productliquid in anycredible inner tank leakageifailure scenario.
The location ofthe storage tank relative to othervulnerable
eouiDment or materials on the site
21 .6
21
References
Code of Practice for the Storage on Anhydrous Ammonia Under Pressure in fhe UK The Chemical Industries Association Ltd - January 1980, (nowno longer available).
The one serious incident involved a liquid ammonia storage tankin Lithuaniain 1989. Little information is available concerning this incident due to the site's military links, but despite this the site was visited some two months afterthe event by a group from the Swedish National Rescue Group (SUPRA) and a report was written by a member of that group (Reference 21'20)
This is interesting reading and the dearth (thankfully) of serious incidents in this area makes it importantthatthose that do occur are recorded and published aswidelyas possible so that all the lessons are learnt and any modifications to industrial practices and regulations are made and implemented as soon as practicaole. The accident took place at the "Azotas" fertilizer plant'12 km from Jonava in Lithuania. Jonava has a population of around 40.000 and the plant around 5OOo employees. The ammonia tank was of 10,000 tonnes capacity and at the time of the incident held some 70OO tonnes of ammonia The tankwasofJap-
.1
21.2 21.3
2'1.4
Code of Practice for the Large Scale Storcge of Fully
Refrigerated Anhydrous Ammonia in the UK, The Chemical lndustries Association Ltd - 1997.
Behavior of welded pressure vessels in agriculturalammonia service, T.J. Dawson, The welding Journal Vol 35, pp 568-574, 1956. Sfress corrosion cracking of steeis ln agricultural ammonia, A.W. Loginow and E.H. Phelps, Corrosion 18 (8), 1962.
21.5 21.6
A.Cracknell,
Stress Corrosion cracking of Steels in Ammonia, lcl The lnstitute of Refrigeration, Paper
presented 6 MaY, '1982. SCC in welded ammonia vesse/s, O.L Towers, Metal Construction, August 1984
anese design and was constructed by Soviet personnel in 1978. The innertank was of lowtemperature steel and the outer
21 Ammonia
stonge
a specia/ case
Position before accidEnt
fF
Failure of anchors Base break-away
Agitation of tank begins
Position of tank afier accident
Figure 2'1.'14 Lithuanian ammonla lank faitu sequonc
21 Ammonia storage
- a speclal
case
21
21.7 21.8
Stress corrosion Uacking of some metallic maErtab in ammonia at ambient and low temperatures, L. Lund and R. Nyborg, UK Corrosion 1985, Hanogate UK. The Etrec't of Orygen and Water on Stress corrosion Cracking of Mild steel in Liquid and Vapotous Ammonia P/ant L. Lunde and R. Nyborg, Operations Progress Vol 6, No 1, Januayl987. Sfress Corroslon Cracking in Different Steels in Liquid and vaporous Ammonia, L. Lundeand R. Nyborg, corrosion '87, Paper no 17, San Francisco, USA.
Sf/'ess Corrosion Crack Growth Rate of Carbon Manganese Sfee/s, L. Lunde and R. Nyborg, Corrosion Prevention in the Process Industries Conference, 1988
.14
monia gorage Tanks, M. Appl, K. Fabler, D. Fromm, H.

Gebhard and H.Portl, (BASF AG).
New Cases of Stress Co/'rosrbn Cra cking in Large Am'
21.15 Measures for Reducing Sfress Conosion Cracking in

Anhydrous Ammonla Storage lanks, Rolf Nyborg and Liv Lunde, lnstituftfor Energiteknikk Norway, presented to the A.l.Chem. E. Ammonia Safety Symposium, Vancouver, Canada, October 1994.
21.9
21.10
21.16 Sfress
Corro sion Cracking in Low Temperature Ammon,a Slorage lanks, Rolf Nyborg and Liv Lunde - Institutt forEnergiteknikk Norway, presented to the A.l.Chem. E.
Ammonia Safety Symposium, Vancouver, Canada, Oc-
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
tober'1994.
21.17 Advanced design for submerged liquid ammonia

pumps, D- Cullen and H. Kimme!, Ebara International Corporation, Nevada, USA, International Journal of Hy' drocarbon Engineering, April 1998.
21
21.11 Effect of Welding Electrode Composition and Storcge

Temperature on Slrcss Corroslon Cracking of Carbon steels in Liquid ammofla, L. Lunde and R. Nyborg, NACE Corrosion Conference 1991, Cincinnatti, USA.
.'18 Recommendationsfor
21.12
Sfress corroslo n in a 12,000 tonne fully-refigerated ammonia storage tank, J.R. Byrne and F.E. Moir (National
safe and reliable inspection of at' mosphefic, reftigerated storcge tanks, P repared by the
Vulcan Engineering Group Ltd) and R.D.Williams

(BASF Chemicals Ltd), 1988 Ammonia Symposium
Safety in Ammonia plants and related facilities, AICE, Denver Colorado, August 1988.
European Fertiliser Manufacturers Association,

(EFMA), October 2002.
21.19 BS 7910 : 1999, Auide on method for assessing
the
ac-
21 -13 gructural lntegrity of a 1 2,000 tonne Refrigerated Ammonia gorage Tank in the presence of Slress Conosion Cracks, R.A. Selva (NationalVulcan Engineering Group
ceptability of flaws in metallic structures, British Standards lnstitution, London.
21.20 March 20 1989 accident in Lithuanian feftilizet plant'
Ltd) and A.H. Heuser (BASF AG).
B.O. Andersson, Swedish National Rescue Board (SUPRA). A.l. Chem. E. Technical Manual, Vol 31, 1991.
Amr, H.
22 Material selection criteria for low
gtn
ano
nted
temperature tanks
The means of selecting appropriate metallic materials for the various component parts, which
'lanvnoEtutt
1.
make up the structure of a low temperature tank, are described in this Chapter and the
differences between the American, the British and the draft European Codes are discussed. An interesting historical material selection procedure is also described.
E.
Oc-
Contents:
,NE
)nal Hy-
22,'l General
222 The requirements of API 620

22.2.1 API 620 Appendix R 22.2-1.1 Materials lor parts subjected to ambient temperatures 22.2-1.2 Maletials tor parts subjected to low temperatures 22.2.2 API 620 Appendix Q 22.2.2.1 Matenals tor parts subjected to ambient temperatures 22.2.2.2 Maltials lor parts subjected to low temperatures
fatlhe on, acEnant,
22.3 The requirements of BS 7777 | su1.
Paft2
22.3.1 Materials for parts subjected to ambient temperatures 22.3.2 Materials for parts subjected to low temperatures
22,4 The requirements of
857777':Patl4
22.4.1 Parts subjected to ambient temperatures 22.4.2 Parts subjected to low temperatures
22.5 The requirements of PD 7777 l2OOO 22.6 The requirements of prEN 14620
22.6.1 Materials for parts subject to ambient tempratures 22.6-2 Matenals for parts subject to low temperatures
22.7 An example of a material selection method ftom the past 22.8 References
22 Mateial selection criteia for low temperaturc tanks
22.1 General
This Chapter is devoted to the rules covering the selection of materials suitable for use in low temoerature tanks of metallic construction. lt limits its interest to the selection of plate materials for the main parts ofthe tank structure, i.e. the bottom, shell and roof plating. The various Codes give guidance for the selection of materials such as structural sections, pipe, forgings, bolting, etc. Those interested in this sort of detail should make reference to the appropriate parts of these Codes.
To venture deeply into
heat treatment, the applied stress and the number, size and shape of any defects in the finished assembly. There are a number of test methods which are used to deter-
mine the material toughness at

Amongst these are:
particular temperature.
. . .
Wide plate tests

Pellini-type drop weight tests
crack opening displacement (coD) tests
the philosophywhich underpins the ba-
sis of the metallic material selection for these tanks is beyond the scope of Slorage Tanks & EquipmenL and certainly beyond the abilities and knowledge of the author. The detailed discussions surrounding such subjects as avoidance of brittle fracture, fracture arrest, critical defect sizes and the like must be found elsewhere. What will be discussed are the relatively simple rules for material selection which have been developed from a great deal of detailed study and test work, carried out over a considerable number of years, resulting in the requirements of the various design Codes. The material selection falls into tlvo separate areas:
Allofthese tests are difficult, expensive and time consuming to

perform, but arguably get somewhere close to determining the intrinsic toughness of the steel.
A test which is suitably quick and cheap, and with which the steel producers are familiar and comfortable with is Charpy
V-notch impact testing. Unfortunately the industry is less confident ofthe ability ofthis test to revealthe true nature ofthe property of interest for the materials in question. So, the unsatisfactory situation exists of tests which provide an answer which can be believed with some confidence, but which are too expensive and slow to be of use as a production quality control tool, and a test which is quick and cheap, but which produces answers which are contentious. Fortunately much work has been done to accommodate this apparent dilemma. lmproved production methods have resulted in generally tougher steels and the design codes have in some cases become more conservative in the material selection area. As a consequence, for ferritic materials the Charpy V-notch impact test is used as the toughness criterion despite its limitations.
Materials for primary and secondary liquid-containing parts.
These are the inner tanks of single containment tanks and the outer metallic tanks of double and full containment tanks. These parts are subjected to both the minimum product liquid temperature and the full hydrostatic head.
Materials for the outer metallic tanks of single containment tanks.
These are subjected to the minimum ambient temperatures and comparatively modest stress levels arising from internal vapour pressures and self-weight, wind and seismic loadings. For these components the materialselection rules followthe ambient temperature practices.
Aluminium alloys and austenitic stainless steels are not susceptible to temperature dependent tough/brittle transitions in the same wayas ferritic steels and consequentlytheir base materials are excluded from impact testing requirements.
22.2The requirements of API 620

The requirements of API 620 regarding material selection requirements are based in the main on the use of ASTM standards. Some Canadian Standards Association (CSA) and International Standards Association (lSO) steels are also included in the listings. The useofsteels manufactured to other national and international standards requires careful study of the steel specification and the code rules to ensure that all of
the necessary requirements have been fulfilled. It is frequently necessary to have to resort to additional testing of such steels to be able to demonstrate equivalence. The code contains a large number of rules, specific exceptions and footnotes relating to material selection. For those involved in the task of material selection, there is little choice but to become immersed in the fine print of the Code and consequently there is no need to quote "chapter and verse" in Storage Tanks & Equipment. A brief overview is thus offered with some ofthe significant points highllghted.
The material selected for the various parts ofthe structure must possess the necessary strength, the ability to be fabricated into the required forms, weldability and the necessary toughness at the design temperature to avoid the possibilityof brittle fracture. Ensuring that the materials possess the necessary propertaes to demonstrate their suitability for the first two of these consid-
erations is relatively straightfoMard. The usual tensile testing required by the material specifications to determine yield
strength, ultimate tensile strength and elongation to failure are normally sufficient. These properties are usually measured at room temperature.
As most materials are stronger at the lower service temperatures, this gives rise to a factor of safety additional to that imposed by the Codes in the determination of the allowable tensile stresses. For certain materials this can be substantial. ln the case of 9% nickelsteels used at LNG temperatures, recent data suggests that this "hidden" factor can be as high as 50% for both the plate material and the weld metal. lt should be remembered that for LNG service, it is the latter property which controls the selected plate thickness. lt is the last of the required properties that tends to cause the most concern. Ferritic steels at warm temperatures, are malleable and can be plastically deformed without risk of fracture provided the materials elongation has not been exhausted. When the service temperature is reduced, the material may become brittle and failure can occurat low stresses with little or no plastic deformation. The temperature at which the transition from ductile to brittle behaviour occurs is dependent upon the steel chemistry the
With the exception of plates which have their thickness selected based on minimum thickness requirements, plates are permitted to be a maximum of0.01" thinnerthan the calculated thicknesses required, based on edge thickness measurements.
22.2.1 API620 Appendix R

22.2.1.1 Materials for parts subjected to ambienttempera-
tures
The Code describes these parts as basic orsecondary components.
22 Mateial seledion
aiteia
for low temoenture tdnks
no
erae.
Derign Mctd
lbmpcnum
(icc 4.2,1)
Plnc Thickn6s IrEludirS Co.rosion
Pcrmi$ribh Spacifi crtio0s Spocid Roquilrrncnts
Allounmc (iD.)
Spcci[c.rion
Any listql io 2-2.3 ASTM A 36 CSA C,|{}.21-M Any lhtld in 2"23 ASTM A 36 Mod 2 ASTM A I3I
CSA
Grr&
(in
ddirion
Nooc Nooc Nonc I
NorNc
to ,1.2.3)
65'F rrd or{
<l >l
3.tk
Ito he he
25'F rnd o\rcr
sl
1o*,mr|/,l5o*
B
Nonc
Nooc
Nonc
pv
IIF
5"F
jd
ovr
>l sth
>th
C'lll2l -M
26|}w3(x)w350w
B 260fl,3SW,35{tW
Notc I ASTM A
I3I
Notrc
CSA G4O2I.M
Nonc
)P
tcan
ASTtr{A 13l
cs
55,6(},65.70
5& 65,m
re ta
:{s
ASruA516 ASIl,lA 573 ASruA662
NUlc
Noc I
E
ve ve
'150630
ASTI| A 516
ASruAn? ASTI'iA tal csAeo2t-M
BrdC
Nd. I
Clsl
26OW
Nel
Nale
350W E Zt5. 8355 Qudiry
3dtu
NqE
Notc 2
NccE
l.rd2
ial
he
ASIUA
ASTlr,lA
53?
t3
55,60,65, Cl|s|.r I 5& 65, ?0
rdz
l,lqF
Ncte
m
1S-
ASTMA d}3 ASTtr{A 662
CqdD
B
h
E-
ASruA73? ^SII{A
csA
ISO 630
6?t
rdC rdE
l{o.
tlooe
Noor
I\toE
ASruAgl
c(t2t{l
('|ttt
60w'3r[1v.:]fnt
E 275, E355
I\bE
t\hoc Noc 2
<l
e-
Qutiry D
NGtrd2
l{fic
Noac 3
Astlt A t3t
ASTM A 516
cs
at-..Gl I .nd 2
55,60,65,70
ASruAtJ? tlx)
Ef
Nqrc
Norc 3
[}
(t d ry
ASTM A ASTI| A 633 ASTM A 662
']
C|rdD
BrndC
B
5t
Nqrc
Noac 3
ASTI{A 678
ASTMA 737
A|trlB
Cl|sr I
2601V.3mw' 3t0w Ein5, E355 |nlQudhy D
None
ASruAgl
Noo!
Nooc
>l
cs^ G402t-M
tso 630
A 516 A 5I? A 5?3 A 6!t A 66? A 6?8 A ?I? A 8,1| csA Glo.] -M ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
Ndrs 2 rnd 3
Norcs 2
Noac 4
|ld
ls
a
rte-
IlI
cs
55.60,65, m Ch*.cs I .||d 2
Notc$
d4
it b
5t
CrndD EaMC
A
as
ArndB
Clrss I B
Norc 4 Nolcs I rnd 4 Nqc 4 Nqcl| 3 rrd 4 Norc 4
N(xc.l
N(|rtc
rso
rE
Ndcs
1..1. irnd 4
6.1(l
l6{rwT. .r(x}wT. r50 wT

E2?5,
El55Qlalily D
N(*:\ :-
J. and J
All pht6 ovd lla l. ttkl d.ll b. mr'Idlad Tb! *.cl lrtl lhdl L U[.a lrd nrd. rta! th. grdr prrcd.e 3 Tlc plrt . |rl[ bc .omdh.d o. qrcrcr r.nFrid (..c {.24r) a Er.b pLae |irll D. lDp.ct ae.!.d tr rccsrd co wXt {2J
2
tgurs 22.1 Minimum requkemenb for pl6te sFcifcaflons to

Bo.n API 620, Awendlx R, table
be usd for design metal temperature
+1
STORAGE TANKS A EQUIPMENT 439
22 Matedal selection cdteia for low tempercturc tanks
D.dgn M.rd TcmFnfiE ofsccoid.rJ Compon
rt
-20'F lo +40'F
M ..Lb
Pip. SEudonl
19
-6lPF to Bclow -20PF llsr.d in Tlblc R-4
Mr|ri*
r! lilt dinnbb R4 2J
ASTM A 106
As lis&d in
ntnbcrs
Plra or pipc !s list d .borc

ASTM A 36 Mod |
na.
dupca (i.c 2.6)
or pipc
.! li$.d lbovc
lluctunl
Suucnlrrl lhati ar liir.d io 2.6 or a.r li$cd - 6fF to - m'F llmpcr.|un hrding
ud.r
ASTM A l3lOr?&CS CSA C4021-M C6d.s 26OW..100W. rnd lsOW (s..
Mt!)
Forlrngs Eolu
ASTMA
ASTM
105
ASTM A 120
A l9l Gnd{ a? Cad. L?
Nor(: Thc \lcclthxll h.lolly hillcd m'j madc
|oli*-g.n ptulr.c
Figure 22.2 IVaterials for secondary componenls
Fron API
620, Appendix R, table R-3
Minimum D6ign Mctal Tcmpcmturc, oF Spccific8don Numbct

Plarc Thickncss lncluding CoFosion Allowsrlcc.
in,
Group
| (scmikillcd)
G'adc Mod 2.
36 A I3I csAG4o.2r-M 150630

A A 573
B
260W
E 2?5 Qualhy Co
th6-3ls -m -m 0 -m
-30 -60 -30 -40 -30 -,t0
>3!E-th -t0 -t0

+10
>l/2-l
> t-lr/2
+zt
+5 +J
-10
+)
+)
ll (fuUy ldll.d)
l3l
58'
cs
55 rr|d 60 55 and 60P
-10
A 516 A 516
ISO 630
-N -ln
-J.'
-35
-t0
-10
-15
_10
-m
0 0 0
cs^ c40.2r-M
Itr (fully killcd utd
high 3ulNrglh)
E 2?5 Qudity Db 26oWD
-n
-30
A 573
A 516 A 516 A 537
65 65 65
dd
?0
.rd 70
rrd ?0 Mod
l.rdz
lr
A662
A 633 A 6?8
BandC
CtndD
A
E
AW
ISO 630
udE
DD
-40 -60 -40 -60
-N -m
-30 -50 -30 -50 -50 -50 -30 -10
+5 +5
0
-t0 _15
-15 -35 -35 -35
_15
-m
-@
-60 -30
35sQurliry
csA c40.2t-M csA G40.2r-M

NoEi:
Whrt
3mwo
2{0wD
-io
tcmpqafils 20"F
-m
-30
-10 -15 +J
-m -20 -m
+5
+m
Dorndizi4 mrtcrirl$ in 6is r.blc |!ry
bc urcd at
blo$, drc6! shown
rnd
e A 633 Grld.s
C ard D, A 6?8 Crad.! A rnd B, And
A 737 Gradc B). lf lmpaca tclas
0l.y rh.ll bc in occordrtE! wfth Tablc f,-5.
'l!
(dccpt fgr A t3l Gndc CS, A 537 Cl.!sc! | Equircd for thc metrrid! listld itr thit tablc,
rscc 4,2.3 for r cottrpLtr dclcaiption of ddr hrtrrial. blftc n cl ihall bc frllly killcd aDd na& witb 6nc-8rain Frclicc, vithout lonnrlizin& fo( thickEoslg of 116 in. ttugu8h cThc mragmcac cootcd shall bc in thc nDg. from 0,&5% ro ll0% by bdlc amlysi!.
Figure 22.3 lvlinimum pemissible design metal temperature for plates used as secondary components without impacl testing From API 620, Appendix R, tabla R-4
lD in.
Basic components are those that contain the vapodsed liquefied gas from the stored refrigerated liquid, but primarily operate at atmospheric temperature because of insulation system design and naturalambient heating. Examples ofsuch components are the outerwalland roofs ofdouble walltanks and roof componenb above the internally insulated suspended deck. Secondary components are those whose failure would not result in leakage of the liquid being stored. Secondary components also include those components that are not in contact with the refrigerated liquid but are subject to the refrigerated temperature vapours and have a combined tensile and primary bending stress under design conditions that does not exceed
6000 lb/in'z. Secondary components which could be designed within this reduced stress are roof plates, including roof
manways and nozzleswith their reinforcement, roof supporting structural members and shell stifieners. These components are furtherdivided into thosewhich contain the vaporised gas and those which do not. The materials forthe former may (a curious choice of word, a BS or CEN standard would have used "shall" here) conform to one ofthe following:
Table4-1 (Figure 22.1 )fordesign metal temperatures down to -35'F (i.e. a lowestone day mean ambient temperature of -35'F) without impact testing unless these are required by Table 4-1 or by the purchaser.
22 Material selection
citeia
for low temperaturc tanks
Speai6cation Number
Grade
Csc 55 and 60
Rangc in Thickness (in.)
Plate Impacr valueb
(ft-lb)
W.ld Innact
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 25 20
Value
(fllb)
t5
t5
lndividual
25 20 20
lndividual
ASTM A I3I ASTM A 516 ASTM A 516 ASTM A 516 ASTM A 516 ASTM A 84I ASTM A 53? ASTM A 53? ASTM A 662 ASTM A 678
ASTM A 678 ASTM A 73?
,16 - llh 11j -2
25 25 25 25 25
3t6-2
3tft 3tft
20 20 20 20 20
l5
65
ard'tO Mod td
65 and ?0 Mod 2d I I
2
-2 -z 3116 -z
Jlt6
l5
3116-2
30 25 25
25 20
m
l5 l5
20
BandC B.
I
31rc-2
3h6
tt t2
m
25
m
25
3l16-2
th6
3116
30
25
ASTM A 84I
ISO
-2 -2
20
20
20
20
630
csA G40.21-M
G4O.2I-M csA G40.21-M

CSA Notcs:
D..ac 260WT.& 3oovrFn 350s/tc'd'

E 355 Qualiry
,rc-2 3t6-2 ,\6-2 tlrc-2
25 25 25 25
m
?!
m
20
l5
l5
m
20
m m
l5
.SrcR.2.l.2.
bFor design mc(al tcmpcratures of- 40oF ,nd lowcr {tc p(ate impact values shall bc nis.d 5 fl-lh cThc tiequcocics of tcsting for ncrharical and chemical prcpcnies shall be at l.ast e4ual ro $osc of ASTM A 20. dscc 4.23 for a complctc dascripiion of rhis matctial.
Thc sEel
shall bc
fully killd aM madc with fine-grain Factice.
r-rgure 22.4 IVinimum Charpy V-noich impact requlremenls for primary components plate specimens (transverse) and weld spec mens incJuding ihe heal affected
Fron API 620 Appendix R. table R 2
. .
Table R-3 (Figure 22.2) for design metal temperature down to -60"F without impact tests unless they are requifed by Table R-4 (Figure 22.3) or by the purchaser
supporting structufal members and shell stiffeners where the combined tensile and primary bending stress under design cond tions exceeds 6000 lb/in2. For components falling into this category, Charpy V-notch impact testing at or below the minimum design metal temperature shall be carried out to achieve the energy values given in table R-2 (Figute 22.4). f he impact specimens shall be taken transverse to the difection of final plate rolling. This is different to the requirements of BS 7777 which requires the impact test specimens to be taken parallel to the direction of final plate rolling (i.e. longitudinal). Some steel specifications quote impact energy levels for both longitudinal and transverse specimens, in which case the steel seleciion is quite straightforward. Other specifications only quote longitudjnal Charpy V-notch requirements, in which case additional testing must be undertaken to ensure that the required properties are provided.
It is not wise to estimate the transverse plate properties based
on the longitudinal properties determined at the same tempera-
lfapproved bythe purchaser, the material may be seiecled by the requirements of paragraph 4.2.2 of API 620. This provides three oossibilities for the reduction in the stfingency of the material selection criteria where the actual stress under design conditions in the component in question does not exceed one third of the allowable tensile stress.
For the parts of an outer tank which do noi contain the vapor-
sed gas (i.e. in the case of a design using a fixed roof inner
tank), the material may conform to any of the materials listed in Table 4-1 . Consideration ofthe design metal temperature is not required if the actual stress in the component of the outer tank n question does not exceed one halfofthe allowabletensile de-
sign stress for the material.

22.2.1 -2 Materials tor parts subjected to low temperatures
These parts are described as primary components which are in turn defined as components whose failure would result in leakage of the liquid being stored, components which are exposed to the refrigerated temperature and those subject to thermal
snocK.
tures. The relationship between the two properties is dependent upon the directionality of the plate which is in turn a funciion of the amount of cross rolling in the production process. As a guide, the transverse energy levels can be between 50% and 90% of the equivalent longitudinal values.
These primary components shall include, but not be limited to, the following parts ofa single walltank or the innerwallof a double walltank: shell plates, bottom plates, knuckle plates, compression rings, shell manways and nozzles including reinforcement, shell anchors, piping, tubing, forgings and bolting. Roof nozzles in contactwith the refrigerated liquid shall also be considered as pfimary components. Also included are those parts of a single wall or an inner tank which is not in contactwith the refrigerated liquid butare subject to the refrigerated temperature. Such components include roof plates, roofmanways and nozzles with their reinforcement, roof
Note:
Table R-2 also gives energy values for the weld metal and the heat-affected zone (HAZ)for use in the welding Orocedure Oualifications.
22.2.2 API620 Appendix Q

22.2.2.1 Malerials lor parts subjected to ambient tempera-
IUres
The Code describes these as secondarv comDonents defined as follows: STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 441
22 Mateial selection
c teia
fot low temperature tanks
Secondary components include those components thatwill not be stressed to a significant level by the refrigerated liquid, those whose failure will not result in leakage ofthe liquid being stored, those exposed to product vapours, and those having a design metal temperature of -60'F or higher. When roof plates, knuckle plates, compression rings, and manways and nozzles including reinforcing are primarily subjected to atmospheric temperatures, these shall also be classified as secondary components.
. . . . .
9% nickel steel 5% nickel steel Austenitic stainless steel Aluminium alloy Nickel alloys (i.e. Invar, Hastelloy etc)
The selection of materials for these oarts is as described in

Section 22.2.1 .1. 22.2.2.2 Materials tor parts sublected to low temperatures
9% nickel steel is the most commonly used material for LNG, ethylene and ethane service. lts strength, weldability, availability and cost make this the obvious choice. 5% nickel steel is less widely available and its use is normally restricted to ethylene and ethane service. Austenitic stainless steel is uneconomic for large low temperature tanks, but is commonly used for the smaller tanks for the storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon. Aluminium alloy was once wideiy used for the construction of large low temperature tanks. The manufacture of aluminium alloys is an energy intensive process and the significant increases in energy costs which took place in the early 1970s caused the pendulum to swing towards 9% nickel steel as the economic choice, and this remains the case today. The use of nickel alloys is most unusual and will not be further considered.
These are described as primary components, and again API 620 launches into a lengthy definition of which parts fall into this
caregory: Primary components include those components that may be stressed to a significant level, those whose failure would permit leakage of the liquid being stored, those exposed to a refrigerated temperature between -60"F and -270'F and those that are subject to thermal shock. The primary components shall include, but will not be limited to, the following parts of a single walltank (most unusual to Appendix Q), or ofthe innertank in a double walltank: shell plates, bottom plates, roofplates, knuckleplates, compression rings, shell stiffeners, manways and nozzles including reinforcing, shell anchors, pipe, tubing, forgings and bolting. This part ofthe code allows the use ofthe following materials for pnmary components:
PlaGs ar|d Sruclu.al
The commonly used AST[,4 materials are listed in table Q-1

(Figure 22.5).
Piping
and Tubing
Mcmbcrs A 153 (Scc not.
Forgings
BoltinB
l)
not.
A 333, C.adc 8 (scc not.2) B 444 (UNS-N06625), Cr. I
A 553,
TyF I
(scc
l)
334, Gradc 8 (scc notc 2) B 444 (UNS-N06625). Gr. 2
A 645
B 619 (UNS-N l0276xscc norc 3) B 622 (UNS-N102?6)
A 24O, Typc 304 A 240, Tnc 3ML
A 213, Gr.de TP 3O4 A 2 I 3, Gradc TP 304 L A 312, Crrdc TP 304 (scc notc 3) A 313, GrNde TP 304L (s.c norc 3) A 358. Gnde 304, Class I (!cc Dote 4)
A A
182, Gradc F 304 | 82, Cradc F 304L
A 320, CradcsBE, B8C, B8M

and B8T
B B B B B
209, 209, 209, 209, 209,
Alloy Alloy Alloy Alloy Alloy
30034 (scc notc 5
5052{ (s.t notc 5) 50E3{ (!.c nolc 5)
508tu
(scc notc 5)
Alloy Alloy B 2lq Alloy B 210, Alloy

B 210, B 2 10, B
3003-0 3003-H I 12
B 247, Alloy 3m3-HI12 E 24?, Alloy 5083-Hlt2Mod
82l I, Alloy 606l -T6
5052{
508tu
51544 (!cc notc 5)
2l0,Alloy 5154{
B 209, Alloy 545@ (scc notc 5)

B
22t,Alloy 6061-T4 udT6

3O8,
Alloy 6061-T2 ard T6
B 24l,Alloy 50524 B 241, Alloy 5083-0 B Zl, Alloy 5066{ B 241, Alloy 5454{ B 241, Alloy 5456{)
Notas:
d! rndc ofASTM A 353 orA 553 rnat dd or nickcl rlloy, pipe nangc! or pipc may bc rustcnitic stainlcss sl.cl of that cannot bc hardcdcd by hat EEaEncnL Pipc nanSca or pipc may bc wcldcd to nozzlc nccks of dE prcssurc part mat tial if thc butr wcld b locltrd rno(c than I dist$cc cqual !o thc 4 mcrsurcd from thc facc ofthc rcinforccmcnl whcrr r= insidc ridius of $c nozzlc ncclq in rnd r s thick|ess of thc mzzlc ncck in in. Thc d.sigr of thc nozzlc ncck rhall bc bas.d on thc allo*blc stcss veluc of
r rr?c
l. Whc{r Fcssurc para
iL
wcrkcr mrlc.ial.
2. Scrmlcss piping rnd rubing only. 3. Wcldcd piF sha bc wcld.d ftom rhc ootsidc only by thc tungstcn-arc inscn gas-shieldcd CfC) prcccss nithout mctrl and Ehall bc hydroslaticdly testcd. 4. Impacl lcst of wcld! shall bc madc for thc
$c addition of 6llcr
w.lding proccdurc whcn rcquncd by Q.6,3.
5. ASTM B 221 structural scctions dE also Dcrmittcd.
Figure 22.5 ASTM materials fof primary components
Fron API 620.Iable A-1
22 Mate al selection criteria for low temperature tanks
V.lu. R.qoicd
for Aeco(li.C (rr.lb)
Mhimln V.l@ Wi$oot Rcquiriq R.r.!P
(ftlb)
l6
t2
vrlcRcqli!dd A...ptd (ftnb)

25
MiniooD
R.qrili.t Ra6tr
(finb)
2A
hlc
Wirh&l
l0 x 10.00 l0 x ?J0 l0 x667

l0 x5.0
a
t5 t3
t9
t7
t0
8 5
ll
t0
1 5
l0
7 5
.NG,
r0x333
abilN'ld:
lonly
t0x2-!)
rA$dg. of dr!.
rally
G .pcdm of. .c!
rFdeaB
: gure 22.6 Charpy V-notch impact value

+om API 620, table Q-2
the
1of
in70s
iom austenitic stainless steel, nickel alloys or

aUoys.
mpact testing is not required for primary components made aluminium
Mlntnrm ddlgn metd
Thtclness
.
Mste d2)
mpact testing is required for primary components made from 3% and 5'/o nickel steels.
T>O
ts15
15<t<36
the
)laie matedals shall be

'bllowing:
imDact tested in accordance with the
BS EN 10025 : 1990 Fb 430 B or Fe 610 B
ner
. . . . .
lmpact test soecimens shall be taken transverse to the direction of final plate rolling. Charpy V-notch specimens shall be cooled to a temperature of -320"F for impact testing (conveniently the temperature of liquid nitrogen).
For 5% nickel steel only, the test temperature may be raised Io -22O'F.
BS EN 10026 : 1990 Fe 430 C or

Fe 510 D1 BS EN 10026 : 1990 Fe 430 B or Fe 610 C BS EN 10026 : 1990 Fe 430 Dl or Fe 510 DD1
T>
-20
,<16
15<ts35
'/
'?)
See 6.2.2.
The transverse Charpy V-notch impact energy values shall conform to table Q-2 (Figute 22.6).
Each test shallconsist of three specimens, and each specimen shall have a lateral expansion opposite the notch of not
Other matelials may be used pmvided thy ar equivalent to rhos spcilied, and pfolided rhe purchasr and manufacturer aSree [o such a subsriturion.
F gure 22 7 Stee s fof outer tank compresson area, roof and roofstr!ct!re where the minim!m desgn tempeture is based on ambient lempeture
less than 0.015".

The Charpy V-notch impact energy levels quoted in Table Q-2
Frcn BS 77/7 : Pai2, table
afe low by comparison with the levels usually associated with 5% and 9% nickelsteel olate materials ofrecent manufacture.
-ihe
code also gives rules for the impact testing of structural
shapes and forgings in these materials. The manufacture and rse of these is most uncommon.
22.3.1 Materials for parts subjected to ambient temperatures

For steel outer tank parts where the minimum design temperature is based on ambient temperatures, the materials shall be selected from Table 6 (Figure 22.7). These parts would normally be the compression area, the roof plating and the foof structure. lt is recommended that for the uK the design metal temperature should be taken as -10'C. For areas outside the UKthedesign metaltemperature should betaken as the lowest daily mean temperature (i.e one half of the sum of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures). For the outer tanks of double-walled single containment tanks (i.e. those for containment of gas only), the materials shall be selected from Table 7 (Figure 22.8).
22.3 The requirements

rode fall into two categories:
ol BS 7777 i Paft 2
'.1inimum supplied plate thicknesses for tanks designed to this
For shellplates where thethickness is based on axialstability or internalvapour pressure considerations, for roofthick-
nesses based on minimum requirements, bottom or annular plates, The minimum thickness based on edge
measurement shall not be less than the specified thickness less one halfof the total thickness tolerance specified in EN 10025:1990.
For shell plates where the thickness is based on fluid pres-
Note:
The steel designations given in these Tables are those
sure considerations or roof Dlates where the thickness is based on a calculated thickness. the minimum thickness
based on edge measurements of the plates supplied shall not be less than the calculated values.
from the earlier version of BS EN 10025 (Reference 22.1). fhese have now changed and the appropriate new designation should be used taken from the latest version of this Code (Reference 22.2).
:or 9% nickel steels where the required thickness is based on :re properties ofthe weld metal ratherthan the properties ofthe
rlate, local thinning remote from the edge of the plate, due to
'olled in scattered scale on the plate surface, is acceptable pro/ided that the measured thickness is not less than g0% of the :alculated thickness of the Dlate.
22.3.2 Materials for parts subjected to low tempera-
tures
The Code focuses its attention on the use ofsteels for inner and
outer tanks designed to contain refrigerated liquid. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 443
22 Material selection citeria for low temperature tanks
]Iinimum design
7'
Thickness
Materiatl)
Product
SinBle
Double or
contrlnment
full
Typical
product
etordge
cont$lnment
tempetatute
T > r l0
Butane
=:10
BS EN 10O25 : 1990 Fe 360 B, Fe 430 B or Fe 510 B
Ammonia
Propane/ propylene
Iype II Tlpe II
TYpe
*10.c
Tlpe I Type tr lVpe IV
-35 -
0C
iII
*50.c
105 0c
165 0C
Ethare/
ethylene
LNG
Tlpe W
+10>7>0 t s25
BS EN 10025 1990
Fe 360 B, Fe 430 B or Fe 510 B
D?e
VI
or
I}pe IVr)
to 40 mm, 'lvpe
'r For thicknesses geater than 30 rnrn and less than or equal V or VI is necessary,
2'o
<t <35
BS EN TOO25 1990 Fe 360 C, Fe 430 C or Fe 510 Dl
Fjgure22.9 l\4aterial iypesfortankshell and bottom BS 7777 : Part 2, table 2
quently been replaced by BS EN 10028-4 (Reference

22.7)).
:
0 > 7 > -20
t <
12.5
BS EN 10025
1990 Fe 360 B,
. .
Type V steel: lmproved 9% nickel steels conforming to BS 15O1 : Par12: 1988 type 510 improved. Type Vl steel: Austenitic stainless steel conforming to BS 1501: Part 3 : 1990 (Reference 22.8). interesting to note that the BS Code does not quote or allow
!'e 430 B or Fe 510 B
12.5<r<20
BS EN TOO25
It is
r990 Fe 360 C, Fe 430 C or

Fe 510 C
the use of a 5% nickel steel which API 620 indicates as being suitable for ethane and ethylene storage tanks. A reason put forward for this was that the use of 5% nickelsteelwas quite unusual and the infrequent manufacture ofthis steelwas inconve:
20<r<35
BS EN 10025
1990 Fe 360 Fe 430 Fe 510
nient to the mills which charged a premium for its supply. This,
Dl, Dl or
DDI
rrSee 6.2.2. Other ma.tedals may be used provided they are equivalent to those specified, and provided the purchaser and manufacturer agree to such a substitution,
Figure 22.8 Steelfof outer conlainers forsingle containmeni ianks
z)
together with the difierence in strength between 5% and 9% nickel steel, combined to make gyo nickel steel a more economic proposition and consequently the 5% nickel steel became irrelevant. A recent re-examination of this supply cosUstrength issue suggests that this perception is no longer
true. The use of the six types of steel for the various products to be stored is described in table2of 857777 :Paftz, (Figurc 22.9). For single containment systems, the material chosen is generally one type higher in quality than is the case for double and full containment systems. Although experience has demonstrated that the risk of failure of a single containment system, correctly designed and fabricated in accordance with British Standards, is very low, an enhanced material quality for this type oftank is made in the attemptto offset the more serious consequences of failure. This table gives no rules for materials to be used for the storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon. These products are covered by BS 7777 :Paft4 (Reference 22.9) ,the rcquiements of which are described in Section 22.4 below.
BS 7777 : Patl2, table 7
The use of aluminium alloys is subject to agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer of the tank in question. As has been mentioned earlier, the use of aluminium alloysforthe construction of low temperature tanks these days is very unusual.
Guidanceforthe use of aluminium alloys is given in AnnexC of B57777 : Patt2- This Annex requires the use of plate materials to BS 1471 (Reference 22.3) and structural materials to BS '1474 (Reference 22.4). No doubt these rules could be extended to cover materials of US origin to ASTM standards by
agreement. The maximum shell plate thickness is restricted to 55 mm.
For the use ofsteel materials, the code has defined six material
The Charpy V-notch impact testing requirements for the plate materials is given in Table 3 ofthe Code (Figure 22.10). Note that the impact testing is specified as longitudinal which is different from the API requirements.
The CharpyV-notch impact testing forthe weld metal is given in Table 5 of the Code (Figure 22.11).
types:
. . . .
Type I
Normalised carbon manganese steel conforming to BS EN 10028-3 (Reference 22.5) gtades P275 NLI or NL2 or grade P355 grades NL1 or NL2.
steel:
Type
steels.
ll steel:
lmproved toughness carbon manganese
Type lll steel: Low nickel steels (normallythese are proprietary steels with nickelcontents of between 1 .5 and 3.5%). Type lV steel:9% nickelsteels conforming to BS 1501: Part 2 | 1988 (Reference 22.6) type 510 (this code has subse-
The philosophy behind the materialselection and testing ofthe types ll and lll steels needs some words of clarification. The basic requirement is to provlde a toughness of at least 27J at the design metal temperature in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the production welds of tanks for double or full containment types, and 27J at 25"C +/- 5"C lowerthan the design metaltemperature for single containment tanks. The steels used in these categories are well known to be susceptible to degradation of the weld metal impact properties in the HAZ.
The normal practices of allowing the tank manufacturer to specify and purchase the steel, the welding methods and
22 Material selection citeria for tow temperature tanks
n?e I
TYpe
Nomalized carbon-manganese
Irnproved toughness caxbon-manganese
27 J 27 J 27 J 36 J
tr
\?eIIl
'I!"e IV I}pe v
TJpe VI
at -50 'C at -50 oC - LIa)
Not required
Low nickel steel
% nickel steel
^t at
-80
oC
L?a)
196 oC
-20 -50
ac oc
Improved I % nickel Austenitic stairiless steel

i5
100 J
at -196 .C
Not required Not requircd
No impact testing requircd
the minirnufr 8kge oI itRe sleimens, wi$ only one siqle r?rue bs than the i?tue specified and with no stnele Elue les than ?6 * ol the lalue soeified. a, For matedrl lh'cknes ls rhm 11 nn, 10 nn x 6 m sub,si@ specihens are ro be u*d, rnd demonstate ?O % of the values speilied lh thri ia.ble_ Ibr 1}?e V sieet, rhe lulue js ro be 50 % of the Btu spejfld in tnis t5bte,
3r
'' Ener$ lelue
aE given in
t4t
lrnp&i t$rhg i5.arnd our on esch Dtare ro demorotrate the required inpacr rrlue. In ad<tftion, rGring rr s frcquency of one pr40 t batch i! to be clrded out to demomtrate the 120 J requiremtrr (4e anner A). The deti iions of pl&te.nd iaich
BS
', RefeFnce should
EN 10025. be hdde to
urex
A,
. gLre 22.10 Longitudinal Charpy V-notch impact lesling

33 7777
Pat12, table 3
Weld metrl
steel
tyle
tor desiglnrtrd
Charpy V-not h
enefgy, 27 J
lnpact te8t
BS
tsS
For matedals used at
ambient temperatures
For lype I steels For For For
at -L0
6C
$pe
tr steeis
steels
For TYpe III steels
rg
l..li
l}pe [V $pe VI
For lYpe V
-30 'Cz) at - 60 ocz) 50 J at -80 ocz) 35 J at - 196 oCa) 35 J at - 196 oC3)

60 J
60 J at
|-
f-_-lE
NqlE
:loo t
lo
rJ ut_l_
uis.
Hut
weld
A mininun oi
15
pllre specinero are taken ar mid rhickne$
ioh
rhe
3de
side
Longitudinal
dis
of sDcinens ii !o be prpendicutd to weld
Not rquircd
NOlIj 2. A ninjhum of 15.pecimens.F taken ar mjd rhickne$, wiih rhe noLh tdated in lhe tlAz, and e etched io denon6i6ie that rhe norch is hoi in veld melat o. parnt
.S,
).:
)?-
', Enerty velue ls the minihum average of three spcimns, with otrly one sirui]e !'alue leis than the value specilid and
no single value less than 76 % of the vatue specified. Th intent of this speciJication is to ensurc that the Foduction \ileld6 in the tank meet ihe 20 J minimum at the te8t temperoiue gi\,n above. In ordet to achieve thjs, the procedur tst of weld mtal for \?es I, II and III steels is requird to demoistmte a higher Charpy V-notch energ/ value to compensate for the scatter oi rcsults inherent in Chaey V testiru of weld matdals. Employing the forcgoing welding prccdure, prcduclion test plates are nolmally unncessaq/, and ai not a feaiure of thjs standard. However, if Uoduction test plates arc called for t'y the pllldns! minimum averaS energy values of 2? J for three speeimem with no single mlue less than 20 J are requLed at the te8t temperature given.
u
Mth
)
Fron BS 7777 : Pan
gute 22 12 Lacal a. af Charpy V,noich impact energy test spec mens 2. figure A3
ie:
this lT. involving a standardised weld specimen as illustrated jn figure A.1, A.2 and A.3 (F)gwe 22.12).
3)
'Ihe minimum average impact enemr for the weld metal for on the high nicket, austenitic weld metal. In the event of weld metl bing offered in composition matching that of I % ntckel plate, additiona.l
'Ihes lvand V is based
ure 22.13lo be produced. With the AT determjned, the plate material could be tested at a temperature of AT below the de_ sign metal temperature to ensure that the required 27J will be achieved in the HAZ at the design metal temperature.
allowed a minimum of 15 Charpy V-notch specimens to be taken from both the parent plate and the HAZ, tested at different temperatures to allow the 27J transjtion graph indicated in Fig-
Th js
speciallst advice ehould be obtelned.
NmD. Where austenitic weld metal is usd for weldin! T}?e I or'IVpe m stls, Charpy V-nokh inpact rcsring of the tlcld metal is not rqukd.
To ensure that the material does not exhibit a flat Charpy V-notch transition, a batch test (one test per 40 tonnes) is required to show a longitudinal impact of .120J at either _20"C (type ll) or -50'C (type lll).
This then pre-qualifies the particu lar steel. lf any ofthe following
't-,e 22.11 Weld metat C harpy V-notch :'.n BS 7777 : Patt 2, tabte 5
impact test energy
change, then the test must be repeatedl
purchased, delivered, fabricated, erected and :;'iially welded. To avoid the possibility of encounters with this :-barrassing and expensive scenario, it was decided to devjse : -ethod of pre-qualification for the steels commonlV used for :-:se products.
-ent. This would have a devastating effect on the cost and :'rgress of the project in question as by this time the steel
, : JId have been
::rieved in the HAz by means of production weld testinq on : ::. carries with it the possibility offailure to attain the req;ire-
r:'rsumables, and to then demonstrate that the 27J had been
. . . . . . .
Steelmaker Steelmaking process Deoxidation process
Desulphurisationprocess
Casting practice Heat treatment
Changes in specified chemical composition including

cro-alloy additions.
mi_
--
---7
-:asurement by testing of the actual decrease in the touoh_ .:s ofthe parent plate and the HAZ of the steel. Annex Aof -BS
: Patt 2 gives the details of the methods of determinino
s pre-qualification procedure was based around the deter-atron of the AT shift for the material jn question. This is the
This materialselection method has given rise to a long-running pean-based steel producers were opposed to the proposal and refused to carry out the test work necessary to pre-qualify their steels. When BS 7777 was presented as a possible draft for in_ corporation into the new European lowtemperature tank Code, STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 445
and occasionally acrimonious argument. The UK
a;d
Euro_
22 Mateial selection
citeia
for low temperature tanks
At the time when this PD was published, there were no national or international standards for ferritic steels in which toughness requirements are specified for crack arrest capability. Anumber of proprietiary steels have been developed for which some test datia have been provided, and these are summarised in Table 1
(Figure 22.14)with their related references.

It isthe responsibility of the purchaserand the manufacturerto satisfy themselves that the steel suppliers possess the necessary expertise to produce suitable steels and provide the necessary evidence that these properties can be achieved in production. Where possible such evidence should be based on production data, but, because of the stage of development of these steels, the evidence may have to be based upon trial prod uction run data. In this case, the PD recommends that the material property data should be based on a minimum of two casts of steel of at least 250 tonnes each.
Figure 22.13 Temperature shift (AT)at the 27 J toughness tevel Fram BS 7777 : Parl2, figure A.4
this issue was atthe heart ofan ill-tempered series of meetings which delayed the production of the new standard for years, a reaction which seemed to be disproportionate to the importance of the issue. The end result is that the new EN will not have this selection method for the materials to use for butane, ammonaa, propane and propylene tanks. The pre-qualification route always seemed sensibleto the author, and it is hoped that nottoo many tank builders fall into the holes described above.
Type lV steel is now something of a historical irrelevance these
The PD goes on to make a number of points relating to the steel making process and the chemical composition of the steel. In brief these are:
. . . .
All steels should be produced by a basic oxygen process

and vacuum degassed. Steels should be made to fine grain practice. It is likely, but not mandatory that these steels will be produced by either a thermo-mechanical controlled process (TN/CP), or by quenching and tempeing (Q&T). The tank manufacturer should obtain from the steelmaker
days. lmprovements in production methods and chemistry have meant that nearly all9% nickelsteels produced are nowof
the improved quality. lt is not uncommon for the tank specification writers to require restrictions on sulphur and phosphorous
tevets.
the composition limits of the elements specified in
EN
22.4 The requirements of BS 7777 : Part 4

As has been mentioned earlier. this Dart ofthe Code is for tanks for the storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon. lt was wri! ten at the request of the UK paft of the industry which had for many years specialised in the production, storage and distribution of these products. This group argued that their intrinsically safer products did not require double or full containment systems which form much of the thrust of the remainder of BS 7777.
They were of the opinion that single containment was appropri-
10028-4 (Reference 22.7)together with those elements, as agreed between the purchaser, the manufacturer and the steelmaker, which are likely to afiect the final properties of the steel.
. .
The chemical composition as measured by the ladle analysis should be reported. Requirements for product analysis and for carbon equivalent should be agreed between the purchaser, the manufacturer and the steelmaker.
ate to their industry and persuaded the committee to let them write BS 7777: Part 4 which gives the rutes which they considered that they needed.
Next, detailed Charpy V-notch testing requirements for the plate and drop-weight testing to determine the nil ductility test temperatures (NDTT) of the plate and the HAZ, are given in considerable detail.
Two points are worth making at this stage:
22.4.1 Parts subjected to ambient temperatures

The materials for these parts are carbon steels selected in accordance with the appropriate parts of BS 7777: Pan 2 Gee Section 22.3.1).
The various parties required to come to the above agreements will need to have knowledge in depth of the steelmaking process and the influence of the variables on the steel orooerties.
This process makes the steel very much a non-standard

product. Bearing in mind the arguments surrounding the AT proposals which took place in the CEN committee, much of which was lead by European steel makers who were reluctant to manufacture non-standard or special steels, it willbe interesting to see if this proposal gains in popularity. Perhaps the "carrot" ofthe steel weight-saving associated with the partial hydrostatic test may prevailand force the issue.
22,4,2 Parts subjected to low temperatures

TypeV orVlsteel in accordance with BS 7777: Part 2 (see Section 22.3.2) or aluminium alloy in accordance with Annex C of BS 7777: Pan2 shall be used. The most usual choice is austenitic stainless steel.
22.6 The requirements of prEN 14620 22.5 The requirements ot PD 7777 : 2000
This published document (Reference 22.10) has been discussed in Chapter'18. lt is concerned with the use of 9% nickel or of austenitic stainless steels which can be demonstrated to possess crack arrest properties and the influence ofthis fact on the hydrosiatic testing requirements.
The material selectjon requirements of this draft Code are in

general similar to those of BS 7777 : Part 2, described in Section 22.3. The AT method of pre-qualif,/ing steels oftypes ll and lll has been excluded for the reasons given. At risk of tedious repetition, it should be remembered that this is a draft or provisional document and the formally adopted Euronorm may contain changes.
22 Material selection criteria for low temperature tanks
fypkrl
BoUrrg
Uqutd SG
Sultrblc stccl g.rdcs (Not rotc! .thrn NDI-T + t0'C)
Pbt
NI}TT
l{ln.
deBlSr
qc
Bib.
'c
n-butne iso
0.60
t
GMn TMCP
35 38 38 35 35 38
18
-55
l7l
-12.0
0.60
0.16%NiC-MnQ&TGr33B
0.15% Ni GMn
-rc
-66
t8l t8l
{71
butane
Q&T
Gr3?
GMn TMCP
0.2 96
-70 -70 -95

-100 -105 _IUt'
Propane
-44.6
0.59
Ni GMn TMCP 0.25 96 Ni c.Mn TMCP GESB 0.26 96 Ni Glvln TMCP Gr 33B 0.25 96 Ni c.Mn TMCP Gr 33B 0.6 % Ni GMn TMCP
1.6 %
-30 -30 -30
tel
t8l
{81
30 40 20
t8l
-60
f)
tel
Ni 1MCP
kopylene
-,t8
0.61
3.5% Ni Q &T 2.6% Ni TMCP
-110
-05 -70
tiol
I71
3.5%NiQ&T 3.6%NiQ&T 3.5%NiQ&T

2.6% Ni TMCP
3.5 % 2.6 %
26
lrc
-80
-80 -80
t8l t10l
t?1
-115
-r20
l0
25
Ni Q &T
-r20 -r20
-:126
I8l
t81
Etlrane
-88.6
-,.04.0
0.65 0.67
Ni 'IMCP 2.6 % Ni TMCP 2.6% Ni TMCP 2.696 Ni 'IMCP

2.6 96
zo 60 20
I7l
t81
-126 -130
-lso
ID
1,15
-90 -90
t81
t8l
Etlylene
Ni TMCP
1MCP
105
t8l
2.6 % Ni 2.696
-145
<1500
tsl
Methane
0.47
Ni TMCP 96 Ni NNT
<1I5
t9l
rge
=$6b
<196b
D.6sibly
9%NiQ&T 996 Ni Q&T

b'Nobr?!r rt tnprsore lntticrr.d, NItTT.r l4* I - 6'q
'Ba.ad
on
tul tlu
tLzl
rid,.
NDTT
+ {0!C'
lofti
Bibliography
qflah atrest @ aeptsfor tll SJ. Carwood and C S, wiFl er., lan tetupetuhttein tute reqiru,nenls drtd' it;roge tar*s, Proc Conf. "Bulk Storage lbnlis', Paper 4, IBC Guif Confelenceq Abu Dhabi, 1996' [2] C.S. wie6net and B. Hayesi A rari4u oJ L'rt/* araest t2sta, nadds unl' applica'i'7t5' Ptoc Conf 'Crack iirest Concepts for Failure hevention and Life b<tension", Papr 3, Abington PubXshing, 1996' C.S. Wiesner, SJ, Ga$rood and J.B, Denham; Thz s"ecili/ntiorl oi crock arrest Pvperti$ Jor stornse tanks [3) 'b;ci$dnd d.nd tqownadati.otls. ASTM SI? 1337, Symposia on Design Cdteda to assue Stuc'h|ral Integdry,
New Odea$, May 1997.
poperti.4s oJ stcd plalr. Intemational Jounal for [4] c.P Smedley; Pr"dtcrira and. specifiaatiotu oJ crad anest Prssure vessels and Piping, 40 (f989), pp 279 - 302 [5] C.S. Uinet B. Hqyes and .!LA Mlowhb$ Ctudk d|'tzst in nadern steels ond, theb udhnetts -Cowarison, ,s. Int4rtBtional Joumal for Prs$rc Vssel md Ptping, behtwn snat! and large scdle tzst 53 (1993), 100.
fta
qnest bdtsviour 6i/ng s1t81Ls@14 ,nilefial chdlv.Eti&liort [6] C.S. Wiesnef Predtcaing sttltotrEal, cftek isrs. Intrnational Journal for hessule vessel ard Piping' 69 (1996) pp185 - 196. lfl Y. fawauchi and A-A- Willoughby; Ctu.& orsst tpst and t].eir uae i,n etxhaliw nraterialytpefli8,'fhe W;lding Institute Sympooiuft\ Newcasde upon Tne' Apiil f986. [8] B6syo, Ozaw4 lbwaguchi and Nalonishi n@cerrt dadrpnett of 6beLplat"s for lan lqtuperfr1re sbt!4e ;aalis. 'Ihe Sumitomo Se;ah No. 2q November l9B4 Sumitomo Metal llrdusbies Ltd, 'Iblvo I9l K Bessyq lMcPsred plorpJo lau tzrhperal'un stotuge ta*s, ?m Intnrational hEss|ne Vessd Conference, Druseldo4 September l9g2 l10l hirate corununication' British Steel Corporatioq June 1984 Doucet, hessouyre, Bourges, Blondeau and C?diou Raenl yrogress in 9% Ni stzelfor LNG 6ppli.olions: 'un' E;oya n;mish Society of Engineers Ltrnational Confelence, Brugge, MAy 1984. WCS gron" oA "bel. $4P Benter, alrd WJ M!trplry, Erpldsion bulge and d'tq ueight bsnkt4 oJ QT I Ni stql A&IE llzj Peholeun MedEnical EngineeF Confercnce, September 1967.
Illl
:'.n
!ure 22.14 Suiiable steels

PD 7777 :2000,table
1
22 Mateial selection criteria for low temperature tanks
22.6.1 Materials for parts subject to ambient tem-
2) 3)
peratures
The steelfor the vapour containing outer tank shall be selected
The steel shall be in the normalized condition or produced by the Thermo-Mechanical Control Process (Tl\y'CP). The carbon content shall be less than 0.20 %. The carbon equivalent Ceq shall be equal to or less than 0.43 with
C"o = C + lVn/6 + (Cr +
N.4o
in accordance with Table 3 Figure 22.15. alternative types of

steel are permitted providing equivalent properties can be dem-
\4i5
+ (Ni + Cu) 115
onstrated.
c) Type lll steel: AType lll steel is a fine grained low nickel alloy steel which shall be specified for pressure purposes at temperatures down to minus 80 'C. The steel shall meet the following requiremenb:
22.6.2 Materials for parts subject to low tempera.
tures
The plate materials are again classified into a numberoftypes in the same way as 857777 :Patt2.The normalor unimproved 9% nickel steel is no longer included for reasons already discussed. The steeltypes, products to be stored and containment types are the subject ofTable 1, Figure 22.16. The general requirements of the five steel types are as follows: a) Type I steel:
A Type I steel is a fine grained, low carbon steel which shall be specified for pressure purposes attemperatures downto minus
1) 2)
The steelshallbe specified to meetthe requirements ofan
established European Standard (e.9. EN 10028-4);

The steelshallhave been heattreated to obtain a fine, uniform grain size or produced by The Thermo-l\.4echanical
Control Process (TlVlCP). d) Type lV steel:
I %-nickel steelwhich shall be specified for pressure purposes at temperatures down to minus 196'C. The steel shall meet the following requiremenb:
A Type lV steel is a
1
35 'C. The steel shall meet the following requiremenb:
1) 2) 3)
The steel shall be specified to meet the req uirements of an
The steelshallbe specified to meetthe requirements ofan established European Standard (e.9. EN 10028-3). Steels
established European Standard (e.9. EN 10028-4); The steel shall be quenched and tempered
2)
with a minimum yield skength greater than 355 N/mm,

shall not be used.
The steel shall be in the normalized condition or produced by the Thermo-Mechanical Control Process (Tl\4CP).
e) Type V steel:
A Type V steel is an austenitic stainless steel type which shall
meet the following requiremenb:
The carbon content shall be less than 0.20 %. The carbon equivalent Ceo shall be equal to or less than 0.43 with
C",r = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)i5 + (Ni+ Cu) 115
1) 2) 3)
The steel shall be of 18 Cr 9 Ni type with low carbon conIENI,
Flat plates shall be obtained from rolled coil, cold finished.
b) Type ll steel:
The steel shall be delivered in the solution annealed condition.
AType ll steel is
a Jine grained low carbon steelwhich shall be specified for pressure purposes at temperatures down to minus 50 'C. The steel shall meet the following requiremenb:
'l
Plate thickness tolerances for Types I to lV shall be in accordance with EN 10029 : 1991 , Table 1, classB, Reference 22.12.
Plate thickness tolerances for Type V shall be in accordance
The steel shall be specified to meet the requirements of an established European Standard (e.9. EN 10028-3). Steels with a minimum yield strength greater than 355 N/mm2
with EN 10082-2, Reference 22.12.

Charpy V-notch impact test values for base material; HAZ and
shall not be used.
weld metal shall be in accordance with Table 2, Figve 22.17
Note the change lrom longitudinal to transverse specimen orientation.
Marenalsrade
'c
S 235
The document goes on to make a number of more general

(EN 1002sr1993)
points amongst which are:
.
JRG2orS;75 JR orS 3551R
or S 275 J0 or S 355 J0 or S 275 J0 or S 355 J0
S 275 J2G3 0r S 355 J?G3 S 275 S 235 J0 S 235 J0 S
For material thickness less than 11 mm, the largest practical
sub-size specimen shall be used. The minimum Charpy

V-notch impact test values shall be in direct proportions to the value sDecified for full size soecimen.
235J2G3 orS 275 J2G3 ors 355 J2G3 r2G3 or S 355 J2G4
rono rud,nar
s ?35 J2G3 0r s 235 J2G3 or

above 40 NOT
For desiqn
. .
Fo'desiQn meral lempeEtures below 20 "C 6nd/or for rhicknesses
n6.
lhe
neiar Gmpra|lr6 be]ow
charovv notch value shll be 27.1 0'c, rhe rouqhness or l}E Ne d
lmpact testing shall be carried out for each inner tank shell plate and annular plate. For other components impact tests shall be carried out per heavcast of the material.
The degradation effect due to welding shall be taken into

account.
Figure 22.15 Sieel for vapour container/outer tank
Fron prEN 4620-2 : 2003, table

1
Low remperature
ca6on-
lmoroved 9 % n,ckelsleel
NOIE For nidrer base
weLd nerars ior Type rv sGsrs th rmp8cr and heal fiecred 20n6 shan be 55J
roughns 6n6Qy tu w6ld m5r6l
Figure 22.16 Product and steelclass
Figure 22.17 lrinimum Charpy V-notch impact lesl enercy
Fron prEN 4620-2 : 2003, table

1
Fran prEN 14620-2:2043, bble 2
22 Material selection citeria fot low temperature tanks
! -f! lE* VTI IBe g!r

"Ill
rrr
cFg ^
5
.E
ag
I
.E
I !;
e
btl r
.e!.
o
ff
; i:"
EE;P ;!;d
:;gure 22.18 l\/linimum Charpy V-notch inrpact requifemenls for ptates and sections -.an BS 4741, figure 6
22 Material selection criteria for low tempercture tanks
For certain materials, higher Charpy V-notch impact test values of lower test temperatures may be needed for the base materials to meet the requirements in the HAz
The latter two requirements perhaps represent an olive branch to the losers of the pre-qualification arrangemenb.
sheet of Dapef. lt also reflected a time when the material cost savings in a structure were seen as being a major factor in the final price. The increase in the cost of the labour element of such work in relation to the material costs in the intervening years, has made this rather fussy procedure seem less relevant.
22.7 An example of a material selection
method from the past

Travelling back in time, the British Standards for low tempera-
22.8 References
22.1
22.2
ture lanks were published as two separate documents. BS 474'l (Reference 22.73) dealt with tanks for service down to temperatures of -50"C and BS 5387 (Reference 22.14) deall
with tanks for service down to temperatures of -196'C. As was, and indeed still is the case for API low temperature codes, these British Standards contained rules for single containment designs only.
BS EN 10025: 1990 specification fot hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels and their technical delivery
conditions.
EN 10025:1993 plus Amendment number 1, dated 15 June 1995, Hot rolled products of non-alloyed steels Tech
n i c al
de I ive
ry co nd iti on s.
22.3 Bs
1471:1987 Specification for wrcught aluminium alloys for general engineering purposes: plate, sheet and
striP.
The material selection criteria for BS 5387 were unremarkable. For BS 4741, which confined its attention to carbon manganese steels, the material selection methodswere more adventurous Based on test work on a series of notched and welded Wells Wide Plate Tests (WWP tests) carried out by the Welding Institute (reported in the main in The British Welding Journal ir'
'1964), a new selection process was devised The tesl work showed that the resistance to brittle fracture ofcarbon and carbon manganese steels at low temperatures is dependent upon:
22.4 85 1474: 1987

22.5
Specification for wrought aluminium alloys for general engineeing purposes: bars, extruded round tubes and sections.
BS EN 10028-3:1993 Specification for flat ptoducts

made of steels for pressure vesse/purposes
fine grain steels, normalised.
Weldable
. . .
The notch toughness ofthe material. The plate thickness.

The extent ofcrackiike defects present (The introduction to the Code states: "lt is believed that if such defects are absent, brittle fracture will not be a problem at normal rates of
22.6 Bs 1501:Paft 2 :
ptates.
1988 Specification for alloy steels
22.7 22.8
22.9
BS EN 10028-4 :1995 Specification for Flat products made of steels for pressure purposes - pa ft 4 : Nickelal-
loy steels with specified low temperature propeiies
loading").
BS 1501 :Patl3:1990 Specification for corrosion and heal resisfing sfee/s: plates, sheet and strip
BS 7777 : Paft 4 : 1993 FIat bottomed, vertical, cylindrical storage tanks for low temperature seruice: PatT 4 Specification for the design and construction of single containment tanks for the storage of liquid oxygen' liquid nitrogen or Iiquid argon. PD 7777 : 20OO Altemative steel selection and its effect on design and testing of tanks to BS 7777
Degree of local embrittlement at the tip of pre-existing defects. (The introduction to the Code goes on to explain that: for carbon and carbon manganese steels, post-weld heat treatment in the stress-relieving range temperature is effective in removing severe embrittlement arising as a result of welding or flame cutting during fabrication and construction.)
22j0 22j1
The influence of mechanical over-stressing during the hydrostatic test. In an attempt to relate all of these variables to the material selection process, figure 6 was produced (see Figure 22.18) This involved the use ofscales L. M and N and was quite difficultfor the designer to use. The result of using this figure often meant that a single tank shell could have four or five different steels Sadly the early version of this code was held to be a contributory cause to the Qatar LPG tank failure, and the rules were changed. In particular the elegant figure 6 was removed and replaced by a simpler API type material selection method, and a full height hydrostatic test requirement was imposed So it was discredited and deleted, but nevertheless to the author's mind, itwas an heroicattemptto relate a large numberof different variables to a material selection method on a single
EN 10029
: 1991 Specifications for tolerances on dimensions, shape and mass for hot tolled steel plates 3 mm thick or above.
1OOB2-2 Staintess steels - Paft 2 : Technical delivery conditions for sheet/plate and strip for general purposes.
22.12 EN
22.13 BS 4741:1971 Specification for vedical cylindrical
welded steelstorage tanksfor low temperature serutce: singte walltanks for temperatures down to -50'C (subjeci to major amendments in January 1980). welded storage tanks forlowtemperature lanks servlce double watl tanks for temperaturcs down to -196'c'
22.14 BS 5387:1976 Specification for veftical cylindrical
x)st the
ring ele-
Iof
23 Erection considerations for low
temperature tanks
Efficient erection techniques have always been important to trank constructors for reasons of 'finished costs". Nowadays it is frequently the case that a short construction timescale is as important as the cost. Driven by the need for fast, cheap and high quality site construction and
,cts
Ery
| 15
further driven by tha often-onerous financial time penalties for non-performance, numerous novel construction techniques have been adopted by the industry. Whilstseeming to lag behind industries such as shipbuilding and offshore rig building in terms of the scale of modularisation and prefabrication methods adopted, tank builders have made modest steps in the same general direction and some of these are described in brief in this
Chaoter.
6I
al-
and
I
Contents:
23,1 General
hd
al-
23.2 Air raising of tank roofs 23.3 Tank jacking (or jack building)
,cts
rble
23.4 A fast track ethylene tank 23.5 A fast track liquid orygen tank 23.6 Spiral jacking 23.7 The construction of tanks with reinforced conclete roofs 23.8 Concrete wall construction 23.9 Wall and base
b6
laltnd
dtiIts-
linels
23.10 Modular construction and p.efabrication techniques 23.11 Automated welding methods 23.12 Large
tt4
gte
inground LNG tanks
23.13 References
s3
wtiv-
cli-
'cal
oe-' l.|b-
@I
@:
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPITIENT 451
23 Ercction conaiderctions lor low tempercture tanks
23.1 General
Large low temperature tanks are often the critical components of a terminal or storage facility in terms of time. This fact tends to place a great deal of emphasis on the tank construction period. Time is often equally, or on occasions, more important than cost to the facility owner. Early completion equals early revenue, and forfacilities such as LNG terminals, the revenues are enormous and so speak loudly in this equation. As a consequence, the tank contractors and their subcontrae tors are always under pressure in their efforts to obtain contracts by promising tighttimescales and furtherdriven in this direclion, once successful, by the financial penalties associated with not performing to these anticipated schedules. Over the years, these pressures, together with those aimed at'Tinished costs", have given rise to some interesting and ingenious construction methods. lt would be thought that novel and advantageous construction methodswould remain the closely guarded secrets oftheir originators, but forvarious reasons the geneEl methods tend to leak out into the Dublic domain and become common knowledge quite quickly, whilstthe details and equipment used tend to remain the property of individual companies. Some of these methods and sequences are described in the following Sections.
The basic methods oftank erection, particularly relating to the steelcomponents, are based on the methods used for ambient tanks and these are described in ChaDter 12.
23.2 Air raising of tank roofs

This is a commonly adopted practice for large tanks of the full containment type, although there is no reason why the technioue should not be used in other circumsbnces. Where a pre-stressed concrete outertank is adopted, there are two options for the construction ofthe steeltank roofframework and roof sheeting which will be required for both steel or reinforced concrete roof types:
It can be built at the fulltank height afterthe outertank shell is completed.
It can be constructed within the outer tank whilst the concrete shell is being built and air lifted into its final position when both are complete.
The former route requires the outerconcrete tank shelland the
roof framework construction operations to be in series, whilst the latter puts these operations substantially in parallel. The
time required to design, procure the materials, carryout the fab-
rication and erect the steel roof is often comparable with the time to construct the concrete wall, which is convenientfrom a programming point of view.
Figure 23.1 Atypical airlifted roof conslruction sequence
23 Erection considerations for low temperature tanks
the ient
The roof framework is erected within the concrete outer tank

during the construction period forthe latter method, starting as soon as materials become available and the concrete workswill allow lt is usual to provide a central king post and a peripheral ring ofsupports to construct the roofframework. For certain de-
signs of dome roof structures further intermediate supports rfull

)chmay be required. The roofsheeting can be constructed to be a loose membrane only supported by this framework, or may be welded to the iramework to provide a generally more robust structure. lt is usual to construct the suspended deck and arrange for it to be lifted with the roof. The sealaround the Derimeter ofthe roof can be a specially designed segmental rubber type or a simple arrangement of polythene film and wire mesh. Other aspects lo be considered are:
/ork
einhell
.
lron
Suitable details must be provided to ensure that during the lifting operation the roof remains level, circularand concentric within the outer shell.
Figure 23.4 Large dome roof under construction, showing king post in position and slart of roof plating Cautesy af Whessoe
.
Ine ,lilst
When the roof arrives at the top of the shell, suitable arrangements are made to secure it from its upper surface.
Trial lifts are helpful to trim and balance the roof before the
fhe
the
. .
final lift. The roof and the concrete shell must be surveyed prior to lifting to determine that no unacceptable out ofshape problems exist.
Cantibwr sction of roof
Tempory extension to
Figure 23.5 The dome roofemerglnq towards the end of a successiutair-tift Couftesy af Whessoe
Arrangements must be made to collect and dispose of rainwater which falls during roof construciion period, particularly if other works are being carried out beneath the roof prior to air-lifting.
Many of these details are of a company-confidential or propri-
etary nature. Figure 23.'1 shows a typical construction sequence involving an air-lifted roof. Alternative arrangements involving air lifting are possible and Figure 23.2 shows diagrammatically one such, where the roof was air-lifted up the inside of an inner steel tank.
9(]re 23.2 Air lifiing a roof up the inside of the inner shell of a double-watted
gure 23,3 Large dome roof framework under construction
:curlesy of Whessoe
Figures 23.3 and 23.4 show a large dome roofframework (77 m in diameter) being erected within the outer pre-stresseo concrete wall. The two people to be seen walking around the perimeter support in Figure 23.3 gives an indication of the scaie of this particular structure. Figure 23.5 shows a dome roof emerging into view towards the end of a successful air-lifting opera-
lon.
An alternative, but generally similar erection technique involves
the roof structure being erected at a low level. Instead of the

roof being lifted into place by air pressure, a mechanical lifting method using multiple strand type jacks is used
23.3 Tank jacking (or jack buitding)

Aswith ambient tanks, jack building hascertain attractions For
a single-walled tank or the outer metallic wall of a double-walled tank, the usual construction sequence is:
Figure 23.7 Atank beingiack built
. . . . . . .
Erect and weld the top two shell courses on temporary supports.
Suspended deck erected
Erect the compression area Erect the tank roof. Install the jacking system. Jack up the tank and install the remaining courses one at a time and weld.
Installthe annular plate.
Jack down the tank and weld the shell-to-bottom joint Jack building can have certain advantages lt clearly depends upon local circumstances but these can be:
The tank is protected from the possibility ofwind damage as shown in Figure 23.6 |n this example, the outer tank of a
double-walled LNG tank was being built by conventional methods. lt blew down just before the compression area and tank roof could be installed, which would have stabilised the structure. The temporarywind stiffening used was clearly inadequate. With the jacking method, the roof is in-
Figure 23.8 A possible variation on jack building
stalled at a low leveland the permanentwind stiffening is installed progressively as the shell increases in height, consequently the structure is saieguarded from possible wind damage at all stages of the erection procedure
. . .
Roof erection is carried out at a low level.

Shell erection, welding and inspection is carried out at a low
level and this technique can be combined with automated welding techniques.
"staging out" ofthe tank shelland subsequent clean down ls avoided.
The disadvantages can be the cost of the jacking equipment and a lack oi flexibility if anything goes wrong
Fioure 23.7 shows a tank beingjack built. Figure 23 8 illustrates a Sossible variation which has been used where the outer tank is jacked and the inner tank is hoisted up with it such that.both tanks are builtfrom the top down and allerection and welding is conducted at low levels.
23.4 A fast track ethylene tank

This tankwas a double containmenttype consisting ofan inner
methFigure 23.6 Wind damage to an outertank being buili by conveniional
tank of 9% nickel steel, an outer tank of carbon steel wlthin a hiqh Dre-stressed concrete wall ofthe Preload wire wound type tni base was ofthe elevated type built on a poor riverside alluvial site which required heavy piling. The tank was of modest orooortions, the innertank being 23 0 m in diameterand 23 5m in height giving a useful capacity of 9730m3 A set of unusual lomm"ercial colndition" relating to the price and availability of liouid ethvlene pertained at this time ('1977) which dictated the necessity of a very fast construction programme 1o allow the owner to take advantage of this transient economic situation'
23 Etection considerctions fot low temperature tanks
1) - Sta.i pemanenttoundalion prling - Erect temporary ioundaton
I
2) - Consrrucl pehanenr elevared slab
The tank owner was lCl at North Tees Works, situated in the north east ofthe United Kingdom, who at that time had its own engineering and construction staff. The tank design, fabrication and erection contractor was Whessoe Heavy Engineering who had its head offices and fabrication facility nearby in Darlington. The erection sequence proposed involved the placing in parallel of the following activities:
. .
:=
The construction ofthe piled base slab and the erection on an adjacent temporary foundation ofthe outercarbon steel
tanK.
The construction of the base insulation and the inner 9% nickel steeltank and the outer ore-stressed concrete wall.
3) -
Aj.
I comp eled outd tank ahd mo! onto comdeted elevaled
The first of these parallel activities required the moving of the completed outer steel tank from its temporary foundation onto the permanent elevated base slab. This was accomplished by the hovercraft technique of attaching a specially designed skirt around the bottom of the tank shell. The tank was to be lifted by this means and towed onto its new permanent base slab. This technique has been around for many years and has been commonly used to move mainly ambient temperature tanks, usually to other locations on the same sites. ln this instance the tank was quite heavy and calculations showed that the pressure required to lift this tank could damage the shell-to-bottom detail due to high radial loadings caused by the pressure beneath the bottom plates.
To avoid this possibility of damage, air was bled into the tank
to
- Remove
tedporary f oundaton
5l
-
E.e6t nne.9% nickelster sherl
Erdl
outer
pr6lr6sed conc.ete shell

nternal plate handling arEigemenl
balance the pressure beneath the tank bottom. During this operation, an interesting and amusing event took place. The skirt was fitted, the air blowers installed and the operation commenced. The air pressure beneath the tank bottorn was monitored and rose slowly to the pressufe calculated to equate to the tank weight. Nothing happened. The pressure continued to rise to around iwice the calculated lift pressure and still nothing happened. Greai consiernaiion. much head scratching and the beginn ngs of rurnblings amongst ihe numefous onJookers of: "lt was a silly scheme anwvay. , lt will never work." and "lt will have to be cut down and erected conventionally." took hold. All of a sudden, there was a loud bang, the tank leapt some 3 feet into the air and lurched alarmingly, sending the accumulated onlookers scuttling away from the tank in panic. The tank then behaved perfectly and was duly towed to and installed on its new base.
6)- Complete nnerlank, hydrc tesl

- Codpl.16 ouler concGle Complete fLfiings ]
wll, prslrds
a E, elc
::-re
Figure 23.10 Simultaneous conslruction of the carbon shell ouler tank and the elevated perma nent fou ndation 23.9 The fasl track elhylene tank erection sequence
23 Erectian cansicleratians far low tenperctLtre lanks
.t
F.
-F3"rb.!+*FF=?.=_
Fg!re23.1lTre
nf atec sk rt used
to
fl lh-..!1-.. isrrk
Fgure 23 13 The neary compleied strLrcture
23.12) and a view on the roof showing the nearly compleied tank (Figure 23.13).
The existing good relationship between the owner and the tank contractor, the r geographical proximity, the existence of a substantia site work force who could be quickly mobilised to sort out problems and obstacles, and a generous penalty/bonus scherne all conspired to get this project compleied some three months ahead of the programrne, to the satisfaction of all of the part es involved.
23.5 A fast track liquid oxygen tank

This tank was built at the British Gas Research Centre at
Westfield in Scotland. lt was a part of a development project to update the gas from coal technology and for reasons which have now van shed into the past, was fequlred to be built in a shod period of time.
The tank was supported by a ground-based, electrically-heated slab which was supported by piles. The tank itself was a typical liquid oxygen tank consisting of a stalnless steel lnnef tank wiih a fixed dome roofsituated withln a carbon steel outer tank with a radial rafter-supported cone roof.
F
g!re 23.12 Wife
The construction/erect on sequence adopted involved:

w nd ng afrangernents
. . . . . . . .
The problem was tfaced to the temporary foundation being finished with a sand /bjtumen layer. The welding of the iank botiom had effeciively glued the tank down, and refused to allow air beneath to I ft it, untiL such a point where it dec ded to suddenly unstick itselfl
Start construction of the permanent tank foundation and siart construction of two temporary foundations immediately adjacent to the permanent foundation. Start construciion of the lnner stainless steel tank on one tempofary foundatlon and the outer carbon steeltank on the second temporary foundation.
Lift the outer tank onto the permanent foundation as soon
The second of the paralel activities required the steel outer

tank to be fitted with lnternal liftjng arrangernents to handle the inner tank insulation and I % nickel steel plate materials together with a sultably waterproofed foof material access arrangement. This construct on sequence
as both are comp eted.

InstalL the cellular glass base insulaiion within the outer tank. Lift off the removable roof of the outer tank. Lift the now completed inner tank into the outer tank to be supported by the base insulation.
ustrated in Figure 23.9.
Photographs show the simu taneous construction of the outer cafbon steel tank and the elevated base slab type foundat on (Figure 23.10), the beginning of the air rnoving operation (Figure 23.11 ), the cjrcumferential wire w nd ng in progress (F gure
Replace the removable roof of the outer tank. Complete the tank insulation and fittings.
23 Erection considerctions fot low temperature tanks
1) slanphqror pemaneft
base srab
TWTWV,Z - Z2)-comprere peJma^0dbasesrab
.::
!
i=
Figure 23.15 Remov ng lhe roofofthe outer carbon sieeltank
Eq
5)
Lfl ,enovabreroorottoder taik aid
2 16I1-q
-l
.<SSee ra e.(dr.
orreol.p
tda-
This sequence put various operations in parallel and produced a very shorl constructlon period. The erectlon sequence is illustfated n Figure 23.14. What made it possible was the relatively small size and weights ofthe two tanks lnvolved. The inner tank was 12.0 m in diameter and 12.35 m high whilst the outer tank was 16.0 m in diameter and 16.9 m in height. The useable capacity was 1326 m3 which is not unusual for a liquid oxygen tank. With careful attention to the detailed design, it was possible to arrange for both tanks to be lifted with a reasonable sized crane. Figures 23. 15 and 23.16 show the removal of the outer tank roof and the installation ofthe innertank within the outertank.
6)- Lift 6nerlankhlo oute,bnk

. Rp ace
oulerbnk,ool
E.
'comdere nsurdon r&
rttnss pipework etc
23.6 Spiral jacking

Spiraljacking is an erection technique which has been around for a number of years and has been used for both ambient and
low temperature tanks. The basics of the technique are illustrated in Figure 23.17. The top and bottom course are made from tapered plates and this seis up the spiral. The remaining plates are of constant width and are reciangular, as for conventional tank erection. Thetop and bottom coursesare set up and their vertical seams welded. The two parts of the tank shell rest one upon the other, supported and separated by a system of rollers, and can be pushed around in a circumferential direction to produce a slot into which one of the rectang u lar plates can be fitted. lt is usual to join a numberofthe rectangular plates togetherand feed this strip into the slot formed by rotating the upper part of the shell on the lower part. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 457
: ;-re
23.14 The fast track lquid oxygen tank ereclion sequence
23 Erection considerctions for low temperature tanks
SlKlniionu'rv
"r""t
ti,e bottom course of tank
Step 2 coivenLrona ly erect the top course of tank complete w h toD strfiener directly on top of bottom course. lnstatl iackrnq equrpmeni and drect suooort steework for plate cbrl and'wdldlng machines (rnside and outside oftank)
N----l
\De
ivered plates prepared at mil Step 3 Stari plate coild outside of the tank. Tack and roofweld vertical ioints.
\,.-
N\
i-t\
\fl\
_Delivered plates
prepared at mill
MJJe p ate coil forward and acd next plate We d veriical jo nt rnsrde.
w
prepared at mill
Step 5 Contrnue assernbIng plates Complete welding vertical joints.
Delivered p ates Step 6 Spiia top course round 1 plate length, move coil n and make vertical
conrnJe sorralino lanl shelland wed Lpp'l'o'iTorta r:ms end no sltreneB nsrdeLan^ hsb;ctweloeo sedn5
Figure 23.17 The spiraljacking erection technique
23 Erection cansiderations fat law tetlperctute tanks
-re
ird the
equipment used io allow the shell parts to slide on each -:her and be pushed circumferentially is of a proprietary nature
patents are owned by the Swedish company

lf
iodoverken.
spiraljacking is the chosen erection method, it is
'lr its operation from this company. - re advantage of this erection method
?s which can be arranged
-sualto hire the necessary equipment and the site supervision

is that all of the plating, ,,e ding, inspection and repair activities take place in fixed ar-
erection method. The outer pre-stressed concrete tank was built whilst the outer steel portions of the roof were being constructed within it and air lifted to its final position when it was completed. The inner tank was built by spiraljacking with the "tail" of shell plates, joined by having their vertical seams welded, protruding out of the concrete shell via a suitable access opening. This tank in its finished form is shown in Figure 23.18.
to have more sophisticated equip-
be the case. lt is particularly suited to -echanised plate handling, welding and inspection methods A : g LNG tank of 75 m in diameter and 32.5 m shell height will -?ve some 242 identically sized (apart of course from the plate :-lckness) rectangular plates to erect. This volume of repetitive ., ork is suited to the setting up of a factory-like environment and
-ent that might normally
23.7 The construction of tanks with rein-
forced concrete roofs

Full containment tanks often have reinforced concrete roofs for reasons associaled with providrng protection From external
':r continuous shift operation to reduce costs and programme : Tles. No scaffolding and subsequent cleaning down of the :lmpleted tank shell will be involved
-re disadvantages
: Jpply chain or : : flexibility for
missiles, fire or blasi loadings. Such tanks will also require a steel roof sheeting to provide a product vapour and molsture-tight lining fof the tank roof.
To erect such a roof sheeting clearly requires a supporting roof
are thai the equipment is expensive to hire
: rd if anything goes wrong, perhaps with the plate material

with the equipment used, the method leaves litalternative methods to be considered, whereas :cnventional erection would provide a numberofways of possi: y circumventing the problems.
'',/ith the exception of the upper courses of minimum thickness
-1e design of tanks for erection by spiral jacking is interesting.
js required by the design Codes, all of the other shell plates, '.nere the thicknesses are derived from hydrostatically-in:Jced loadings, can in theory be of different thicknesses. The :'oblems of manufacturing all of these shell plates at margin-
.
:r
ly different thicknesses and of maintaining their identification
: on,
avoid getting them mixed up during ihe subsequent fabricatransport and erection processes are well known. To min!-
framework, as does the placing of the concrete feinforcing system and the uncured concrete. lt is this latter loading which causes the problems. A 500 mm thick layer of concrete at 25 kN/m 'willgive a roof loading some 10 times the 1 .2 kN/m' used to design a "normal" roof framework. To design for supporting the full 500mm ofwet concrete will give rise to a massive framework and the costs associated with such a structure. This seems a very wasteful concept, made the more so by the thoughtthat the roofstructure is only required to fulfll its full load bearing function for a brief period during the placement and initial curing of the concrete. Indeed, if it were practicable to remove ihe roof framework once it had done its job, this would be done providing rneans were made to support the roof sheeting from the now load-beafing reinforced concrete stlucture.
Even if the con cfete ls placed n two or rnore layers ltlsstillexpenslve to provide a foof framewofkwhich w i dlrectly support such a loadlng. So. as concrete toofs becarne more common, the ndustry cast about fof means of avoid ng these costs. Most of the tank contfactors came to the sarne conclusion which was to use internal air pressure to balance the weight of the uncured concrete and to maintain this pressure unti such a time that the
-;se these potential problems, it is usual to arrange ior the : ate thickness to change only for each full or half revolution of :re tank circumference. This small sacriflce n overall shel
,,eight is usually considered as money well spent.
-'re disposition of the shell stiffening is also lnteresting. lt
LS
-sual to arrange these members as a series of fings set paralle :l the ground. This however does not suit the erection and ', elding mechanisms for which an arrangement with the stiffen:'s running parallel to the spiral is more convenient. A tech- a ue which has been used is to allow the stiffeners to follow the :eifal for the majority of their circumference and to have a spe: al section which crosses the main tank spiral seam ioining the :,vo ends of the ring of stiffening. The detailed design of such an :rrangement to cater for wind, vacuum and insulation loadings s quiet demanding.
concfete roof could be considered self-supporting. Points which require consideration when designing such an
erect,on syster wrll include the tollowing:
lt is normal to provide an erection opening in the shell of concrete outer tanks and this opening will be required after the roof concrete-placing operation. Conseq uentially a suitable air tight door is needed to provide a temporary seal for this opening. lt is usual to incorporate connections for the
incoming air and control and measuring equipment as a
part of this door. A typical arrangement is illustrated in Fig-
-he full containment 105,000 m3 tank built at the Cartagena ter-.lnal in Spain had its inner 9% nickel steel tank built using this
= gure 23.18
The 105,000m3 Cartagena terminal LNG tank
:.unesy of Enagas
Figure 23.19 Atempofary closure lor the concrete outer tank wall Couftesy of Whessae an.l DEPA
23 Ercction considerctions fot low tempetuture tanks
ure 23.19. Such a closure may also be useful during the in-
ner steel roof air lifting operation if this is the chosen

erection method.
. . . . . .
Slip forming is fast

Slip forming systems must run continuously once started to avoid expensive cold joint work Th's means shift working.
lf a concrete roof can be designed which is self-supporting with only a part of the cured concrete present (typically one halfor one third ofthe totalfinished thickness), then this can provide advantages. For large diameter tank roofs, the air pressure required to balance the whole weight of the concrete placed in a single thickness pour may give rise to increases in the plating thickness above the Code minimum values of 5 mm ot 3/16". lvlultiple layer concrete placement may lead to costly cleaning ofthe upper parts ofthe reinforcement which may have
Afullset of slip formworkfor
a big tank is expensive. This will militate against the simultaneous construction of more than one tank at a time on a particular site.
Cleaning ofjump formwork is labour intensive. Cheap labour favours this aspect.
Slip forming requires the whole supply and installation system to work close to perfectly. Jump forming is more accom-
modating of delays and interruptions. Different areas of the world have their own traditions and skills. An area where slip forming is common will have companies, workpeople and supply infrastructures who are used to this technique. Introducing it into other areas may present problems.
been effected by earlier concreting operations. The air oressure must be maintained until such a time that the newly placed concrete can be considered self-supporting. This usually takes a few days depending upon the details and the concrete mix chosen. Arrangements must be made to ensure that the air supply is secure for this period. Duplication of blowers and power supply to drivers willavoid any unpleasant surprises. The thought of watching the roof slowly succumb to the full weight of the wet concrete and disappear from view, to take its piace on the tank bottom with the carefully constructed roof frame crumpled beneath several hundred tonnes of heavily reinforced concrete, curing rapidly in the hot sun, is one which should concentrate the mind on this matterl The slope of the roof at the periphery may be such that the newlyplaced concrete tends to slide off the roof. lfthis is the case then shuttering may be required to contain the uncured concrete for some distance radially inwards to the
Which ever construction method is adopted, there are a lot of different activities going on in a confined area and good organisation and supervision are essential to good performance. Some indication of the congestion may be gleaned from Fi9ures 23.20 and 23.21 . Figure 23.22 shows a jump form at the Dabhol site in India.
point where there is no longer a tendency to slide. A mock-up of this oortion ofthe roof can be useful in assessing the need for shuttering.
The loading on the roof during concrete placement should be maintained as circumferentially uniform as possible Placing the concrete in a series of single or multistart circumferential pours is the usual choice. The radial width of these pours should be related to the speed of placement to ensure that no problems related to the joints between adjacent poureo nngs occurs.
Figufe 23.20 Tank wallformwork Counesv of whessaelTaylor Woodrow Construction
23.8 Goncrete wall construction

Pre-stressed concrete walls for double orfull containment storage systems generally divide into the wire wound or Preload types and the internal multi strand tendon types. Both have the vertical pre-stress (where required) applied by internal tendons located within the walls, the difference is in the manner of the application ofthe circumferential stressing. Both types are subject to similar construction methods.
The two principal contending methods are slip forming and

jump forming; The first involves the setting up of a complete inner and outer circumferential form and the continuous casting of the wall from bottom to top. This requires the continuous installation ofthe reinforcing bars, the post-tensioning tendon ducts and the placement of the concrete The second uses a small number of inner and outer forms which are in an area where the rebar and ducting are already installed and remain in place until the concrete is placed and partially cured. when they will be relocated circumferentially untilthe complete lift is finished. Atthis point the next lift of the wall is started The relative merits of these methods have amongst them the following;
Figure 23.21 Rebariltting above the iomwork Cauttesy of WhessoelTaylor Waodrow Canstructian
23 Erection considerations for low temperaturc tanks
to
9.
an
/s-
nd tre a), :gure 23.22 Example ofajump form

:cunesy of Whessoe
Figufe 23 23
modulaf stairlower
23.9 Wall and base liners

E
I'e
9As has been discussed in earlier Chapters, the provision of a ner, impervious to a degree specified in the tank specification :c the product vapour and to watervapouris a common compo-
"ent, particularly for the inner surfaces of the outer

3re-stressed concrete tanks of full containment systems
\on-metiallic systems involving the spray application of proprialary coatings, such as are marketed and installed by Recinco .f Belgium, have been successfully used, either in isolation or :ombined with an insulation layer.
ing backwards. This is a shame as there seems considerable merit in pursuing these methods. As has been discovered by the shipbuilders and the offshore rig-builders, productivity and quality can both be improved by operating as far as is possible in a factory environment. The examples described in Sections 23.4 and 23.5 show a tentative step in this direction, although both of these examples are now somewhat dated. Further steps in this direction involve:
. . . . .
Prefabrication of steel shell plates intodoublewidth panels
This can save some 50% of the onsite circumferential

welded seam length. Prefabrication of roof frame sections away from the tank and lifting these into place Prefabrication of concrete tank parts for wire-wound type tanks
-he more commonly adopted system

,
is to use a metallic cartron steel barrier for both the wall and the base of the bnk. he base liner is usually lap-welded from 3 or 5 mm thick steel
:lates. For reasons to do with the finished flatness of such a

ner, it has sometimes been found convenient to weld this liner :J cast-in inserts in the tank base slab.
-te
tf
tl
JJi
wall liner is also usually made from 3 or 5 mm thick steel :lates and the most common means of installation is to weld --'rese plates to inserts cast into the concrete wall. Vertical in-.erts at between 1.5 and 2.0 m centres (usually dictated by the .vailable width of carbon steel strip mill plate) seem to be the :Jrrent favourite.
Modularising the roof platforms, especially the in-tank pump platforms. These could be factory-builtand lifted onto
the tank roof as a single module. Modularising the tower stairway. Figure 23.23 shows a stair
towerwhich was factory-built in three sections and fitted out with the stairway, the lighting and electrics priorto being delivered and erected in a single day. The intention was to include all of the pipework (including the thermal insulation) running to the tank roof in these modules, but circumstances prevented this.
inother method which has been utilised
is to make use of the -ner steel liner as the inner shutter for the construction of the :oncrete wall. This involves the earlier construction ofthe liner,
ther as a complete tank shell or course by course in advance
For membrane type tanks there is considerable prefabrica-
:! the construction of the concrete wall. The liner/shutter must
:e strong enough to resist the external loadings from the con:'ete as it is placed. This will require an increase in the thick-ess of the plating or temporary/permanent stiffening being
:dded.
tion in the production of the stainless steel panels and the insulation panels, both of which are factory made.
Clearly there is a lot of work to be done in this area.
23.11 Automated welding methods 23.10 Modular construction and prefabri-
it
8
cation techniques
-f're tank construction industry has, to the mind of the author, agged behind the shipbuilding and offshore industries in the -se of modular construction techniques. The building of low ::mperature tanks is no exception. The building of ships fre:Jently involves subsiantial component parts being made in r'fferent locations, commonly in different countries, being :'ought together and assembled in a single location. Similarly :ê offshore industry has equipped itself and become familiar
.,,.th the lifting and moving over considerable distances, of
The low temperature tank builders have followed the practices of the ambient tank builders in this respect. There seems considerable room for automated welding methods, perhaps accompanied by automated inspection methods, to be borrowed from other industries and used in the tank building area. For conventional tanks, the focus of automated welding has been the tank shell, and in the past particularly the circumferential seams. In more recent times, the vertical seams have also been welded by automated methods. As has been mentioned earller, automated welding techniques are particularly suited to the spiral jacking erection methods. One area where this apparent Luddite approach to automation is not the case is in the construction of membrane tanks. Automatic welding of the seams between the membrane sheets is an essential part ofthe construction of these tanks. The smaller STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 461
^:odules in excess of 5000 tonnes in weight.
?nk
builders are new boys on this particular block, indeed in
:.rms of modular construction techniques, may even be mov-
p'
23 Ercction considerations for low temperaturc tanks
Excavalion
Figure 23.24 Atotally buried 200,000 m3 tank Couftesy of LNG Journal
'.._.-.-\
Bottom SIab and Side Wall
t'-
Figure 23.25 A200,000 m3 tank buried up
1o
the-shell-to-roofjunction
Coulesy af LNG Journal
size of the fabficated stainless steel panels means that the lengths of welded seam in these tanks are much greaterthan is
the case for a conventional tanks.
23.12 Large in-ground LNG tanks

The majority of in-ground membrane LNG tanks are to be found in Japan, with a few in both Taiwan and South Korea. Their advantages over the above ground tanks are numerous:
@
Being buried provides protection from adjacent tank fires and external missiles and blast loadings. Some like the 200,000 m3 tank at the Ohgishima Terminal of Tokyo Gas are totally buried (illustrated in Figure 23.24) and some like
the tank of the same capacity at the Chita l\ilidorihama TerminalofTohoGas, are buried up to the shell-to-roofjunction (shown in Figure 23.25), so the roof is exposed and must be suitably protected.
. .
lt is argued that in-ground tanks can be designed and constructed at greater capacities that the above ground tanks
Because of the protection provided by burial, in-ground tanks do not need such large separation distances from each other or from site boundaries. This means that more produce can be stored in a given area. This is important
Figure 23.26 construcuon sequence for a 200,000 m3 in-gtound LNG tank in Couftesy of LNG Jaurnal
23 Erection considentions for low tempetaturc tanks
when land is expensive, perhaps because it has been reclaimed from the sea as at Inchon in South Korea, or is just
expensive or in short supply.
and the placement of the concrete from the bottom upwards, so as to displace the bentonite mud, is a remarkable achievement in its own right. 35,300 m3 of concrete and 2,300 tonnes of rebar were used.
The partial or full burial is a useful plus in planning discussions, and may allow in-ground tanks to be built in locations where the visual impact of above ground tanks would prohibit their use.
This retaining wall allowed the inner excavation to take

place. Around 284,000 m3 of material were removed.
The disadvaniages lie in the increased construction costs,

f,/hich may be offset bythe better use of land or planning issues Tentioned above, and in the increased construction time. Fora oig LNG tank the approximate construction time would be 54 Tonths which comDares with around 36 months for an above
When the excavation was completed, a gravel layer was placed in the bottom of the hole and a heavily reinforced base slab 9.0 m thick was cast involving 42,200 m3 of concrete and 7,600 tonnesofrebar. Thethickness and strength
of this base slab is a function of the high groundWater uplift
lround iank.
The construction of thesetanks, currentlyata maximum capacty of 200,000 m3, is quite remarkable. There are a number of Dapers and articles which describe the construction process rublished in the LNG Journal (References 23.1, 23.2and 23.3)
oressures.
The concrete side wallwas 2.5 m thick and required 33,200
m3 of concrete and 5,100 tonnes
of rebar
rr presented at the LNG conferences.

The 200,000 m3 LNG tank, described in Reference 23.3 andilustrated in Figure 23.25, at the Chita Midorihama Terminal is rypical. The construction sequence is shown in simplified form n Figure 23.26. The following lists some ofthe construction asrects of this project:
The steel roof was assembled on the bottom ofthe tank and ised to its permanent position by air lifring orjacking.
Both the walland the base werefitted with a heating system to protect from frost heave.
The fitting of the thermal insulation and the membrane followed the conventional membrane type bnk methods.
. .
The liquid containing membrane is 74.0 m in diameter and 46.6 m deep. The site has been reclaimed from the sea and was of such poor load bearing capability that a major soil improvement programme had to be undertaken before construction vehicles could access the site. The nature of the subsoil was such that a slurry wall 100 m deepand'1.4 m thick hadto be constructed to reach downto the impermeable rock layer The excavation ofthis retiaining wall, the balancing ofthe soil pressures with heavy bentonite muds, the insertion ofthe 100 m deep reinforcing cages
23.13 References
23.1 23.2 23.3
Development and construction of large LNG in-ground storage tanks, Junji Umemura and Sasao Goto, Tokyo Gas, LNG Journal November/December 1996.
Construction of an underground storage tank, Kenji

Yanagiya and Tomoyuki Ogawa, Kajima Corporation, LNG Journal November/December 1999. Construction of a new LNG receiving terminalin central
Japan, Naoshi Furukawa, Toho Gas, LNG Journal March/Apil .1997.
24 Foundations for low temperature
tanks
This Chapter provides a brief review of the basic requirements for the foundations of low
temperature tanks. The guidance provided by the tank design Codes on the subject is ou ined and a few examples of past practice and some of the problems encountered are discussed.
Contents:
24.1 General 24.2 Code requirements and guidance 24.2.1 API620
24.2.2 BS 7777 24.2.3 DIEN 14620
24.3 Some examples and problem areas
24.4 References
24 Foundations for low temperature tanks
24.1 General
The foundations for above ground vertical cylindrical tanks for low temperature service are generally similar to those described in Chapter 13 for ambient temperature tanks. The addition of base heating systems and the use of base insulation constructed from brittle materials such as cellular glass means that in general low temperature tanks have less tolerance to settlement and foundation movement durino service that their ambient temperature cousins.
For these reasons the foundations tend to be of a higher quality.
cific and consequently of little help in resolving contractual disputes between the parties involved in a particular project. 24.2.2 BS 7777
Part 3 of BS 7777 has quite a lot to say about foundations ofvertical cylindrical above ground storage bnks.
It should be remembered that this part ofthe Code represents a set of recommendations, and hence its contents are not man-
datory
The foundation design should be in accordance with BS 8004 (Reference 24.1). Prior to the design and construction of a foundation, a number of site specific investigations are suggested;
Reinforced concrete ring wallswith graded infillare uncommon for LPG tanks and almost unknown for LNG tanks. The most commonly adopted foundation types for low temperature tanks are the ground-based and the elevated reinforced base slab types.
The finished shape of the foundation, especially around the periphery is important. Agood levelfoundation in this area means that the steel tank erector has a better chance of producing a good shaped tank. A poor foundation means that he willalways
. . .
Soil investigation Ground water investigation
Seismicinvestigation
be struggling to achieve the desired tank shell tolerances.
ln-pit tanks tend io have the same types of foundations as above ground tanks with the added complications brought
about by considerations of possible floatation and ground, rain or flre water removal. In-ground tanks are a specialist subject area, which is not discusseo nere-
These should be carried out by individuals or companies suitably experienced in this work. The following types of sjtes should be avoided:
Sites where part of the tank is on rock or other firm undisturbed ground, and part is on fill. Sites where the depth offlLl is variable. Sites where the ground under part of the tank is pre-consolidated.
. .
Sites on swamps, or where layers of highly compressible

material lie beneath the surface. Sites where the stability of the ground is questionable for reasons which may be associated with proximity to deep water courses, mining operations, excavation or steeply sloping hillsides, karst topography or gypsiferous mater;als which could include weak lenses subject to dilution. Sites where tanks may be subject to flood waters. Sites near active faults or susceptible to liquefaction during seismic excitation
24.2 Code requirements and guidance

24.2.1 API620
Appendix C of API 620 provides some general guidance on foundations, which is intended for tanks operating at ambient
temperatures. This Appendix is invoked by both of the low temperature Appendices (Q and R), which both go on to give specific instruction regarding the design loadings for downward or bearing loading and resistance to uplift from anchorage where this is fitted. lt will be remembered that an essential difference between these Appendices is in the test water levels required. Appendix Q allows a partial test filling height whilst Appendix R demands a test fill to the maximum operating liquid level. One requirement oJ Appendix C is worth highlighting. For concrete ringwallor slab foundations, the leveltolerances are given as+%" in any 30 feet of tank circumference and t %" around the total circumference. As it is common for the foundation contractor and the tank contractor to be difierent companies, these tolerances often become the subject of heated discussion at the point of handover. Specific limits for foundation settlement are not provided, although the section dealing with tank hydrostatic testing does require level readings to be taken at the start of the test and at "reasonable" intervals during the test. These readings are to be plotted promptly in a suitable form to see if undue or uneven settlement is occurring. The results ofthese observations shall be reported to the tank erector and the purchaser or his engineering representative. excessive rate or amount of settlement is found, the filling shall stop until a decision is reached as to what, if any, corrective measures are needed. lf a minor amount of settlement is found to occur during filling and this continues after the tank is at the full test water height, the water level in the tank shall not be lowered until the settlement has substantially ceased, or a decision is reached which suggests that it is unsafe to maintain the full test water level.
lf any
. .
The Code addresses the subject of permissible settlement dufing the life ofthe tank. The limits are to be agreed between the foundation designer and the tank designer and between the purchaser and the contractor(s) and take account ofthe design of the tank, the size of the tank and the local subsoil conditions. The values given in Figure 24.1 are to be used for guidance. Advice is given on the means of monitoring foundation movements during the construction, test and operating phases ofthe tank's life. These include conduits within the foundation to accommodate suitable instrumentation. Where the subsoil on the chosen site is found to be incapable of carrying the loadings without sufiering excessive settlement, a number of methods of improvement are suggested:
Removal and replacement of unsatisfactory material by a suitably compacted granular fill
Diffcrcntial setllement llEil
Tilt oI the tank

Thnk floor srttlcnleni along a mdial line from the pcriphery to the Settlement aroun.l the peripherl of thc tank
Ir500
1r300
2
1 : 500 but not exceding thc maxim'rm
.:
-
calculated for tilr ol thc
Flgure 24.1 Differential settlement limiis
All of this is sensible advice, but for various reasons, non-spe-
Frcn BS 7777 : Pat13:1993,table 3
ntractual
proJect.
1S Of
Ver-
. . . . .
lmprovement by vibration or dynamic compaction Pre-loading with a temporary overburden Enhanced sub soil draining with pre-loading Stabilisation by chemical or grout injection Piling
of frost heave and local
expensive to construct in the first olace.

For a site which has been piled, the elevated slab may be constructed on extended piles which will make the cost difference
between on-ground/elevated solutions perhaps less than

where a ground-based slab, columns and an upper slab are reoutred. Where seismic isolation is required, an elevated slab is a matter of necessity. lsolator inspection, maintenance, removal and replacement may have an impact on the design. Worries about product vapour accumulation beneath the elevated slab, particularly for LPG, may have an influence on the choice. A butane iank at the CoMon refinerywas designed and constructed with an elevated base slab. Worries about safety caused this to be subsequently back-fllled with sand and fitted with a base heating system to give the arrangement shown in Floute 24.2.
esents a )ot man35 8004
idvice is also offered on the avoidance :?lnage.
:our different types of foundation are suggested and a brief

:ommentary is provided on each type. These are:
number
. . . .
The ring beam type The surface rafr type The pile supported base type The elevated base slab type
-he commentary includes much sensible advice. Amongst

es suit,{hich is the suggestion that the minimum space beneath an el?vated base slab is 1.5 m and that gas detection equipment s'rould be insialled within this space.
undisth
oftill
tank is
-sssible
-eveltolerances forthe as-constructed base slab are given as 6 mm in any 10 m of tank circumference and :t 12 mm be://een any two points around the circumference. These are louble the values allowed by API 620.
*\-
24.2.3 prEN 14620

Part 3 ofthis provisional Standard provides a limited amount of lformation regarding tank foundations which are classified as shallow foundations and piled foundations. The shallow type are further divided into Iaft (or ground-supported slab) and ring ram types. =he rafr type is appropriate for soils which are shown to be catrable of supporting the designated loadings and may require :rickened sections in areas ofadditional loads such as beneath :re tank shell or concrete wall.
ble for ) deep iteeply terials
luring
rlourln tne In the

esign tlons. nce.
-he rjng beam type is the cheapest foundation option and
is
:rearly dependent upon the ability of the subsoil to bear the imssed loadings. The ring beam must be designed for the shell 're loadingsand any uplift loadsfrom tankanchors. Differential :ettlement between the ring beam and the soil or iniill must be :onsidered for its possible effects on the tank bottom, the base :sulation and the base heating system.
love-
lf the
-he piled type includes both on ground and elevated bases.

Part 2 of the provisional Standard provides tolerances for the 3s-built tank base. The peripheral tolerances, which include an :rea 300 mm inside and 300 mm outside the line of the tank snell, aret 3 mm in any 10 m of circumference and t 6 mm be:,,veen any two points on the complete circumference. These are interestingly the same as API 620 and one half of the BS -777 tolerances.
Figure 24.2 The CoMon butane tank foundation
)le of Int. a
The owners of an liquid ethylene tank built on a Teesside site were concerned about the vulnerability oftheir elevated slab to deliberate sabotage. Their solution was to fit a substantial grillage around the perimeter of the elevated slab to prevent access to the space beneath the slab. Tankswhich have bottom liquidllttings, which are quite unusual these days, give rise to problems for theirfoundations. The first LNG tanks on Das lsland were eventually demolished and replaced for reasons closely associated with problems to their foundations and bottom connections Clearly the decision as to the choice of the base slab type requires all ot these considerations to be taken into account on a job-specific basis. Most elevated slabs are supported by a number of columns of square or circular section. The number and layout ofthese col umns may be dictated bythe shength ofthe elevated slab orthe pile layout. An alternative scheme, which has been used beneath the liquid ammonia tank built at Ravenna in ltaly, uses a series of radialwallsto separate the ground bearing and the elevated slabs. Some of these walls run almost to the centre of
Dya
-ne Code also provides
a localflatness tolerancewhich can be 'nportantforthe correct insiallation of base insulation materials
sJch as cellular glass. This is: Any deviation, measured with a i m long template, shall not exceed 15 mm.
\o
guidance regarding permissible settlement is provided.
24.3 Some examples and problem areas

-he choice between a ground-based slab and an elevated
'cundation and the reasoning behind this choice is interesting.
lleady a ground-based slab will require some form of base -eating which is itself expensive and has ongoing costs in :erms of power and maintenance. The elevated slab does not -ave any ongoing costs in the same sense, but may be more
the slab and some stop short. lt had been questioned as to

Figure 24.3 The Reviihoussa lsland LNG tank arrangement
Coulesy of Whessoe
Flgure 24.4 The Trinidad LNG piling anangement
Cowlesy of Whessoe
whetherthis arrangementwould allowa suitablyfree circulation of air beneath the slab, but experience has shown this not to
have been a problem. For the LNG tanks on Revithoussa lsland in Greece, the elevated slab located within a pitwith an interspace covershown in Figure 24.3 presented problems of limited air circulation to provide heat to both the tank bottom and the tank walls. This was eventually overcome by the installation of a quite sophisticated (and expensive) system of forced ventilation. The LNG tanks at Point Fortin in Tdnidadwere constructed on a site with very poor load-bearing ability. The eventual solution chosen was to use a ground-based slab supported by some '1200 steel pipe piles, each of 600mm diameter and around 30 m long, beneath each tank base. This is shown in Figure 24 4. Returning to the LNQ tanks in Greece, the excavation ofthe pit
Figure 24.5 Concreling oflhe reinforced base slab at Reviihoussa lsland
Couiesy of Whessoe
revealed a widecrack in the limestone, running acrossthe base ofone ofthe tanks. Aprotracted discussion took place to decide if this was a harmless defect, a seismic fault or an ancient debris-filled sea cave. lt was eventually sentenced to be the latter for a mixture of reasons, a decision which allowed the project to proceed. The technical solution adopted was to construct a massive 2.5 m thick, heavily reinforced slab. This shown under construction in Figure 24.5.
24.4 References 24.1 BS 8004:1986 Code of practice
for foundations
25 Regulations governing the layout of refrigerated liquid gas tanks

There are a host of regulatory documents, which seek to dictate the layout on a particular site of refrigerated liquid gas tanks and associated equipment.
The more commonly used ofthese regulatory documents are examined in this Chapter and their
differences highlighted. There are some interesting differences in approach, especially between the European and the USA's approach to the various problems which arise.
Contents:
25.1 Introduction 25.2 Regulations governing LPG storage tacilities

25.2.1 NFPA 58 25.2.1.1 Pressurised LP-Gas storage 25.2.1.2 Rettigetaled LP-Gas storage 25.2.2 NFPA 59 25.2.2.'1 Pressurised LP-cas storage 25.2.2.2 Reftige.aled LP-cas storage 25.2.3 fhe Institute of Petroleum rules 25.2.3.1 Genetal 25.2.3.2 LPG pressure storage (Volume 1, Chapter 2) 25.2.3.3 Refrigerated LPG storage (Volume 2, Chapter 3) 25.2.3.4 Storage tank spacing 25.2.3.5 Vapour travel requirements 25.2.3.6 Bunding requirements
25.2.4
APt 2510
25.2.4.1 Pressurised LPG storage 25.2.4.2 Re'friget ated storage
25.3 Regulations governing LNG storage facilities

25.3. 1 DOT.CFR rules
cide
?tte-
qIc
25.3.2 NFPA 59 A rules 25.3.2.1 Origin and development of NFPA 59A 25.3.2.2 lmpoundment 25.3.2.3 The design spill
25.3.2.4 Thermal radiation
rde-
25.3.2.5 Vapourdilution considerations 25.3.2.6 Minimum spacing requirements 25.3.3 EN 1473:1997 rules 25.3.3.1 Scope 25.3.3.2 Scenarios to be considered 25.3.3.3 Design spill 25.3.3.4 Thermal radiation 25.3.3.5 Vapourdilution 25.3.3.6 Minimum spacing requirements
25.4 References
25 Regulations governing the layout of refrigerated liquid gas tanks
25.1 lntroduction
This Chapter is devoted to the codes and regulatory guidelines which govern the layout on site of vertical cylindrical fu lly refrigerated tanks for the storage of the various products described in Chapter 17. For completeness and for purposes of comparison some of the regulations relating to pressurised storage of these products are also included in this chapter.
The various codes and standards are soecificallv addressed to the storage of LPG and LNG. The discussion ofthese regulations has been confined to those
This seems to leave LP-Gas marine import terminals not associated with refineries, petrochemicals and gas plants - not a very wide area of application. The Code also excludesa numberofother applications including frozen ground containers and underground storage in caverns.
Note
LP-Gas is defined as "any material having a vapour pressure not exceeding that allowed for commercial
propane that is composed predominantly of the following hydrocarbons, either bythemselves or as a mixture; propane, propylene, butane (normal butane or isobutane) and butylene". This is similar to but not exactly the same as LPG as defined in Chaoter 17. Section
17.1.
most widely used. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards are legal requirements in the USA and are commonly employed elsewhere in the wodd. The US Depart-
ment of Transport Code of Federal Regulations

(USA.DOICFR) is mostly confined to use in the USA and
25.2.1.1 Pressurised LP-Gas storage

The Code provides a bewildering number of spacing rules and exceptions to these rules. Much of this is devoted to small capacity storage units (cylinders) and is of little interest to storage tank designers. Figure 25.1 giving the separation distances between containers, important buildings and other properties is interesting particularly because of the apparent advantages of mounded or underground containers over above ground containers in terms of spacing requiremenb.
makes many references to the NFPA regulations over which it interestingly takes precedence. The American Petroleu m Institute (APl) publish guidelines for LPG installations which fall outside the NFPA area of regulation. The Euronorm Regulations (EN) are more recent documents which reflect European practices taking into account the various categories of containment discussed in Chapter 17. The Instltute of Petroleum (lP) represents UK Dractices for LPG and it is oresumed that the lP rules will eventually be replaced by EN rules.
25-2-1.2 Relrigercted LP-Gas storage
There are a multitude of other regulatory guidelines, some

country specific or even more locally based where certain local circumstances may necessitate their own requirements. No attempt has been made to address these other documenb.
lmpoundment
The main rules governing impoundment for refrigerated

LP-Gas tanks are given briefly below:
25.2 Regulations governing LPG storage
lmpoundment shall have a volumetric holding capacity equal to total volume of liquid in the container assuming that the container is full.
If an outside container wall is used as a spill containment the materialto be used shall be suitable for exposure to the temperature of the refrigerated LP-Gas liquid.
facilities
25.2.1 NFPA 58
Reference 25.1
The areas ofapplicabilityofthis documentare not entirely clear. It appears that it is; "The design, construction, installation and operation of marine terminals whose primary purpose is the re-
ceipt of LP-Gas for delivery to transporters, distributors or users". This is then conditioned by two exceptions:
lmpoundment structures, and any penetrations thereof, shall be designed to withstand the full hydrostatic head of impounded LP-Gas and the effect of rapid cooling to the temperatures of the liquids to be confined.
Provisions shall be made to clear the impounding area of rain or other water.
Exception I
- Marine terminals associated with refineries, rochemicals and gas plants.
pe!
Minimum spacing requirements

For refrigerated tanks designed to operate at below 15 psig, the
Exception 2 - lvlarine terminals whose purpose is the delivery of LP-Gas to marine vessels.
minimum spacing from occupied buildings, storage containers

Midrnum Dltt ncca
Moundcd
o.
rt5ov.!tound Conr.lncri'
0 0
3 3
5
rllhi.. Crpdty plr Cont incr
Und.igmurd
s.t
<129d <o.5d
lo
l0 l0 l0
50 50 50 50 50 50 50
0
$
n
0"
3
0
0
125-250
25t-600
50r-2000 200r-a0,000
30,001-?0,000 ?0,001-90,000 90,001-120,000
I
0.5-1.0 1.0r-1.9
l0 l0
25
3
7.6
l.9r-?,6 7.6+l 14
11{r-265
I I
50
l5
23
30
265F:Xl
t00
125
Wlt-454
38
diamctc$
of
m,001-200,000
SL-157
751+-3185
>3?85
?00 300
400
6t
aqjaccnt con-
200,001-1,000,000 >1,000,000
9l
!.2.2: Exc.Ptiotr No. 'S.c rsbc
.s..3.2,t:(0.
!,2.t.:(g)
ds.. !.2.?.2(r).
(.), 'scc !.?.2.2(b),
sd
(d).
Figure 25.1 Sepafation disiances betlveen conlainers, imporlani buildings and olher propedies
Fron NFPA
58, table 3.2.2.2
25 Regulations governing the layout of reftigerated tiquid gas tanks i asso-
-nota
nctuo-
\thicr Cryacity Pcl coIrtaber
Abovcgrourd
Codain
ll
Walcr C.pa.ity
cd
<70,000 >?0,000
s.r
't cav/apour
:
965
>265
100
Up lo 70,000
'l)
:'on
-:Lrre
'ercial bllowxture:
Sobu-
25.2 IVinimum disiances
NFPA 58, table 9.5.2
3{r} to4t{) 757) 200,001 ro 1,0O0,00O (757 to 3?85) oi,r 1,00o,mo (3785)
70,00r to9o,0,00 (265.0 90,m1 to l1O,O00 (!41 tm,oor to mO,00O (454 to
(-) (265)
(m)
15 100
7
20O
300 400
'rr
xactly eclion
flammable or combustible liquids and lines of adjoining :ropertywhich can be built upon shall be in accordance with Ta_
Figure 25.4 Refrigerated conlainer insta ations minimum distances
:le 9.5.2 as shown in Figure 25.2.
From NFPA 59. table 3.5.1
-he edgeofa dike, impoundment or drainage system that is in:ended for a refrjgerated LP-Gas container shall be 100ft or
s and
l
rore from a property line that can be built upon,

navigable waterway.
25.2.2.2 Retrigercled LP-cas storage lmpoundment

These requirements are the same as those required bv NFPA 58 (see Section 25.2.1.2).
a public way, or
ca-
-he minimum djstance between above ground refrigerated

-P-Gas contiainers shall be one half of the diameier of the
arger container. Fire exposure

Spacing of refrigerated propane containers (and presumably containers of other LP-gases) from important buildings, stor_ age for flammable or combustible liquids and lines of adjacent property that can be built upon shall be in accordance with Ta_ ble 3.5.1 as shown in Figure 25.4. The remaining spacing requirements are the same as required by NFPA 58 (see Section 25.2.1.2).
es
is
con-
-he reference to fire exposure is concerned only with the necvhich detailed rules are provided.
3ssary provision for pressure relief related to fire exposure for
Vapour dilution requirements
\FPA 58 does not have vapour dilution at site boundary

:uirements.
re_
Fire exposure
These requirements are the same as are required for NFpA 5g (see Section 25.2.1.2).
r' .E
25.2.2 NFPA 59
lReference
25.21
-he scope of this Code states that it shall apply to the design,
Vapour dilution requirements

NFPA 59 does not have vapour dilution at siie boundary re_ quirements.
):te
,:c'
:ons having a capacity less than 15.14m3 are referred to NFpA td. 25.2.2.1 Pressurised LP-cas storage .on-refrigerated storage. For above ground coniainers the -r|nrmum spaqng requjrements are given by Figure 25.3 which s the same in most respects as the NFPA 58 Table 3.2.2.2 but loes not consider mounded or underground systems.
>ressur-ised storage is generally referred to in this Standard as
rf refrigerated and non-refrigerated utility gas plants. Installa-
:onstruction, location, installation, operation and maintenance
25.2.3 The Institute of Petroleum rules (Reference 25.31
-he following rather ominous requirement for above ground

oressurised systems is made:
"Containers shall be orientated so that their lonqitudinal axes do not point towards other containers, abovJground
LNG tanks, and flammable liquid storage tanks on th5 same or adjoining property".
This Code is Part g of The Institute of pet roieum Modet Code of Safe Practice in the Petroleum Industry.fhe latest edition was published in February 1987 replacing the earlier edition pub_ lished in 1967. lt represents a series of recommendations for safe practice ratherthan a set of rigid rules. lt interestingly suggests that this more flexible approach should more easilv allow the use of new methods, techniques. materials, etc., whi;h mav be developed in the future and which meet the requirements for safe practice given in the Code. The Code is arranged as two volumes with the followino con_ tents:
trlulcont ber ao Ned'i l|bDortrat

lrrrter
.rf-tq ofEad
Coa.atrer
Btw.e! Conbirct'
Buildlag or Cloop of Bolldlob Not AsEo.tat d *16 ine udtt.y c.3 Phoi" or r rit of Adjorohg piprty Tha! Cian Bc BuIt UDod
20Ol ro E0,000
3O,O0l to 70,000 70,001 to 90,000 9O,0Ot b 120,000
7.6 nt
ll4
r/i
of surt of diaoet
50
ll4
265
to 2d5
r! ofadjecor
100
125
coIttainerl
23
30
E8
b
@
341
A4l
4U
12o,O0l to 200,000
451to 757
200 300
200,o0l ro
I ,0OO,0OI
I,OO0,0O0
747.ogiA5
ovcr 3785
or more
{00
tn
dilqncci in
6l 9l
Note Thc.pacinE of@ntdD4 &om butlditra! at5_l2r.d sith u.iug, Te.blc 2.{.t.2, eirh e minlmluE epndon of 50 n (l5 m). :igure 25.3 Above ground container instaltation minimum djstances
ts -
pLnt3.h.lt b.
F.r
ned
b b.
rcduccd @ 50 pcrccDr of the
=rcn NFPA
59, table 2.4.1.2
25 Regulations governing the layout of rcfigented liquid gas tanks
Volume
cluded.
. . . . . . . .
Chapter 1 - General information applicable to LPG

Chapter 2 - Pressure storage at reflneries, bulk distribution plants and also industrial consumer premises, where such storage is large
The rules governing equipment layout are numerous and incruoe:
LPG storage vessels shall be located to ensure that the

minimum distances to fixed sources of ignition are: 22.5m for storage vessels not exceeding 337m3 30.0m for storage vessels exceeding 337m3. The radiation flux levels given in Table 1 of Appendix'1 (Figure 25.5) shall be complied with. Calculation methods for determining the radiation flux levels are given in Appendix
2. The rate ofspillage and its duration used to calculate the radiation flux levels shall be based on identified potentialleak
Chapter3-RefrigeratedLPG
Relevant appendices
Volume 2
Chapter 1 - Pressure storage at industrial, commercial and domestic premises Chapter 2 - Plant for filling, handling and storage of cylinoers Chapter 3 - Transport by road and rail Relevant aDoendices
25.2.3.1 General
This document contains a great deal of sensible and practical advice and guidance, only a little of which will be described in this Section. Three baslc points relating to safety of LPG storage systems in general are worth repeating;
sources in the system. The identification and quantitative assessment of such leak sources requires a systematic evaluation of the design and operating procedures taking into accountfailure modes and the likelihood oftheir occurrence. Examoles of potential leak sources and indications
of leakage rates from them under specific conditions using simplified typical equations are given in Appendix 3. Provisions shall be made to minimise the prcbability of a flammable cloud resulting from a spill as defined above from reaching the site boundary Typical provisions may include such measures as spacing, limitation of spill pool area, screening and vapour dispersion equipment. Appendix 3 gives examples of leak sources and Appendix 4 provides means of calculating hazard distances for these releases.
SJ
LPG at ambient temperature and normal atmospheric pres-
sure is normally heavier than air. Commercial butane

vapour and commercial propane vapour are approximately 2.0 and 1.5times as heavyas air respectively. LPG vapours will therefore sink to the lowest levels of the surroundings and flow along the ground or through drains or similar passages. Under still air conditions the natural dissipation of accumulated vaPour may be slow
The permitted radiation level on thermally protected adjacent LPG storage vessels is based on the protection ofthe adjacent vessel bythe application of cooling water at a rate of 7 litres/(minute,m3). There shallbe a minimum spacing between adjacentabove ground vessels of 1.5 m or 0.25 times the sum oi the adjacent vessel diameters. For below ground-mounded vessels, the spacing between adjacent vessels shall be determined by the site conditions and the requirements for safe operation/ removalofthe vessels in addition to inspection, testing and malntenance requtrements. The maximum number of vessels in any group shall be 6.
2a
. .
LPG has a low viscosity. Hence it is more likelyto find a leakage path than water or most other petroleum products.
Although LPG in its liquid and vapour phases is colourless, the evaporation which occurs when liquid leaks results in water condensation or water freezing which appears as a white mist or cloud.
'e
25.2.3.2 LPG pressure storage (Volume 1, Chapter 2) The scope of this chapter covers above ground, mounded or belowground storage of LPG involving vessels ofindividualcapacity greater than 135m3 or group storage greater than 450m3
a'
.a
5t
2l
Storage in frozen ground or underground caverns are not in-
Prcesurc siongc
rwd
Bquipdcrt
Thcoutcrrurfrcasof adjaccdt
Mesimum radialiott
lux hrcb BTU(hd)
prsuEtaftge Y?rtcb(l)
TrAnfltlb proi.crcdQ) Unpro&cr.d (3)
44
13,750
2,ffi
f h! outcrrurf acas ohdjacc

itoragc
kr&rco
rinin&flamttabL
(21 8 10,000
products (4) mdproccss tacilitics
Th.nnallt protcd.d UnFotdcd (3)
25@
2,51X)
F liog/dirdErgc poitrts
Pc.Eonncl iosidc boundary
Proca$
.tc! (5)
(8)
Wo.t lrcr(7)
Critical
src.a
Protr.lcd wolk rrca (6)
8 8
5
2,5m 2,5m
1,5m
500
Plant boundary
Romorc rroa (9) Urban lrcr (10)
4,000
5
Critical arcr (8)

Figurc 25.5 Radiation flux levels for pressure storage From The lnstitute of Petroleum Code of Safe Practice, Appendix 1 , table
1.5
1,500 500
25 Regulafions goveming the layout of rcfigercted liquid gas tanks
.
ano ln-
Any one group shall be separated from any other group by

15m.
used above shall be based on ideniified potential leak sources in the facilities which need to be considered. The
identification and quantitative assessment of leak sources should be based on a systematic evaluation of ihe design and operating procedures of such facilities, taking into accountfailure modes and the likelihood oftheif occurring. Ex-
.
rat ihe
In any group vessels shall be in a single line, i.e. shell to shell and not shell to end or end io end. The layout and spacing of above ground vessels should receive careful consideration to ensure accessibility for fire fighting and to avoid spillage from one vessel from flowing under any other vessel or other vulnefable equipment.
.
1(Figrds for
cendlx
:ne ra-
amoles of ootential leak sources from LPG facilities and

indications of leakage rates from them under specific conditions are quoted in Appendix 3. 25.2.3,5 Vapour travel requirements Provision shall be made to minimise ihe possibility of a flammable vapour cloud of LPG from a spill as defined above from reaching the site boundary. Such provisions may include such measures as spacing, limitations of spill area, insulation of the bund or impounding areas, screening or vapour dispersion equipment. Appendix 4 contains references relating to various mathematical models for calculating hazard disiances arising out of spillages of LPG and the resultant vapour cloud formatton.
. .
The provision of bunds around above ground pfessurised

LPG storage is not normally required. Separation cufbs may be required to direct spillage away from storage vessels and other vulnerable equipment.
alleak
:rtative
-he Code gives wide spread advice on good practice in pres:urised LPG storage facilities under ihe following headings;
ematic taking cccurations

using
. . . . . . . . .
Pressure storage (i.e. the design of the pressure vessels themselves) Piping, valves and tlttings Foundations and supports for vessels and piping Pumps, compressors and meters Road and rail loading and unloading facilities Electrical, static electricity, lightning protection Reouirements for fire orotection Operations Inspection of pressure storage
25.2.3.6 Bunding requirements The various requirements relating to the need for bunding, the bund capacity and the bund design include the following:
:lofa
:oove
'ay inpooi cpen.1
. .
No refrigerated tank shallbe located within the bund enclosing any other storage tank.
pro_
Each refrigerated storage tank shall be completely surrounded by a bund unless the topography of the area is
such, either naturally or by construction, that spills will be directed safely by gravity drainage and diversion walls (if required) away from adjaceni tanks, equipment and sensitive areas to an impound!ng basin suitably located within the site
adJatrf
the
25.2.3.3 Refrigerated LPG storage (Volume 2, Chapter 3)

The scope
r rate
cove adlaI een
ofthis chapter covers refrigerated LPG tanks, above ;round, fully in-ground and partly in-ground. lt does noi cover
'efrigerated storage.
oounoary
storage in frozen earth pits, in underground caverns or partially
:rons
-he three categories of liquid containmeni are discussed to:ether wlth guidance for provisions fof spil age containnrent :nd handllng, the avoidance of leakage, the minirnising of
,'apour formation following a liquid leak and reducing the consequences of a fire following a liquid leak.
Fu I and double containment systems by def nition fulfil the above requirements but low bunds may be required around the tank main connections to contain leaks ffom external piping. valves and fittings.
/esre-
containment, the bund/impoundlng basin sha I be capable of retain ng the tota content above ground level or of the largest tank connected to any shared impounding basin.
Forsystemswhichdonotconformtodoubleorful
25.2.3.4 Storage tank spacing
r .
Ihe rules for location and spacing of refrigerated storage tanks

are summarised as follows;
Where bunds are provided around tank connections they should be of sufficient capacity to contain the anticipated
spill volume. Bunds and impounding basins shall be provided with water removal systems designed to prevent LPG spiilages escaping into any system outside the area of the bund/impoundin9 basin.
Refrigeraied LPG storage tanks and their containment systems shall be located and soaced so that the minimum distance to any fixed source of ignition is 30m, irrespective of radiation flux levels. Containment systems, i.e. tanks and the associated bunds and impounding basins, shall be located and spaced so that in the event of a fire, eg a tank fire or fire resulting ffom the ignition of spillage of flammable products, thermal radiation flux levels shall not exceed the maximum levels given in Table 2 ofAppendix 1 (see Figure 25.6) The thermal radiation flux levels in the above requirement shall be based on the ignition of flammable product either in
The capacity and reliability of water removal systems for rain and fire waier where aDolicable shall be sufficient to prevent the accumulation of such quantities of water as would cause damage to the tank foundations, bund wall or
would lead to tank flotation. Consideration should be given to the monitoring of bunded areas for LPG leakage.
a tank or from spillage. In the case of spillage, the pool

formed will be dictated by the spillage rate, the evaporation rate and the duraiion ofthe spill (see below) and the topography/locatlon of the site and facilitjes associated with it.
This section of the Code also gives sensible advice on a number of other related subjects.
25.2.4 API2510
(Reference 25.41
Reference should be made to Appendix 2 for guidance on
ihe calculation of thermal radiation levels with respect to LPG facilities. Appendix 2 includes comprehensive guidance, references and a number of excellent worked examples on this subject.
The rate of leakage of flammable product and its duration
The scope of this Siandard includes the design, construction and location of both pressurised and refrigerated LPG storage vessels, loading systems, unloading systems, piping and related equipment for installations at marine and pipeline terminals, reiineries, petrochemical plants and tankfarms. Excluded from the scope of this Standard are: STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 473
25 Regulations goveming the layout of refigerated liquid gas tanks
Rc(rigc.atcd storsgc Maximam rtennat radiationfur kv.l\ B11r(h ftr)
kwm2
Equipmcnt
Thc outcr surfaccs of adj accot
I cfr4c rutc d s to n Ee la n ks
Unprotc.tcd (3)
Thznw lproucad(z)
32
10,000
2,5m
Thc outcrsurfaccs of adiacent itorugc
unkr @n|,'ininglfa,''|tnatLproducts (4)

The,rnaIy prokd.n (2) Unprot..lcd (3)
Thc outcr surfaccs of adj aocnt LPG prcrsufa ttorrga v.Jsels and proccss
10,m0
E
2,500
fadlitics
(U)
2,vn
8 6
5
1.5
Pclsontrcl
i8idc boundary
2,500
(5) P.otctcd$,ork.r.a (6)

Proccss arca
2,ffi
1,500 500
Work.!ca O)
Clitical arca (8)
Plart boutrdary Rcrdotcarca (9) Urbno arca (10)
1,000
1Joo
1.5
Gitical area (8)
500
Nots
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
The distance from all LPG presrare storsgc v.ssel to a refrigeruted storage rark is detcrmincd by thc re{uircmcnt of Chapter 3 (Eee 3.3.1) ard Tsble 2 of this appcndix. Such facilitieJareas arg protcctod by means ofwater sprays, iosulation, mdiation screens or similar systems. Protecion is providcd by spacing alooe. Spc<ial co[sidcration Ehould bc givcn to the location of floating roof tan&s containing high vapour pressurc produds si[cc cffcctivc watcr cooling of thcir roof structures is impraciicablo.
A normalty unocorpied arca occasionally Dattncd by traincd and suitably clothcd pcrsons familiar both with
cscapc
rout6
and opportuoitics for tcmporary shcltcr afforded by tbc proccss plant,
A pcrmancnt building whcrc pcrsonnl insidc arc shicldcd and/or bavc shicldcd mcans ofcscapc.
An open arca or small (c,g. temporary) building without shicldcd mcaus of cscapc. This is cithcr an uoshiclded 8(ca of critical imponaoce where pcoplc without protcctivc clothing may bc rcquircd it all timcs iocludiog during cmcrgencies or a place diffiorlt or dangerous to cvacuatc rt short loticc (e.g, a spors stadium). (9) An arca only infre4uently occupied by small numbcrs of persons, c.g. moorland, farmland, dqscrt. (10) A.u arca which is noither a remote area oor a Gitical arca. (11) Thc allowablc thermal ndiation flux levcl is rcstrictcd for thcr facilitics h vicw of the potcntially longer duratioo of crposure resulting from a rc/z'gc rafud t4nkl bund fiIe.
TigLre
)5.6 The'mal'ad alion irux levels forefrge'aled slotage
From The lnstitute of Petroleum Code af Safe Practice, Appendix 1, table 2
. . . . . .
Frozen earth pits Underground storage caverns Underground or mounded storage tanks Above ground concrete tanks Tanks covered by NFPA 58 and NFPA 59 Tanks with capacities less than 2000 US gallons
Where residences, public buildings, places of assembly, or industrial sites are located on adjacent property, greater distances or other supplemental protection must be provided. The minimum distances betvveen the shells of pressurised LPG tanks or between the shell of a pressurised LPG tank and the shell of any other pressurised hazardous or flammable storage tank shall be as follows:
It is not entirely clearjust howthe decision is made, presumably by the local regulatory authorities, as to which facilities fall within the scope ofthis Standard, of NFPA58 and of NFPA59.
Betvveen two spheres, between two vertical vessels, or between a sphere and a verticalvessel, 5 ft or halfofthe diameterof the largervessel, whicheveris the greater.
25.2.4.1 Pressurised LPG storage
The Standard provides spacing and impoundment rules for

storagevessels and other equipment which are briefly summarised in the following Sections.
Between two horizontal vessels, or betlveen a horizontal vessel and a sphere or vertical vessel, 5 ft or three quarters ofthe diameter ofthe largervessel, whichever is the larger.
a
The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of
The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of a

pressurised LPG tank and the line of adjoining property that may be developed shall be as shown in Figure 25.7.
pressurised LPG tank and the shell of any other non-pressurised hazardous or flammable storage tank shall be the largest of the following subject to a maximum of 200 ft:
25 Regulations governing the layout of rcfigercted liquid gas tanks
Water Capaciry of Each Tnnk (gallons)
Minimum
Distance (feet)
50 75 100 125 200
2,000-30,000 30,001-?0,000 70.001-90.000 90.001-120.000 120,00t or grcater

:ana
tanks each. Where multiple groups of horizontal LPG vessels are to be provided, each group shall be separated from adjacent groups by a minimum horizontal shell-to-shell distance of 50 ft.
:rqJ'e 25.7 ll"e mrnrmum d stance between lhe -nel' ola p'essur sed LoG drd t1e rine ol adjoirilq propeny thal Fay be developed
non APl251A, bble
lf the other storage is refrigerated, three quarters of the greater diameter.
- the ominous Note: Horizontal vessels used to store LPG should be orientated so that their longitudinal axes do not point towards other facilities (such as containers, process equipment, control rooms, loading or unloading facilities, or flammable or combustible liquid storage facilities or offsite facilities located in the facility of the horizontal vessel). The vision of a ruptured LPG vessel "rocketing" through a control room is difficult to suDoress!
And again
SDill containment
Spill containment may be achieved by either remote impoundment or by the provision of a dike around the tank. The main
lfthe storage is in atmospheric tanks and is designed to contain a material with a flash point of 1000 F or less, one diameter of the larger bnk.
points to consider are:
lf the other storage is in atmospheric tanks designed to contain materials wiih a flash point greater than 100" F, half of the diameter of the larger tank.
For remote impoundment systems:
100 ft.
The remote impoundmentarea shall be located at least 50 ft from the vessels draining into it and from any hydrocarbon piping or other equipment The holdupofthe remote impoundmentarea shallbe at least 25% of the volume of the largest vessel draining into it. lf the material stored in the vessel has a vaoour pressure that is less than 100 psia at 100'F, the holdup forthe remote impoundment shall be at least 50% ofthe volume of the largest vessel draining into it
The minimum horizontal distance betlveen the shell of an LPG tank and a regularly occupied building shall be as follows:
lfthe building is used for the controlofthe storage facility, 50 ft.
lf the building is used solely for other purposes (unrelated to the control of the storage facility), 100 ft.
For diked systems:
Both of the above requirements may be replaced by

comDliance with API 752.
lf an LPG sphere is diked, each sphere shall be provided with its own diked area. lf LPG stored in horizontal vesels, a single diked area may serve a group oftanks
The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of an LPG tank and facilities or equipment not covered above
shall be as follows:
For orocess vessels 50 ft.
For flares or other equipment containing exposed

flames, 100 ft.
For other fired equipment, including process furnaces and utility boilers, 50 ft. For rotating equipment, 50 ft, except for pumps taking suction from the LPG tanks, 10 ft.
The holdup ofthe diked area shallbe at least25% ofthe volume of the largest vessel within it. lf the material stored in the vessel has a vapour pressure that of less than 100 psig at 100 'F, the holdup for the diked area shall be at least 50% of the volurr]e of the larqest vessel
withln it.
25.2-4.2 Retrigetale d storage Again a number of requirements are included in the Standard.

The following requirements apply:
For overhead powertransmission lines and electric sub-
stations, 50 ft. In addition siting shall be such that a

break in the overhead line shall not cause the exposed ends to fall on any vessel or equipment.
For loading and unloading facilities for trucks and

railcars, 50 ft.
The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of a refrigerated LPG tank and the line of adjoining property that may be developed shall be 200 ft. Where residences, public buildings, places oi assembly, or industrial sites are located on adjacent property, greater distances or other supplemental Drotection shall be orovided.
. .
The minimum horizontal distance betlveen the shell of an LPG tankand the edge ofa spill containment area for flammable or combustible Iiquid storage tanks shall be 100 ft.
Pressurised LPG tanks shallnot be locatedwithin buildings, within the spill containment area of flammable or combustible liquid storage tanks as defined in NFPA 30, or within the spill containment area for refrigerated storage bnks. Compressors and pumps taking suction from the LPG tanks should not be located within the spill containment area of any storage facility unless provisions are made to protect the storage vessel from the potential fire exposure. Examples of such include (a) a submerged motor direct-coupled pump with no rotating equipment outside the pump containment vessel or (b) a submersible pump within the LPG tank. Horizonial LPG tanks with capacities of 12,000 US gallons or greater shall not be formed into groups of more than six
. .
The minimum distance between the shells of adjacent refrigerated LPG tanks shall be halfthe diameterofthe larger
taNK,
The minimum distance between the shell of a refrigerated LPG tank and the shell of another non refrigerated hydrocarbon storage facility shall be the largest of the following subject to a maximum distance of 200 ft:
lf the other storage is pressurised, three quarters
ofthe
larger tank diameter
lf the other storage is in atmospheric tanks and is designed to contain materialwith a flash point of 100'F or less, one diameter of the larger tank.
lf the other storage is in atmospheric tanks and is designed to contain material with a flash point greaterthan 100 'F, half the diameter of the larger tank.
100 ft.
25 Regulations governing the layout of rcfrigeated liquid gas tanks
Soill containment
As is the case with pressurised storage, spitl containment may be achieved by the provision of remote impoundment or by diking.
porated documents are listed with the appropriate edition related to each DOT.CFR paragraph.
In brief, the salient points from this document are:
Remote impoundment
The following requiremenb apply:
. . . . . . . . .
ln the event of conflict between DOICFR and NFPA 59A. the DOT.CFR prevails. This Standard applies to any new LNG facilities placed in service after l\4arch 31, 2000.
. .
The remote impoundment area shall be located at least 50 ft from the vessels draining into it and from any piping or other eouroment.
The holdup of the remote impoundment area shall be at

least 100% of the volume of the largest vessel drain ing into
it.
lf an existing LNG facility is replaced, relocated or significantly altered after March 31 , 2000, it must comply with the salient part of these regulations (with certain exceptions).
Each container must have a thermal exclusion zone in accordance with NFPA 59A 2-2.3.1 (see Section 25.3.'1).
Each LNG container must have a dispersion exclusion zone in accordance wjth NFPA59A2-2.3.2 (see Section 25.3.2).
Diking
The following requirements apply:
Each refrigerated LPG tank shall be provided with its own diked area. The holdup of the diked area shall be at least 100% of the volume of the tank. EXCEPTION: More than one tank may be enclosed within the same diked area provided provisions are made to prevent lowtemperature exposure resulting from leakage from any one tank from causing subsequent leakage from any other tank.
Average gas concentration at boundaries = 2.5%.
The design spil! shall be determined in accordance with

NFPA 59A 2-2.3.3. An outerwallofa component served by an impounding system may not be used as a dike unless the outerwall is con-
structed of concrete.
A covered impounding system is prohibited except for concfete wall desjgned tanks where the concrete wall is an
When dikes are used as part of the spill containment system, the minimum height shall be 1.5 ft measured from the inside of the diked area. When dikes must be higher than 6 ft, provisions shall be made for normal and emergency access into and out of the diked enclosure. Where dikes must be higher than 12 ft or where ventilation is restricted by the dike, provision shall be made for normal operation ofvalves and access to the top of the tank or tanks without the need for personnel to enter into the area of the diked enclosure that is below the top of the dike wall. All earthen dikes shall have a flat top section at least 2 ft wide.
outer wall serving as a dike.
Note:
These last two points suggest that this Agency has begun to accept the concept offull containment tanks and the advantages which accompany this category of containment.
Each impounding system serving an LNG storage tank must have a minimum volumetric liouid imDoundment capacity of 1 10% of the LNG tanks maximum liquid capacity (for an impoundment serving a single tank). Aflammable non-metallic membrane liner may not be used
as an inner container in a storage tank. A throwback to the Staten lsland LNG Tank incident, see Chapter 17, Section 17.3.
25.3 Regulations governing LNG storage facilities

25.3.1 DOT.CFR rules
The appropriate section of these documents from the tJS Deoartment of Transport is:
Note:
25.3.2 NFPA 59A rules

25.3.2.1 Origin and Development of NFPA 59A
Acommittee of theAmerican GasAssociation beganworkon a Standard for liquefied natural gas circa 1960. Intheautumnof
'1964 a drafr was submitted to NFPAwith the request that it be considered asthe basisforan NFPAStandard. The first official edition was adopted at the 1967 NFPA annual meeting. By early 1969 it had become apparentthatthe use of LNG was expanding and the API suggested that its Standard PUBL 2510A (Design and Construction of Liquefied and Petroleum Gas (LPG) Installations) be used to help develop a Standard
DOT.CFR
Title 49
Transportation Other regulations relating to transportation (continued) Research and special programs administration Department of Transportation (continued)
Subtitle B
Chapter
1
Subchapter
Part 193
Pipeline safety Liquefied natural gas facjlities Federal safety Standards
having a broader scope. The committee on Liquefied Natural Gas was established and in 1971 a new edition encomDassino the broader scoDe was adoDted. Subsequent editions were adopted in 1972,1975, '1979, 1985, 1990, '1994 and 1996. The 2001 edition was developed in a joint effort between NFPAand the Canadian Standards Association LNG committees to harmonise the requirements of NFPA 59A and CSA Z 276.
This is lengthy and so is normally referred to as DOT.CFR.49. Part '193 (latest version dated October 2000). This document has little to say in its own right, but makes references on most subjects to other Standards (mainly NFPA 59A which is discussed in Section 25.3.2) which are described as "N,4aterials Approved for Incorporation by Reference". Interesf ingly and rather confusingly, the DOT document makes reference to different earlier versions of NFPA 59A in different sections and not the most recent publication as one might expect. Fortunately the document is well indexed and the various incor-
25.3.2.2 lmpoundment The rules governing impoundment for LNG tanks are given briefly below. lt should be noted that for an LNG storage and
handling facility, areas in addition to the storage tanks such as process areas, vaporisation areas and transfer areas will also reouire their own imooundment.
25 Regulations governing the layout of
rcfigehted tiquid gas tanks
. '
,59A,
red in
gn
Flammable liquid and flammable refrigerant storage tanks

shall not be located within an LNG container impoundment.
Contaiaer Dstp Sp[I
Dsigtr
Spll
Duraiio!
Us rhe fomrula
The impounding area shall have a minimum volumetric holdlng capacity equal to the total volume of liquid in the
container assuming the container is full. Thisisforanimpoundment for a single LNG tank and allowance shall be made for any displacement due to snow accumulation or other eouiDment.
ContaineBwith A3pil thougha$
pntfations
belo{ &e liquid
il-:Tli9::-rnremalsnuron
assumedoDeDins aq ara eq;a ffea to, tha!
ifl-
tne
)ns).
't aczone
2\
Dikes and impounding walls for LNG containment shall be constructed of compacted earth, concrete, metal or other materials. They shall be permitted to be independent of the container, or they shall be permitted to be mounded integral to or constructed against the container. They,andanypenetrations thereof, shall be designed to withstand the full hydrostatic head of impounded LNG, the effeci of rapid cooling to the temperature of the liquid to be confined, any anticipated fire exposure and natural forces such as earthquakes, wind and rain. Where the outer shell of a double wall tank complies with these requirements, it shall be permitted to be considered as the impounding area for the purposes of tank siting distances etc. lf the containment integrity ofthe outer shellcan be affected by an inner tank failure, mode, then an additional impounding area shall be provided. The relationship between dike and impounding wall heights and their distance from the primary container shall be as Figure 25.8. Provision shall be made to clear rain or other waterfrom the impounding area. Clearly such provisions shall not allow the escape of LNG. The impounding system shall, as a minimum, be designed to withstand an SSE event whilst empty and an OBE whilst contajning the maximum volume of LNG as defined above. After an OBE or SSE, there shall be no loss of containment capability.
iD 4 a rpe!- q = aa-4n Eation bloi r}re until rhe differenIiI: l:"lto*.o tial head aadng on gryt the openins b o P-q T 9I tlow rom alr rnn tiauy full containex'*'"''
Us the coolzinr ni& the largeJi flow
if more itlao on
contairr ia the
iErgouddi-og erea-
Coltaioenwith
over-drc-top
,,y'tth
6ll, tom anyslagte ftoma{ringle !!e Peft$a- lile llra! could b rlEtcould be tn. puEpd i.oro rlrc puopd hro itle F.99.*r:. Y [qurorever' impoundtagarea i-por*a;"g..* with ihe cotrtaiqer lvith tbe cootaisr wiihdiav-al withdrrl|?lpulrpG)
wltn oo
Th
largerr0ow
The largestdow
SYS-
puep(s) coDsid- dli\rirg fie tujl ered to be delivr- raoed capacirF

ilrg the full
rared (l)ForloEitruG! c.rpacity. ifsunillalrce atrd

shurdovrx b dlaoBtrated atrd
apProved by the
iaa
ceanc
tc
. . .
juridictioo.
aurhodry harhg (2)For the tilDe
[eded to ernpt/ e full cotrtailei

rvhere rurveillance and 3hutdor{tr ir
l-
0or
app(red,
2n4
Codtaitrerswidr Thendw*|rowhao
Us the formula
Peleo-atioos oeloav urc xqrxq
assuEedoPohgaq ?.od equ"l io area !o,
fl"J:A'#* F\*,n"r,q*g with6.s.3.3. *1l"'.-lto

regrlt
11,LT-T.1."_5.':_ tlar
poetndoD
n tnela gs!
a! ilitialy
iz-4 forrhour.
q=
4aE4
flow fto(o
25.3.2.3 The design spill

Figure 25.9 attempts to define the design spill, forthree types of storage tank:
firfl coDtainer.
LDpoundingarea Th oow bom any For l0 mioures or *rvt(Ig only sirgle accidenral for ? shodr tjroe
!?Ponzauon,.., leakagesource. ba5edoodemonproceJs,
. .
or
LNU
Containers with penetrations below the liquid level without internal shuloff valves. Containers with penetrations below the liquid level wiih internal shufoff valves in accordance with certain desion re-
trarBfer areas
sFable surveil
shuadol{n provisiors acceptable to the aufioriry hav-
irgjuridicrion.
lftmin (m3,hin)l o{tquld dirdrcdianFcr [i!. (mm)l of tank Fr.trariod bdos rhc &uid t'icl. Ll! dl. h.qttt tft (m) l ofliquld abo! p.n duion ln dE contetne. *hcn fic @nt2lncr t fdt
Nore gbdteflosBre
Fgure 25.9 Design sp llfor three types of siorage lank From NFPA 594, tabte 2.2.3.5
quirements.
Containers with over the top fill, with no penetrations below
the liquid level (also presumed to be equipped with in-tank pumps for unloading).
For the first two tank types ihe calculation of the design spill is quite straightforward. The formula given is:
Noiac
closest hce of |hs dik6 or [npounding walt . DinFnslon yb fls dstance ftom t| marmun lilrld lgvel conblnr b tho iop ol th dlks or trpoundng wafl.
Figure 25.8 Dlke or impoundment wallproximtty ro conlarners
. oimensbn Xshall q]a, or xced the sum of fmendoo yDlus t|e sqivalnt head ln LNG of he prgssu.o In tt vapor spaco abovo t|s huld. Excf,pfKn: WtBr tto h,lght ol he dl@ or hrvwNing *aI ls equdt A or gealer tlgn, tE nptdmrm qtfr le'/el, X ntsl hd!.e any velue. Do|enslon Xb h dshnco ipm fie hnr wall of fis cootalnr b tl6
4 ^= d'Jh '3 = = =
flow rate (ft3/min) diameter of the tank penetration (ins)
equ 25.1
where
h ho
q d h
height of liquid above the penetration when the tank is full (ft)
Fran NFPA 59A, figute 2.2.2.6
The spill duration is also given in Figure 25.9. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 477
For the third tank type the picture is less clear. The industry practice has been to take the maximum export rate (i.e. the combined flow of all of the installed in-tank pumps assuming these to be manifold together) as the 10 minute duration spill (presuming a suitable shutdown system is provided). However, the design spill wording "The largest flow from any single line that could be pumped into the impounding area with the container withdrawal pump(s) considered to be delivering the full rated capacity,", leaves room for doubl.
shows the large differences in the various spacing requirements and the savings in site area arising from the use of the different types ofcontainmentcategory The summary ofthe results of this exercise are given in Figure 25.10.
One additional requirement relating to thermal radiation is that the LNG container impounding areas shall be located so that the heat flux from a fire over the impounding area shall not
cause major structural damage to any LNG marine carrier that could Drevent its movement.
Fora typical LNG import terminal, the liquid pumpout rate from a large tank may be ofthe order of 2000 m3/hr whereas the liquid import rate (i.e. the carrier's maximum unloading rate) may be as high as 12000 m3ihr The 10 minute spillvolume in one case is 2000 x 10/60 = 333 m3 and in the othercase is 12000 x 10/60 = 2000 m3.
The logic of postulating a possible failure in the case ofthe liquid export line whilst not doing the same in the case ofthe liquid import line seems contentious. The differences between the two figures in terms of the cost and difficulty of containing the spill at the tank roof level, the conveying ofthe spilled liquid to localgrade and the further guiding of liquid to the site impounding basin are substantial.
25.3.2.5 Vapour dilution considerations

NFPA 59A has the following requiremenb:
,1
The spacing of an LNG tank impoundment to the property line which can be built upon shall be such that, in the event ofthe design spill(Section 25.3.2.3), an average concentration of methane in air of 50% on the lower flammability limit (LFL) does not extend beyond the property line that can be built upon. Three different calculation methods are given:
lr
GRI 0242 "LNG vapour dispersion prediction with the DEGADIS dense gas dispersion model". GRI-96/0396.5 "Evaluation of mitigation models for accidental LNG releases-Volume 5; using FEM3Aforac-

NFPA 59A requires provisions to be made (almost always by adjusting the site layout)to preventthe thermal radiation from a tire from exceeding the limits listed belowundera defined setof atmosphe c conditions (zero windspeed, 70oE 50% relative humidity):
o .
1600 Btu/hr/fi3 (5000 w/mr) at a property line that can be a design spill (see Section 25.3.2.3).
built upon for ignition of
1600 Btu/hr/ft, (5000w/mz) atthe nearest point located outside the owners property line that, at the time of plant siting, is used for outdoor assembly by groups of 50 or more persons for a fire over an impounding area containing the full
design volume (see Section 25.3.2.2).

3000 Btu/hr/ftz (9000 Mm2) at the nearest point ofthe building orstructure oulside the owners property line that is in existence at the time of plant siting and used for occupancies classified by NFPA 101 (Life Safety Code) as assembly, ed-
= (
ucational, health care, detention and correction or residen-
tial for a fire over an impounding area containing the full

design volume.
t,urn7ftz (30000 wim2) at a property line which can be built upon for a fire over an impounding area containing the full design volume. The calculations of radiation distances shall be calculated by the following method:
Gas Research lnstitute Reoort GRl0176 "LNG Fire:Athermal radiation model for LNG fires"
',OOOO
lfthe ratio ofthe majorto minor dimensions ofthe impoundment does not exceed 2 then:
d
=F./a
equ25.2
where
d A F
= = =
distance from the edge ofthe impounded LNG (ft) surface area of the impounded LNG (ft )
flux correction factor as follows: 3.0 for 1600 Btu/hr/ft2 2.0 for 3000 Btu/hr/ft, 0.8 for 10000
Btu/hr/ft'z
An example using the simpleformula for tanks for the storage of 160,000 m3 of LNG of the single and full containment types
Figure 25.
Comparison of site layouts with differenl types of liquid contain-
25 Regulations govening the layout of rcftigerated liquid gas tanks
requtrese of
of the
cidental LNG accident consequent analysis".
e .
the
re-
Another model subject to stated guidelines.
Part 6.1 ofthe Standard states "Tanks can be Dlaced on the ground.....
In is
that i so that ;hall not rier that
Provisions shall be made to minimise the possibility of a flammable mixture of vapours from the design spill from reaching the property line that can be built upon and that would result in a distinct hazard. Flammable mixture dispersion distances shall be calculated in accordance with GRI 0242 subject to certain stated conditions.
.....The raft of the tank can be supported by raised piles.

Part 6.2.3 states "there shall be no penetrations of the primary and secondary container walls or base.
.....The absence of wall or base penetrations requires the ted with in{ank pumps, This is very different from NFPA
59A. 25.3.3.3 Design spill
The Standard mentions "loss ofcontainment of LNG and of natuse of submerged pumps." Le. tanks ofall types must be fit-
25.3.2.6 Minimum spacing requirements

n
addition tothe spacing requirements arisingfrom the require-
rroperty e event centrality limit can be given:
Tents of impoundment (Section 25.3.2.2) thermal radiation

Section 25,3.2.4) and vapour dilution (Section 25.3.2.5) considerations, the following minimum spacing requirements ap-
lly:
ural gas" in Section 4.4.3.1, "Evaporation of spilled LNG" in 4.4.5.1, "Atmospheric dispersion of LNG vapour'' in Section
3.3.4 and "Provisions for control of leaks or spillage" in Section
. .
/iih the
for aclor ac-
The minimum distance from the edge of the impoundment to buildings or property lines shall not be less than 0.7times the container diameter or 100 ft whichever is the greater.
4.5.2. lt does not provide means of evaluating the flow rate or

duration ofthe design spill. The Standard provides guidance on hazard assessment using probabilistic and deterministic approaches, the use of hazard and operability studies (HAZOP), failure mode effect analysis (FMEA), eventtree method (ETM) and fault tree method (FTM) together with a listing of possibte hazards of both internal (i.e. within the site) and external origin (i.e. from outside the site). There is also some briefguidance on the estimation of probabilities (Section 4.4.4) and the estimation of consequences (Section 4.4.5 and Annex F). Whilst allof this guidance is admirable, it leaves the deflnition ofthis important design event a matter of conjecture and debate which will require a lengthy and expensive site specific studyto resolve. The much simplerapproach to this issue taken by NFPA 59A, albeit not entirely clear in all of its aspects, may appealto terminal designers and contractors and to the various regulatory authorities in view of ib clarity.
The minimum distance between LNG storage containers

shall not be less than 1/4 ofthe sum ofthe diameter of adjacent containers or sfr whichever is the greater.
Hote:
Both ofthe above applyto LNG tanks with capacities in excess of 265 mJ. Forverysmall tanks refer to Table 2.2.4.1 of NFPA 59A.
In no case shall the distance from the nearest edge of impounded liquid to a property line which can be built upon, or the near edge of a navigable water way as defined by federal regulations be less than 50fr. Clearly for tanks with capacities >265 m3, the first condition above willgovern for disiances to property lines.
xoie:
25.3.3 EN1473 : 1997 rules

25.3.3.1 Scope

Figure 25.12 gives recommended maximum incident radiation values for equipment within the site boundary including tanks with outer surfaces constructed of concrete or steel. oressure vessels, process facilities, control rooms, workshops and administrative buildings arising from an LNGtankpoolfire. These are maximum values to be used unless deflned otheMise in local regulations. The Standard then moves on to suggest that the maximum radiation flux levels for each main structure shall be calculated and provides some guidance on how this may be achieved. For LNG storage tanks, the permissible radiation flux shall be determined taking into account the following factors as a mini mum:
-r;s European Standard gives guidelines for the design, con3:!ction and operation of all onshore stationary LNG installa:ons including those for the liquefaction, storage, vaporisation, -nsfer and handling of LNG The Standard is valid for the folc$iing plant types:
. . . .
Export terminals between the desjgnated gas inlet boundary limit and the ships manifold. Receiving terminals, between the ships manifold and the designated gas outlet boundary limit.
Peak-shaving plants, between designated gas inlet and

outlet boundary limits.
LNG satellite plants with a totial storage capacity above 2OO
lf no deluge system is installed, watercooling is deemed to applyafterthe time required to provide firewater in sufficient
tonnes, including the loading station up to the designated

gas outlet boundary limited.
tlote:
Satellite planb with a total storage capacity less than 200 tonnes are excluded from the scoDe of this Standard.
is very difierent in philosophy and content from
SingIE conteinnent
l)
2) 2) 2) s) 3) 3)
Double co0unn$eltt
-îs Standard
Fltl contairunent
Mernbrane
1- USADOT.CFR and
NFPAStandards. lt is based on hazard rd consequent risk assessment methods and is generallyless in its requirements than the American Codes. The fol=ecific or/ing Sections are an attempt to abstract the salient points :r',en jn this EN Standard astheyrelateto LNG storagetanks. 25.3.3.2 Scenarios to be considered
Ctyogmic conste
2l
Slraical
l)
fngrttrd
3)
-'ese are summarised for the full range oftank types in Figure :5 11 . lt is interesting to note the distinction made between full
tanks without concrete roofs where the pool fire =.ltainment ;ze is based on the secondary contiainer and full containment E-KS with concrete roofs where no collapse is considered and r., implication no poolfire is to be considered.
tank types
S@Ei6 to b @Eid.rE l: r) Ir .3le of @Uar6e of tlE Lrik lrlnrry .onr.hr, !n rlr. conldpd& !o the inpdtndng.ie.. 4 h ce ol @0qe o( dE tsn* rcoq tlE !E loot tdr!
pool
@nt{d& b
dE lDdlry cont lE r) No @U!9e i! @Etder.d for tlse t
!* h,!..,
Figure25.11 Scenarioslobeconsidered inlhehazad assessmentasfunctionof
Frcn EN 473, table

1

Eqqlpn..r luld. bouduy
(lwD'l)
Concrete outer 6urf9ae of adiacmt storage tanls: unprotectedi) 3) or behind thennal proteciionz,
32
Remote areal) Urban atea
t3
6
Critical
area2)
Mtal outer surface of adja4ent storage tanlr unplotected3) or behind thermal
gotctionz),
(see
n3)
The outer surfaces of aqjacent prss&e storage vssls alrd plocess facilities
(se
peMF, e8. moorlmd, fanntand, de& D'ftis is ettle-r !n u$hhlded e. ofailical lnlortrnce eh@ Deoole sit rout prctecdre .lothi.8 ce b iequjred at 3I tiro
t) An area only
infEqu4tly o.cupied
by smal
nmbB of
ng)
8
lnctudinS duing energendes or B plae difrodt o! dangercus to eEurte !t dblt nodce (eg sports stadrum, play groud,
C4ntrol room, Maintenaice workshops, laboratoriG, werehouss, etc. (see P.2) Administrativ buildin$ (see P.2)
rJ
Figure 25.13 Allowable themal radiauon flux excluding solar rad ation outside
5
concrelt t2.k, naximum ddiation nues detlnnined bt fie requiremenG given in 4,5.2. :)such facih es are prot crld by m.es or watf,r srrEys, firc Dmiing, rad8tlon *reens o.simil& systms 3' Proteciion is Drcvidd by sDa.inr .lone.
my
For
prest@d
Frcm EN 1473, table 2
be
Eq{lDn.rt luide bouar.ry

Flow
rtte
dnled lD 11.6
Fig ure 25.1
2 Allowable thefmal radiation flux exclud ing
sola r tadiation inside
lhe
Dounoary
Base of the flai in a
tsbcted
FFrn EN 1473. table
ala wher well trained operators wil be present only for maintenarce. (s P.3)
Roads and open aras 3 6 5
1,5 5
ouantities from external sources
. . . .
Loss of strength of container Pressure build up within the container

The temperature ofthe safetyvalve shallnot reach the auto
'Ibiks erd proce$ equipments

Contsol room, mahten nce workshops, Izboratones, Adminjstrative buildings
ignition temperature of the flammable substance in the

tank. Surface emissive powers
Figufe 25.14 Allowable themal radiation flux excluding solar radiation inside the boundary
Fron EN 1473, table 3

radistion nux (kwn'?)
Flow rrte
Figure 25.13 similarly provides maximum recommended incident radiation flux levels arising from an LNG poolfire within the boundary on different types ofareas outside the site boundary The maximum recommended incident radlation levels arising from the flare are given in Figure 25.14 for areas within the boundary and in Figure 25.15 for areas outside the boundary These Tables give two levels of radiation fluxfor normal and accidental operations.
delined
ir
11.6
Nomal
3
Ac.ident'l
5
Remote arear.) Urban area
3
1,5
Criticrl area2)
1r
25.3.3.5 Vapourdilution
EN1473 gives no specific rules for dilution levels at site boundaries. lt does give some guidance on the calculation methods to determine the furthest distance to the lower flammable limit and of what factors to take into account in this calculation, but no specific requirements.
@a only infrequntly @cupid by sall nmbe6 of pcen' e,g, m@rle4 fmland, desrr ,) This is eirler d NNelded ea ol cdtical importa@ ttEre psple witlDur pmtectiv clothing cd be required at all tines
An
inctuding duinS emergencies or e pl&e drfficuli o. dege.os to evacuare at short nolice (e,9. sports stadjw, pl4v groud,
Fjgure 25.15 Allowable thermal radlation flux excluding solar radiaiion outside the boundary
25.3.3.6 Minimum spacing requirements

Again EN1473 gives little guidance on this subject. lt does stater "The spacing between two adjacent tanks for which no
collapse is considered (i.e. full containment, membrane, cryogenic concrete or in-ground tanks, in each case with a concrete roof), shall be (as a) minimum equal to a half diameter of the secondary container of the larger tan k". Th is is essentially similar to the NFPA 59Aone quarter times the sum ofthe diameters of the adjacent containers requirement.
Frcm EN 1473, table 4
troleum lndustry - Part I Volumes 1 and 2 Petroleum Gas February 1987.
Liquefied
25.4
API 2510 Eighth edition, May 2001 Design and Construction of LPG lnstallations.
25.5 25.6
United Sfates of America Deparlment

Rules.- Title 49 - Subtitle B - Chapter - Part 193 - October 2000.
NFPA 59A, Standard for the
1
of Transpotl Subchapter D
25.4 References
production, storage & han-
dling of liquefied natural gas (LNG), 2001 Edition,

National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts.
25.1 25.2 25.3
NFPA 58 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code 2001 Edition,
National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts.

NFPA 59 Utility LP-Gas Plant Code 2001 Edition.
25.7
BS EN 1473 : 1997 lnsta ation of equipment for liquefied natural gas - design ofOn-shore installaflo,s, Euro-
pean Committee for Standardisation and British

Standards Institution.
lnstitute of Petroleum Code of Safe Practice in the Pe'
26 Seismic design of low temperature
tanks
This Chapter represents a brief visit to what is a large and complex area. Much has been researched and wriften on the subject and it is difficult to do it justice in so few words. lt has becomethe practice to approachthe seismic design of low temperatu re tanks at a higher levelof sophistication than has been the case of tanks storing products at ambient temperatures.
The Chapter is restricted to the design of metallic, liquid-coniaining, vertical cylindrical tanks.
Those looking for detailed information on the seismic design of low temperature tanks of different geometries and construction materials will have to seek the information they require
elsewhere.
The importantareas of seismic design have been reviewed and illustrated by means ofa worked
example, using an LNG tank of modest proportions.
Contents:
26.1 General 26,2 The basic seismic design data
26.3 Damping 25.4 Directional combinations

26.5 The behaviour of the product llquid 26.6 Natural frequencies
26.6.1 The horizontal convective frequency 26.6-2 The horizontal impulsive frequency 26.6.3 The vertical barelling Aequency
26.7 Ductility
26.8 Calculation of the design accelrations
26.9 Product liquid pressures acting on tank shells

26,10 Tank stability under seismic loadings 26.11 Tank sliding
26.12 Liquid sloshing

26.13 Seismic isolation
fed
bn-
26.14 The design Codes 26.15 Gonclusion 26.16 References
nrt
YD
fl>
'ot ,
aa-
IF toistr
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 48,I
26 Seismic design of low temperaturc tanks
26.1 General
Chapter 15 describes the relatively straightforward rules given in the various ambient storage tank design codes to cover the design of such tanks for seismic loadings. These are based on the work of Wozniak and Mitchell and use as their input the accelerations given for the various zones given in the American Uniform Building Code or similar sources. This approach ignores the influence of the vertical components of the design seismic events. The recent earthquakes, particularly those in Kobe in Japan and in Taiwan have provided evidence that this componentis particularly destructive and has traditionally been underestimated. For low temperature tanks where the risks associated with Iiquid containment failure are generally considered to be more serious and certainly the costs of the facility are generally greater, the seismic design is taken more seriously as has been mentioned in Chapter 15. Whether the risk or the cost arguments indeed justify this approach is perhaps contentious. Large single containment refined product tanks are themselves dangerous beasts, the consequences ofwhose failure in refineries are perhaps the equal in terms of risk and cost of similar events in many low temperature facilities.
Passing over this point, it is the case thai low temperature tanks
concrete tanks, membrane tanks, roof-mounted equipment,

in-ground tanks and tanks of shapes other than vertical and cylindrical, apologies are given. However, a brief search of the subject area should produce the necessary information. The various national and international Standards and regulatory organisations also have views on the subject ofthe seismic design of liquid storage systems. These are reviewed in the appropriate Sections of this Chapter and in Section 26.13.
'-.:
26.2 The basic seismic design data

A real or a design seismic event can be expressed in a number
o{ different ways. A real time history is a plot of the actual recorded ground motions (acceleration, velocity and displacement) against the elapsed time of the event. lt is acceleration which interests the designer most, and an example of such a plot is shown in Figure 26.1. There are techniques which allow the design process to be based upon such realtime histories, butthese are outside the chosen scope ofthis Chapter. In such cases it is usual to use a number of real time histories of events from a similar geological setting and of a similar magnitude, or scaled to the same magnitude.
:=
have traditionally warranted this enhanced level of attention Perhaps the apparent recent trend of placing large LNG export and import terminals in areas of high seismic activity has had something to do with this. The LNG tanks located at the Bay of Marmara in Turkey, Revithoussa lsland in Greece and Point Fortin in Trinidad are all examples of this trend. The amount of theoretical and test work carried out in this area
A more useful starting point for the designer is the response spectrum. The response spectrum repfesents the peak response ofa single degree offreedom damped system to a base excitation. Such a single degree of freedom system is illustrated in Figu re 26.2. The precise means of getting from a real
time history considered relevant for the particular site to an

agreed design response spectrum are complex and are best left to those with the appropriate expertise in these matters
is awesome. Not only have the giants of the subject
like
Housner, Veletsos, Yang, Haroun, Manos, Wozniak, Newmark and Hall been publishing learned works for many years. but they are joined by a host of other authors working in the same area. A fook at the list of publications in References 26.1, 26.2 and 26.3 will illustrate this point.
In addition to the volume of work existing in this area, there are
I I
:J,
also a variety of different approaches to the seismic design of the various components which go to make up the difierent types of low temperature liquid storage systems described in Chapter 17. For example the approach of the designer of the steel inner liquid container is often very different to that of the designer of the outer pre-stressed concrete tank. It is clearly not possible to describe the whole breadth of this area of activity in a single chapter, indeed it would be difficult to envisage doing itjustice in a single book. Forthis reason the following Sections confine their interest to the seismic design of vertical, cylindrical, flat-bottomed steel primary liquid containment tanks. These are one of the most commonly found comoonents of low temperature liquid conbinment systems The level of sophistication of the analysis is that which the author has found to be sufficient to satisfy the owners of newstorage facilities togetherwith their engineers and technical consultants. To those seeking information on the seismic design of
-500
L______'
SUPPORT I.IOTION:
t,
MASS f10Ti0N:
v, v,
Figure 26.2 Asingle degree offreedom damped system
The provision ofdesign spectra to the tank designer is usuallya
task placed in the hands of specialist geo-technical consultants. These are companies with wide and respected experience in the study of seismic events. The days when a single numerical reference to an anticipated seismic event using such devices as the Richter Scale was considered sufiicient input for the tank designer are long past. The RichterScale isstillused in the media to describe the magnitude of seismic events, and for interest the scale and a subjective set ofeffects is shown in Figure 26.3. The usual outputfrom such specialists is a site-specific seismic
<Q
il5
F gure 26.1 A typical real 1me history ground
ac.elerai on rccord
26 Seismic design of low tempercture tanks

-oquipment,
caland cy, arch of the

rtion.
Modified Mercali Intensity Scale
Acceleration
Richter Magnitude Scale

M
necessitate a site investigation if the information is not already available)
nd regulahe seismic J in the ap-
letected only by very rE srDve rn$rumenis
The nature ofthe structure, its contents and the possible influence ofthese on the people and property adjacent to the site
'-:tt I
F"[
by
'.13.
Lspended objecls swing
"
b*
persols at
u3
,005
The sections of the SHA whjch the tank designer is most in need of are the design response spectra. lt is usualforthese response spectra to be presented for both the horizonial and the vertical seismic events. Until quite recently only the horizontal spectra was provided and a factorwas given for scaling this to be used as the vertical seismic design criteria. This factor has grown with time from 0.5 to 0.6 and 0.67 as the significance of this part of the seismic event became apparent. Following the recent events in Japan and Taiwan it could well be the case that this factor will increase and approach unity. lt is now usual to presentseparate vertical design spectra, whichtake account of the magnitude ofthis part ofthe event and anydifferences in the applicable spectral shape. The usual practice is to considertwo levels of seismic event for the design of a particular structure. The allowable stress and levels of permitted damage criteria which apply to each level of event are described below There have been a varietv of different definitions for these two event levels used over ihe vears. The most commonly used in the past have been the operating basis earthquake (OBE) and the safe shutdown earthquake (SSE). These were events with return periods of 475 and 10,000 years respectively. ln recent time things have become more complex. NFPA 59 A which is a significant design document for most LNG tanks has chosen to introduce the maximum considered earthquake (MCE) which is the event having a 2% probability of exceedance within a 50 yearperiod (mean recurrence interval 2475 yearcl. subject to a number of defined exceptions. The liquid container and the impounding system are then designed for an OBE and SSE which are deiined as follows:
l"d"-"jut""id
a number
:;TA ,
=cognised
as an earthquake
actual re_ displace)eleration of such a rich allow histories, r. ln such
Indoot bv a fevr uolor cars rock nbliceably
.01
M4
Feitby most. Som ..ndows break. Little damage
;"b*r r"r* :. mneys. Damage-smatl

rependrng upon construction
u5
.05
t-rn
lfevents
ritude, or
"t*" -ar*
0.1
l1l x
=fi
u0
-ionuments. A fair amoutit
Fall of watts. cht'nnevs
esponse )eak re-
B!ildinqs 6hifted otf dation-s. Much damage
0,5
SZ
cabase is illusm a real
;;""*'""*""
3rcund cracks, Landslide's
d"",,**
1.0
etoan
f,iiges destroied "
a**u|""
or"r*
UC
rre Dest rlters.
sen on oround suna@.
W** "-"."t*","t f,tiecls thrown in sr
:ure 26.3 The RichterScale and set of subjeclive effecis
-azard assessment (SHA). This is a substantial document

:ank designers have been known to unkindly suggest that this :ocument is sold by weight alone). lt takes account of the folowing in arriving at ib conclusions:
. . .
The detailed geology and tectonics ofthe selected site The seismic history of the area The details of the matedals and structures which will lie between the bedrock and the base of the structure (this mav
ground moiion defined. The OBE ground motion need not exceed the motion represented by a 5% damped acceleration re-
The OBE shall be represented by a ground motion response spectrum in which the spectral acceleration at any period T shall be equal to 2/3 of the spectral acceleration of the NICE
sponse having a 10% probability of exceedance within a S0
Typical Horizontal Response Spectra

tatry a
)NSUF
0.500 0.450
(pel.e nu-
sucut
fo-
0_400
d fo.
0.350
I
E
o.3oo
OBE - 5% Damplng
0.250
0.200 0.150 0.100
0_050
0.000
0 0.5 11.52
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 77.58

Priod T , secs
8.5 9 s.5
10
:igure 26.4A Atypical horizonlat seismic design response spectra in graphicatform for 5% damping

Typical Vertical Response Spctra
c E
0.200
-OBE - 5%
- 5% Damping
-ssE
o.tso
0.100
0.050
\
0.5
1.5
0.000
4.5 5
5.5
Period T , secs
Figure 26.48 A typical vertical seismic design response spectra in graphicalfom for 5% damping
year penoo. The SSE ground motion shall be the motion represented by a
of accuracy when extracting design data. An example is given in Figure 26.5. Damping levels arediscussed further in Section 26.3. On occasions the seismic design spectra are presented in the form ofa series of equations. An example ofthis type of presentiation, togetherwith the graphs which can be derived from these equations is shown in Figures 26.6 A & B. lt is usual for the timescaleto run from zero upto, orjustbeyond'10 seconds. Thiswill cover the sloshing or convective periods of the biggest tanks currently envisaged, Where a site specific SHAis not carried out, the seismic design data can be based upon artificial response spectra. Onesuch is
Desisn Spectlm {5%) Hodzontal
-9 lE
ns
5% damped acceleration response spectrum having

probability of exceedance within a 50 year period (mean interval 4975 years). Howeverthe spectral acceleration SSE resDonse spectrum shall not exceed twice the sponding OBE spectral acceleration. This seems to be a
1%
return
of the
correrecipe
f,rr
for confusion, but doubtless there are good reasons for the
changeswhich willbe apparenttothose skilled in the prediction of seismic design criteria.
tx
ilc(
'r(
It is most common to present the seismic design spectra in graphicalform and atypicalexample is shown in Figures 26.4A & B. These are given for 5% damping which is also usual and
for both the OBE and the SSE events. Plots, which include the displacement and velocity data in addition to the acceleration data, are frequently used and these can includethe data atvarious different levels of critical damping. These tend to get congested and are sometimes difilcultto usewiththe required level
eadhd@ke. acceler,alion (a)

0,+1.0
OBE
oos+
ssE
o-+
Figure 26.5 A typical t.ipa.tite acceleration, veloci9 and displacement plot
Figure 26,6AAn example of sismic design data presented as a sedes of equalDns and also In grapnrcr rcrm
26 Seismic design of low tempercturc tanks
able to use this guide meaningfully. The use of an artificial response spectra is a cheaper but very much inferior means of providing a seismic design basis than that provided by a site specific SHA study.
26.3 Damping
It is important to select the appropriate level of damping for the djfferent component parts of a storage system for the (usually two) levels of seismic design event being considered. Guidance can be found in Iable 4.2 of Reference 26. / which is reoroduced in Figure 26.9. This reference uses the ierms "probable design earthquake" (PDE) and "contingency design earthquake" (CDE) in place of the more familiar OBE and SSE.
Where the seismic design data provided is tied to a single damping level (usually 5%), it is necessary to have a means of converting to other levels of damping as indicated in Figure
26.9. The accepted means of doing this is to use the Newmark and Hall amplification factors as shown in the table (Figure 26.10). The three columns headed A(B), V(p)and D(B)apply to the constant acceleration, constant velocity and the constant displacement parts ofthe response spectrum. This is illustrated in Figure 26.11. T2 is usually around 3 seconds. So, by way of an example: The natural frequency of the impulsive portion of the tank liquid contents falls between To and T1 and is 0.609 taken from the OBE 5% critical damping horizontal seismic response spectrum. lt is required to determine the acceleration appropriate to 2o/o ctilical damping as required for OBE design as shown in Figure 26.9. The acceleration is then Nt3\(2V"\ nA^ - -" '"
"-'i
a3@
?t\r)
or+
::.a1ions and also
: trre
26.68 An example ofselsmjc design data presenled as a series of in gfaphical form
'q
ue-
',-at given in the USAEC Regulatory cuide 1.60 (Reference r5.4). The spectral shape is expressed in a tabularform cover-g a fange of levels ofdamping (Figure 26 7). When plotted oui --is is as shown in Figure 26.8. The point where the accelera: rn intercepts the zero time axis is known as the peak ground ::celeration (PGA) and in these plots it has a value of unity. lt is
-ecessary to know the PGAappropriate to the chosen site to be
4 B ttsv"
Using the data from Figure 26.10 this becomes:

0.60
is 9-
c-s
'
y:::
2.71
= 0.81o
26.4 Directional combinations

0,5 2.0 5.0 7,0 10.0
Cr
1.0
3_54
5.95 4.25
-1.20
i.0 i.0
t.0
2.61
ri
2.t0
2.05 1,88
Any seismic event is made up of a combination of motions in the two horizontal (X and Y) and the vertical (Z) directions. Clearly it
2.27
2_12
t.90
displacnenr
2,14
l.?0
is unreasonable to assume that the three orthogonal components will be simultaneously at their maximum values. The in-
rlv
nnum
sound accelsalion, dd is 36 in. for Brornd accelsationol l.0 gravjry.
sohd
r ekcn
proporriont
io nuxinro
dustry has decided that the following represent sensible

combinations:
reonhond"roir
:Acelchrto. rid
disFlacenrem
siver rnEfergncc
xmplifiolioi raao* rs bk.n f'orl
Amprili.ation F .rou ro' conror Poina
. . .
100%
X +l- 30o
Y +l- 30%Z
30'/oX +/- 1004 Y +l- 3O%Z

3Oo/oX
+/- 30a Y +l- l}OYaZ
It is convenient to combine the two horizonlal components.

0.5
2.0 5.0
1.O
t.0 t.0
1,0 1.0
4.96 3.54
2.61
t 6rl
4.05 2.94
2.59
2_t3
).67
1.31 1.25
So for -the first two combinations listed above a facior of t, :J(10' 0.3') - 1044can beuseoandforthethirdcombination
a factor of
2.27
10.0
i.0
03+ 03'z)
t.90
2.17
r.l3
0424 is appropriate.
'Maxjmum grolnd displaetent is r.l.n troportionit to nariDun grou.d a.eletation and is 36 i.. aor eround acehrarion of I 0 gnvily.
There have been occasions when
a 100% +l- 40% +l- 40ok combination has been required, bui this is less usual.
! Acceleration anllticarion facros aor fie vertical dcxrsn r$pon* sp.ctra aE eqkl 16 ihos ior horizonlal deslgn rcspoise 3p.cttr ar r sivcn rr.qu.ncy, lhereas di$lacamenl aBpuliBIion lacroB aIo 2/3 nb$for lrori. anlal destgn lesponse specta. Itles rdios blveen llre amptitierion tuctou for the r{o desiri spectarretn agre.ftenr pnh lhosg tecomneidcd 'espone in retercnce I .
!Th6e valu.s were
cusion dl
changed lo ruke rhis tablc consistem veniel.onponenls in Sectiod B ol tirguide.
26.5 The behaviour of the product liquid

The means of calculating the effective masses ofthe impulsive and the convective portions ofthe stored liquid and the heights above the tank bottom of their centres of gravity are exactly the same as are used for ambient temperature tanks. This is described in Chapterl5, Section 15.2.2. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 485
Nilh rhe dn
Figure 26.7 Tables I and ll from ihe IJSAEC Regulatory cuide 1.60
26 Seismic design of low tempenture tanks
ll
Figure 26.8 The USAEC date plotted out
26.6 Natural frequencies

orderthatthe designer can extract the appropriate accelerations from the design seismic response spectra provided, it is
In
where:
necessary to determine the naturalfrequencies associated with
the significant loading componenb. These are the horizontal impulsive frequency of the liquid tank system, the horizontal convective frequency, and the vertical "breathing" mode frequency. There is a considerable volume of information on this
subject and the influences of tiank flexibility and foundation stiffness. In the interests of avoiding over complication, the methods considered in this ChaDterare limited to those discussed in References 26.3, 26.5 and 26.6.
T K D H
Note:
= = = =
first liquid sloshing period (sec)

a factor taken from figure L-4 (Figure 26.12)
tank diameter (ft) liquid fill height {ft)
lf the tank diameter is given in metres, this equation becomes T = 1.81 1k(D)' '. (Rememberto use consistent
units for D and H in Figure 26.12.)

This calculation method is probablythe most commonly used to
determine this period.
26.6.1 Horizontal convective frequency

From APf 620 (Reference 26.q This is the same method as is used for ambient temperature
tanks (see API 650 Appendix E ) and is described in detail in Chapter 15. For convenience this is repeated here: The period of the first liquid sloshing mode is given by:
From References 26.1, 26.3 and 26.5

The same equation forthe frequency ofthejth sloshing mode is oiven in each of these references and is:
.1 '2n
where:
R
.F'*"6H
tank radius (m) liquid fill height (m)
equ26.2
= t(D)o
equ 26.1
c.itical
)'obdble De)lgn
D;npjne'
?
:.rt\qudre
(P0F)
biplig, v"ssels, 5!a.ts, eqJioflusr r4.in elasric lelded sleel, p.est.essed

concreter rcll relnforced concfete (only sli9hr c.acking) Reinforced .o^.rete Hith conside.able c.acklns Bolted andlo. .iveted sreel, {ood st.uctu.er rith nailed
to
+--+--,'c.6rrarion
constanr
cssbnr vr.dry I
_,__+
dr!pr.c.m.d
comt.nr
eral Tanir
.onvecrlve {slosh) inpulsive
Pltinq, v4iele, sract5, equlpne.t, and ce.laln sttuclures that

telded steel, Orert..ssed
conc.ete (rjthout cooplete I oss or P.strets)i Presr.ess.n
Fig ure 26. 1 1 lllustraling the porlions of the response spectru m associated
wilh
constanl acceleration, conslant velocity and constant displacement

1.0
prethess lef!
Bolred and/or rivered steel, rood stfuclu.es rlrh bolred jojnts
0.8 0.6
$ri
Ileial
ranks
nal
red joln.s
convective (slosh) rnp! r5lve
0.5
4.O
7.0
80
Soil-str0ctu.. iiteraction effectr nor in.1!qe!
DIH
Figure 26.12 Figure L-4 from API 620 Appendix L
:gufe 26.9 Damping levels appropriate for different componenls

-.ken fram
Table 4.2 from Relercnce 26.1
E
pm
Young's modulus of tank shell material (N/m2) density of the tank shell material (kg/m3) A dimensionless coefficient which depends on the tank proportions (H/R and VR in consistent units), the Poisson's ratio of the tank shell material and the relative densities of the oroduct liquid and the shell material (p /p.)
Cr
nence:
;
-1
(P), v (P) and D (p) ryty ro ie conea r..l.mnD. In rhi$ obr. rhe f!.rots ^ r.nianr dBprrancm p.niotu. esperildy. ofrtrc tl.ssn sp.(nnn.
!,n$d \ dsi!. rd
P'
where:
:igure 26.10 Newma* and Halldamping amptificalion factors
g li
= =
acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
1841
pw pr pn C"
= = = =
density ofiresh water (1000k9/m3) density of the product liquid (kg/m3) density ofthe tank shell material (kg/m3) factor taken from Figure 26.13 (also plotted as Figure 26.14)
using real numbers (D= 65 m and H= 25 m), equation 26.1 gives a period of8.76 seconds, whilstequation 26.3 gives 8.95 seconds which is reassuringly close. The small difference is almost certainly due to the manual interpolation of Figure 26.12. Equation '15.2 in Chapter 15, gives means of calculating K exactly.
It as suggested that for a shell of non-uniform thickness, the average thickness is used. The data in Figures 26.13 and 26.14 assumes a Poisson's ratio of 0.3 for the tank shell material.
The method given in Reference 26.3

The period ofvibration ofthefirst impulsive tankiiquid horizontal mode is given by:
26.6.2 The horizontal impulsive frequency

The method given
in References 26.1 and 26.5
5.61rH n; _ rr =
The formulae given in these References are essentially the same and take account of the flexibility of the tank itself. The natural frequency ofthe tank{iquid system, using the terminology given in Reference 26.5, is given by:
{ _ "1
Kn ll tr9 -./=-
equ26.4
where:
TI
product liquid fill height (m) period coetficient from figure C2.29 (Figure
kh
.fF
iL
26.15)
equ 26.3
z^n
wnere:
! pm
\ts
E
liquid density (kg/m3) Young's modulus of the tank shell material
fo H
= =
(N/m,)
natural frequency (Hz) liquid fitl heisht (m)
It is again suggested that for a shell of non-uniform thickness, the average thickness is used and that the data in Figure 26.15

o28
Frequen
t @6cient, C-, in expressio! for fthdmertal Mtdal frequelcy, to, of tels fll wirh wateri v=03,
AIP =0'127
HIR
0.5 0.6 0.7
O,E
vzt@ ol
c.
I
tlR=00fd5
0 050 6
JR = 0.N1
o.t1r9
0.9763
0.079 9 0.02 9 0.065 4 0.20
00538 00564
0 058 ? 0.060 5
0.062
0.9
1.0
0.08'/ 5
0.090 3
.9
5
0 064 1 0.065
0.065 1
0.0915 0.091?
Figure 26.13 Table 1 from Reference 26.5
Height !o radius ratio, H/Rm
Figure 26.15 Figure C2.29frcm Relerence 26.3
andaql
ol0.127 (i.e. a steeltank containing water).
These tables give a very limited amount of data when compared with Figure 26.13 and for steel tanks, is confined to a VR ratio of 0.001 . This makes it quite hard to use in practice. It also requires adjustment for different product specific gravities in the same way as C1 in Section 26.6.2.1. Thus the value of this factor to be used in equation 26.5 in the place of Cu is:
The method given in Reference 26.3

The period ofvibration ofthe flrst tank-liquid vertical (breathing) mode is given by:
Figure 26.14 Data from Figure 26.13 extrapolated and plotted
is based on a tank shell material with a Poisson's ratio of 0.3. Using real numbers again (D = 65 m, H = 25 m, product liquid SG = 0.48, shell material density = 8000 kg/m3 and E= 210 x 10e N/m2, average shellthickness = 20 mm) both methods give a period of0.35 seconds, which is again reassuring and suggests that they emanate from the same source.
equ 26.6
Where the variables are as given in Section 26.6.2 with the exceDtion of:
2e
ku =
ti(
factor taken from figure c2.30 (Figure 26.18)
All of these References (26.1, 26.3 and 26.5) provide worked examples which are helpful, particularly in sorting out the aporooriate units.
When the same real numbers given above are used, these two methods give values for this period of 0.32 and 0.30 seconds respectively.
26,6.3 The vertical barrelling frequency

The method given in References 26.1 and 26-5 The natural frequency of the axisymmetric breathing mode is
grven by:
26.7 Ductility
This is a complex subject about which much has been written. In this level of analysis it is dealt with in a very simple manner. Wozniak and Mitchell in their paper (Reference 26.7) supporting their proposal for a seismic Appendix to API 650 suggest the following: "The increased hoop tension due to earthquake ground motion should be added to the hoop tension due to hydrostatic pressure. The hydrodynamic portion (i.e. that part due to the earthquake) should be divided by a ductility factor of2.0 for application in the design at the normal allowable stresses." This method ofanalysis treats ductility in a different way. Forthe oBE condition the structure must remain elastic and a ductility factor on 1 .0 is used. For the SSE condition the structure must remain nearly elastic and ductilityfactors of 1 .2 to 1.3 are usual.
A factor is calculated using the formulal
{,YLl:
z,rn
equ 26.5
\l pm
Where the variables are as given in Section 26.6.2 with the exception of:
C"
factor taken from table 7 .5 of Reference 26.1 (Figure 26.16) or table 4 ot Reference 26.5 (Figure 26.17).
Note:
This table is for materials with a Poisson's ratio of 0.3
26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks events at 5% damping in Figure 26.6 and using the periods cal-
C0EFFICIENT Cv IN EXPRISSIoN FoR FUNDAT4ENTAL FRIQIIENCY 0F

AXISYI'1I,IETR1C, SREATHIN6 I,IODT OF VIBRATI(]N OF TULL TANKS
Bending
Sol
Bending
culated above (i.e. horizontal convective = 8.95 sec, horizontal impulsive = 0.35 sec and vertical barrelling = 0.30 sec) the basic accelerations can be taken from the graphs, or more accurately calculated from the formulae given. These accelerations must now be adjusted for the corlect level of damping, the inclusion of the second horizontal component and the influence of ductility.
ution
Sol
uti
on
!.?0
0.30 0.50 0,75 1.0
1,5
0.0467
0.052I
0.06 L0
0.0787
0.1135 0,1250 0,1414 0.1564 0.1650

a -r7 26 0.
0,056/
0.0705 0.0808 0.0868 0.0925 0.0949 0.0969 0.0979
0.09/
0.0738 0.0834 0,0889 0.0950 0.0964 0,0982 0.0992
0. t230 0.1423 0.1533 0.1641
Figure 26.6 does include a means of adjusting the damping from the 5% figure provided to othervalues, but in this instance the more commonly used Newmark and Hall relationships will be adopted (see Figure 26.10).
The damping values suggested in Figure 26.9 for the OBE and the SSE for various actions have been adopted. These adiust-
?.0 3.0 5.0
0.r688 D,TI24
i/56
0. l7 70
0.1/44 = 0.30
0,17
0.1775
ments are illustrated in Figure 26.19.
* t
:.ure
h/R = 0.001, erlp = 0.127, h/R = 0,01, o!/o = 0.40, !
! '
26.9 Product liquid pressures acting on
tank shells
The tank shell is normally designed for the hoop tension resulting from either the maximum operating liquid fill height orfor the
26-16 Table 7.5 from Reference 26.1
Cofrcienl
C, in
exPrssion
hydrostatic test condition as described in Chapter 18. Where

the tank is subjected to seismic loadings, the hoop stresses are
for tundalaental ftequency of

aisymmetric. breatbing node ol vibration of full lanh = ' 0.3, tlR = 0'$1, PtlP =0127
increased.
The total hoop tension is made up ofthe following components:
The stress due to the normal operating condition (P")

05
075 10 15
0.ff70 5 0.080 8 0-086 8
The stress due to the horizontal impulsive action (Pi) The stress due to the horizontal convective action (P") The stress due to the vertical barrelling action (P") These are all the maximum values calculated when the tank is full of product liquid. From Section 26.4, it can be seen that these actions do not act simulianeously at their maximum calculated values. but give rise to the following two combinations:
o.w5
26 5
. aJrc 26.11 Table 4lrcm Reference
_,1
'-J
t^ zlt - ,|
equ 26.7
u
-ris
ductility faclor (i.e. 25"k is given as 1 .25)
. .
Ps
+P +P.+0.3P,
+
Pc) + P"
Ps + 0.3(Pi
factor is then applied directly to the design accelerations
:s indicated in the following section.
The means of calculating the actual values of these various components are taken from Reference 26.7 This refefence
uses US units.
26.8 Calculation of the design accelera-
= 2.6YDG
equ 26.8
tions
-aving calculated the naturalfrequencies ofthe Iiquid-tank sys:em for the horizontal convective, horizontal impulsive and the .ertical barrelling modes, the basic accelerations for each 'rode for both the OBE and the SSE cases can be found from
wnere:
P" Y D 6
P
where:
= = = = '
hoop tension per inch of shell heightdueto normal product filling (lb/in) distance from the point on the tank shell under consideration to the liquid surface (ft) tank diameter (ft) product liquid specific gravity
:re appropriate response spectra. arom the datia given for the horizontal and vertical seismic
For tanks where D/H is greater than 1 333:
.4.5A.GDH|
, .^^Dt rY ' -0.51.v''l -l I tanh 0.5oo JH tt-lrl
equ 26.9
0r
Pr
hoop tension per inch of shell height due to the horizontal impulsive action (lb/in) horizontal impulsive design acceleration (g) see Section 26.8 above
TI
liquid filling height (ft)
For tanks where D/H is less than 1.333:

Figure 26.18 Figure C2.30ftom Reference 26.3
Y< 0.75D: STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 489
26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks
oosign
aerSmlc EV6nl
lIod6
Priod
Batrc
gcond
Crilical
Dqmping
Ductility
0uctillty
O..lon
Edjustod
tonzonlEl
dafiprn0
s6lgclgd (%) 0.5
2.O
adjul|med factor
lclor
adjultm!
faclar
(c)
faalor
A'B'CD
Horizontl conv6ctiv6 HorizonlEl inpLrlsive Vertlcel barrsling Horizontel convclive Horizontl impuliive Varlical ba ling
8S5 035
030
0.35
0.0028 0.175 0.1153

0.0112
1.U4 1.U4
1.000 1.044
1.512
1.35i 1.512
'1.000
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.25 1.25 1.00
1.000 1.000 1.000 0,816 0.816 1.000
0,0044
0.2645
0.5 5.0
0.7500
0.4610
LU4
1.000
030
1.m0
0.0144 0.63E9 0.4610
Figure 26.19 Adjustments to the basic acceleraions
o.sl l'z -277AGD,[ r 0.75D' 0.75D

L
equ 26.10
prEN 14620
This allows '1.33 times the allowable stress for normaloperation (as Chapter'18) for the OBE case and minimum yield of the olate or weld metal for the SSE case.
Y> 0.75D:
R = 1 .384AiGD'z
equ26.11
P^
wnere:
0.975A-cD/ /
= =
cosh
/HY) 3.68
The required thickness of the tank shell to comply with these criteriaforthe OBE and SSE casescan becalculated and compared with that derived from the static normal operation rules. As the seismic loadings can be the governing criteria for shell thickness at different levels, it is necessary to calculate the thicknesses required for both the OBE and the SSE cases for each course of the tank shell. This is lengthy and tedious work, best carried out by bespoke computer programs or by the use of spreadsheets.
^' u
I
H\ cosh 3.68 I
equ26.12
D,j
P" A"
hoop tension per inch of shell heightduetothe horizontal convective acceleration (lbi in) horizontal convective acceleration (g) see Section 26.8 above
|
It is customary to use the fixed fraction combinations of the three components for the OBE thickness calculations and the souare root ofthe sum ofthe souares forthe SSE thickness calculations. Using the 65 m diametertank adopted as an example earlier, and the accelerations from Figure 26.19, Figure 26.20 shows these calculations. lt can be seen that to accommodate the OBE. courses 4.5 and 6 need to be increased in thickness whilst the SSE courses 2,3,4,5 and 6 need to be increased in thickness. The distribution of Pi, P", and
Pu
I rr-r-v'l P" = AP,cos ,r * L \ zn 1)

where:
equ 26.13
P" A"
It is
= =
hoop tension per inch of shell heightduetothe vertical barrelling acceleration (lb/in) vertical barrelling acceleration (g) see Section 26.8 above
over the height of the tank are
shown in Figure 26.21. fhe impulsive and vertical barrelling comoonents are at their maximum value at the bottom of the
tank whilst the convective comoonent is at its maximum value at the liquid surface. There is a school ofthought that Pu should be distributed in a Iinear fashion over the tank height. Figure 26.21 shows the more onerous ootions. The distribution of the impulsive and convective components around the periphery of the tank shell is a function ofthe cosine of the angle to the point under consideration whilst the vertical barrelling pressure is equally distributed around the tank circumference. That partofthe seismic moment which acts onthe basearea of the tank may be required to be evaluated for reasons offoundation design or base insulation compressive loadings. As has been described in Chapter 15, this moment is the difference be-
normalto calculatethe hoootension in the tank shell resulting from the operating static loadings combined with the most
onerous combinations of the OBE and SSE loadings. The allowable tensile stress in the tank shell for seismic OBE and SSE loadings are given in the various tank design Codes. Briefly these are:
APt 620
Appendices Q and R suggest that 1.33 times the allowable stress for "normal" operation may be used. As API 620 does not consider the seismic events at two different levels, this allowable stress is usually taken to apply to the OBE case. Q.3.3.6 does apply the additional criteria of not exceeding 90% of yield stress for tanks of stainless steel and aluminium alloy only. The criteria for the "normal" allowable stress is as described in Chapter 18. As API 620 gives no criteria for the SSE case, the rule in NFPA 59A is frequently borrowed. This limits the tensile stress to the minimum specified yield strength of the plate, or of the weld metal if this under-matches the plate material.
tween l\illBP and MEBP The distribution of this moment in

terms of base pressures across the tank bottom is given in Reference 26.3.
26.10 Tank stability under seismic
loadings
The basic calculation methods used are the same as are used
BS 7777
In Annex B of part '1, the tensile stress in the OBE case is
limited to 85% of the plate or weld metal minimum yield strength, and for the SSE case to the yield strength of the plate or weld metal.
for ambient tanks and described in Chapter 15. These come from API 620 AppendixL (Reference 26.6) which is based on the workofWozniak and Mitchell (Reference 26.4. Appendix L
of API 620 is essentially the same as Appendix E of API 650.
The methods of calculating the impulsive and convective
TANK SEISMIC DESIGN .SUMMARY OF HOOP LOADINGS

Fixed fraction load combination Square root of lhe sum of the squares combinalion OAE LOAD CASE Design code API 620 A i
H, Tank
ht:
25.000
ac
=l 0.2645 I =[ ooo+l ]
&
=fo.r55tl
P'
Kl= 9774,Q28 K2= 42.944 D/H = 2.600

P.
43
A{rowabre srress
=L9q!!9L
Pa,*
25350 22740 20069 17219 14234 11117 7472 4503
P",..
24245
21732 19053 16254 13346 10339 7247 4085
P"..,
25351 22770
Ts
2 3 5 6 7
)e1
I I
2.700 22.3AA 2.700 13.600 2.704 16.900 2.704 14.240 2_704 11.500 2_7AA 8.800 2_7AA 6.'100 2.744 3.400
Ph*, P",".
P",""
19471 17114 14756 12399

10041
3352 3207 297A 2647
4830 4659
4374 3975
45
4A 51
14.83 13.03 9.44 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00
20443
17175 14170 11035 7777 4404
2249
1786
'1272 721
3r'62
2835 2094 1239
7644
5326 2969
56 62
fa
79 90
14.52 '13.04 11.49 9.86 815 6 37 4.51 2 5a
13.91 12.44 10.91 9.31 7U 5.92 4.15 2.U
14.52 13.04 11.48

S.84 8.11
6.32 4.45 2.52
10
:--9
:_ -:
= The maximum hoop tension as a rcsult ol the combined masses in lhe horizontat; = The maximum hoop tnsion as a
phnax=ps+pi+pc+0.3pv
resuttoflhe cdombined masses
tn the vedjcal;
The squarc rcol ot the sum of the squares
-:-
Ps/ss=Ps+!@-t[7;j
Ts:
Thickness ofsnettdue to hyd.ostatic toadings onty
Th = Thickness
otshelldue to maximum hoopiension
as a resutt of
ho zontalmorion;
:_: :_:
T,= Thickness ofshellduelo maximum hoop lension as a resutr of verricai motionj
T*"
= Thicknss ofshelldue to maxrmum hoop tension irom squarc rcot
otthe sums sqlaredi
:'
a-=
TANK SEISMIC DESIGN .SUMMARY OF HOOP LOADINGS

Fixed fiaclion load cambinatlon Squarc rcol ofthe sum of the sqlares combination SSE LOAD CASE Design code API 620 Ar Ac 25.000 G. Product SG =
::_:
-:
_-
=-o.oi A"=T;36fi--l
=l
0-63E9
K1 K2 D/H
= = =
23609.174 140.556 2 600
Allowable stress
=l
400.000
3 5 6
8
2.700 2.700 2.700 2.700 2.700 2.700 2.700 2.700

Ph,*
22.300
19.600 16.900 14.200 11.500 8.800 6.100 3.400
'19471
17114 '14756 12399

10041
9919 9489 8788
11667 '11254 10565 9602
7834
6655 5285 3763
142 147 156 168

'184
34256
31362
32932
30023 26760 23163 19260 15084 10675 6078 1338
28113
2451A 20544 16321 11742
6861
34785 31835 28499 24792
4362
6848 5058 2993
20730
16336 1 1635 6653
7684
5326 2969
204
229
2133
442
259
14.83 13.03 11.24 9.44 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00
10
15.00 13.73 12_31 14.74 9.01 7.15 5.14 3.00
14.42 13.15 11.72 10.14 8.43 6.61 4.68 2.66
15.23 13.94 12.48 10.86 9.08 7.15 5.10

2.91
= The maximum hoop tension as a resu[
he combined masses in the hodzontat]
phnat=ps+pi+pc+0.3pv
Ps+ Pv + A.j
P*,"=
P"* Ts:
Th =
The maximum hoop tension as a rcsutt ofthe cdombined masses in the vedicat;
ei
+ Pc)
= The square
rootoithe sum ofth squares
csns=es+1/jF
+a +Ej
Thickness ofshelldue to hydroslatic toadings only Thickness of shell due to maximum hoop le.sion as a resutr of ho zontat motion;
T" = Thickness ofshelldue to naximum hooptension as a resutt of vedica{motion;
T"*
Thickness ofshsttdue to maimum hoop tension frcn square root ofrhe sums squaredl
gure 26.20 Spreadsheets showing the calculaiions for siabjtity and axiat compressive toadings
o =P
-e! :'f,.
ae,
-:C
:lr'
N \
0.8
\ \ \ \ \.
,a
p
.g
o -
0.4
\
Pv
Pi
\,, \ \ \
0.2
0.4
0.6
1.0
Pressure (1.0 = maximum value)
Figure 26.21 The distribution ofthe ho zontal impulsive, horizontal convective and the vedical barrelling pressures on lhe tank shell
masses and their moment arms, the resistance to overturning provided by the liquid action on the annular plate, the axialcompressive stresses in the tank shell and the overall stability are exactly as described in Chapter 15. One difference is that the calculations are carried out for both the OBE and the SSE seismic events and for a numberofloading casesfor each event involving the directions [horizontal (H) and vertical (VI and coexistent proportions (usually 100% and 30%). lt is usualto look at the following for both OBE and SSE:
compressive stress is one third ofthe classical buckling stress for a perfect cylinder When the influence of the internal liquid pressure is considered, there is clearly room to increase this stress, especially for extreme load cases like the SSE. NFPA 59A, which is often one ofthe significant design codesfor LNG tanks, requires the design limit for the SSE case to be "critical" for buckling.
l\.4uch has been written about allowable buckling stresses in vertical cylindricalvessels. Before choosing a value for the SS E condition it would be wise to look at in Figure 18.5, in Chapter 18, (The Royal Aeronautical Society Structural Data sheet). This takes account of fabrication and erection imperfections and the influence of internal pressure on axialbuckling strength of vertical cylindrical vessels.
. . . .
100%H + 30%v
100%H - 30%v
30%H + 100%V
30%H - 100%v
This represents quite a lot of work and is best achieved by the use of spreadsheets. The means of including the vertical component into the calculation is to increase or decrease the density of the product liquid and the effective weight of the tank shell. These calculations have been carried out for the 65m diametertankand are shown as Figures 26.22 to 26.26. Notallof the load cases have been included as it is clearthattheydo not all play any part in the selection of the tank scantlings. It is clear from these soreadsheeb that the various OBE load cases do not change anything other than the annular plate width, which is increased from the API 620 minimum requirements. The dominant load case is the SSE 100% horizontal plus 30% vertical combination. To achieve a workable solution
A similar relationship between these variables is illustrated in Figure 26.27 taken ftom Reference 26.3. Also the elastic plastic collapse (elephant's foot buckling) criteria given in this Reference could usefully be explored. Figure 26.28 shows a tank which has suffered an eleDhant's foot buckle in the first course. It may be that in the light ofthese investigations, a factor of 1.33 is found to be conservative figure for SSE buckling. Indeed, BS 7777 in Annex B to part 1 suggests that the same value for allowable compressive stress as is permitted byAPl 620 is used for the oBE and a vatue oto.+lEllis used for the sSE. This is
\R/
two thirds ofthe "critical" value and is the same as using a factor of2.0 rather than 1.33.
lf it isdecided thatan anchored design can be adopted, then the situation becomes easier in certain respects. The axial comoressive stresses in the lowercourses ofthe tank shellare con-
for an unanchored tank, the annular plate must be thickened and made wider, and the lower shell courses be made thicker.
The axial compressive stress criteria adopted in this calculation has been theAPI 620Appendix Lvalue increased bya factorof 1.33.
siderably reduced, as are the local high line loadings being fed into the base insulation and thence into the foundation.
As has been discussed in Chapter 15, this is due to the bending
As has been mentioned in Chapter 15, the API allowable axial
-eutral axis of the cylinder being maintained in a central posi:on, ratherthan being displaced to one side and effectively con:entrating the axial compressive portion of the bending load rto a small Dortion of the shell circumference. In certain cir:umstances, perhaps where the site is of restricted area and :re spacing rules diciate a tank of proportions unhelpful to the
sismic design process (i.e. tall and of a small diameter), then anchorage is inevitable unless expensive options such as seis-ric isolation are adopted. Where either design is a possibility, :ren a number of other factors come into play:
to be substantial and will need to be attached to the lowest shell course where the hoop and vertical bending stresses are high during the defining seismic event. i.e. when the tank is full of product liquid. The addition of large localstresses into this area is seen by manyas enhancing the risk of tank failure under seismic loading conditions.
26.11 Tank sliding

As has been mentioned earlierin Chapter 15, there are differing views held by those with seismic design wisdom on the need to
Where the tank can withstand the seismic loadings without increasing the tank shellthickness, the only increased cost ofthe unanchored alternative being an increase in annular plate width and thickness, then it is usualto choose the unanchored alternative.
When significant increases in shell thicknesses are required to make the unanchored alternative viable, then an economic assessment will help to make the decision, untess:
The owner, or his engineer have strong views regarding the use of anchors. These usually relate to the non-de-
sirability of attaching anchors to an already highlystressed part ofthe tank shell. The anchors may require
prevent tanks from moving horizontally during seismic events. One school ofthought, which probably represents the majority view and certainly has determined the Code requirements on the subject, requires there to be no movement during the most onerous seismic design event. The second school of thought considers the horizontal seismic desagn event to be a sefies of rapid reversals as is illustrated in Figure 26.1 with the input energy equally distributed around the zero acceleration axis. Consequently the tank shuffles around on the spot and any lateral displacemenb are small. This shuffling about is considered a useful and harmless way for the system to increase damping and dissipate the input energy.
Seishic
!!q
Led @s.
Design
of Storooe Tonlc
Seismic Desiqn of Storoqe Torks Mg

Ldd .ose
65n did x27n high LN6 tonk OBE 100% horizoni.l - 30% ve.ticol
65m dio x 27ln high LNr tonk OB 100% horizodol+ 30% vedi@l
*zon c.efticient
Essntidl Fociliti.s
z.fl--o.+loo
fodor
-l r.[--iE--l
-l
'Zo^z c.ztticient
weighi of l@k shell. insulotion

Roof l@d c.frled by 5hll
Tsoa-
uid
his
IPA
Height oJ tdnr shell 'fork Dionete. Produ.t specif ic 6.dvity
Hr= 88-58 ft D= 213-25 fr

6.fi---5024
r-nrl ?r.oo
|-
i<entidl Focilitier f octor Weighl of rank shell+ insuldtion

Roof
led cd.ied
by shell
Height of tonk shell

Tdnk Diohetef P.odlct specif i. Gravit Moxilnln liquid level Thi.kn$ of first colrte
f6;_oo I
W,= 1021577 l') w.= O lb HJ. 88.58 fr D: 213.25 lt H. A2.OZ tt t= 0.657 in 'rb' 0.409 ir
T?rn
l-6l-00
T-rl t ,?.@-l
I I
\iG
liloxihuh liquid level rhickne3 of firsr course

T1lkkness of
H=
6d!ld.s
pldte3
42,02 ft 0,657 in 0.1rc9 in
frj.oo I Tl-.io I
T-ioE-]
6=f-nE6-l
Yield sfEngth of onNldrJ
l
tn SE
Thicknels of onnsldrs Plotes Yield strengih of dnnulo.s
frjoo fto.?o frcro
l l
in yieid
of 1st.ourse
Forc @efficient
Sate Atnplif i@tloh f oclof
ii yield of 15i @u.se Force coeffi.i.ht
Site Anplif i.otion f octor Wight of tonk conints
ter
W.i9hl of tdnk .orterrs
W,.
37961434.83 k9
lm ln
bc
'tk
'J S
F
= z 6ot) : 0,613 'r= kool = 8.958 c?= 3-375 3/12. 0.0166 Wtlwt- 0:4344 wl= 39914438.12 Wzlwt. 0.5309 Wz= 44742749-44 x/H: 0.3750 Xr. 30.76 xz/H- 0.5693 Xz- 46.69 iLn.nr (EBP) lb-fr : 334rt99504.9 P.oduct weight wL = 6053.70 lblfi Min ridth of onnu,or = 4925 ft 0.656 lt sloshing mve height d= . 4335010 GHD,/1,
D/H
W?/q.
xz/H
Wr/W'=
X1/H.
= 2.600 k. 0613 r. koo5). 8.958 c2.3.375 S/t2 00166 O 4344 W1= 36355188.86 0.5309 Wz- 44432695.35 O.37aO X1 = 30.76 0.5693 x, . 46.69
D/H
enent (E8P)
Productweight WL= Mii widih.f dnrulor sloshihg wove heighi d.

GHD,/t, 5helllihe lood
lb-ft = 322887096.9
5777.49
tb/tt
4.28
0.656
1524.85
fr
shelllii
iEX loi9
@lnp
lood
M/ID1WJ+ W!)
force
: b-
I.0O9
l$47.O1
M/tD1%* w,)
nBx bng .ohP rorce longitudiml comp stress
allowoble cohp
tf
longiiudiml cohp strss l4al.29 oll.wable conp shs F.. 3083.11 che.k stresses : Ok
check stobjliiy
Wi. . b:
0.972
10388.93 't316.76
stfess
check
Ok
ch.ck dr6se5
F". 3083.11 : Ok stdbilily ' ol
l.!ote:
ZlCi A\and
ZIC2. A. ,{nnriL. plate thick|l6i fron,lPI620 rabl. Q-4A
Note:
ZTcFAno d ZIcz=A. ploi thi.kh.$ from API620 Tabl Q 4A
^n.!lo.
Figure 26.22 Spreadsheet calculations for stability and axial compressive |oaorngs
Figure 26.23 Spreadsheet calculations forstability and axial compressive rcaorngs
26 Seismic design of low tempenture tanks
Scienic Dcsion of Slorooc lanks !!t

65n dio x 27n high !| ronk l4s!L!s$ sse rco% ho.itontdl * 30U wrt
s.ishic
!S9L.od
Desion
of Storooe Tqnk
API 620 oppendix L
rPl650
oppcndix
6l
c.t
65n dio x 27|n nigh LNG tonl sSE I0o% horieitdl- 3o%v.tti6l
'Zoe .oetficiqt B34tiol F4ilti* fdri4 W.ight of td|( 3h.ll. i@krion

Roof l@d
'ZotE
..ettiei'n
z=[---iG-l
r
=
.!rtiol F.cilhi.s f dctor

Weight of tonl sh.ll+ in3rhiion Roof l@d .drri.d by shcll
f---i-oo--l
6ried
by shell
fu'-s3l
H.jght of t@k sh.ll
ldk Dio|n.i4 Prod@t Sp4'fi. 6mttt

MqiNn
liquid l.vel
0.
6
Thi.lB
Yi.ld
of fhst
of
.dE
l1= 4232 ft r,,.f-J5@-*ltuzin'

rn
=
=[-i.-6d.l
?13.25 ft
Thi.l6*s of @nuhB pldtd siretdn

in
t f
,5,@ ezoo
l"'
Height of tdnk lhell Tonl Diomeler Produ.r s?cific orovit
T ro.oo
l*
l^.rihuln
_rhickn
l.'"
liquid l.vel of fa.sr cou.s.
t1: 88.58 t zB.e5 ft D= a [-o.-ii:?-l H: 42.02 ft

=
f!"0 ,r"oo
F T
frr-06-1
,5'o
omhrs
yi.ld of 13t @urs.
FoE e.fficidt sir. I nplifi..rion fodd

W.irhl ot
ronk
l--ffi--lturin'
I
"'=|"-_-l s.l 1.0o
ThicloBs of .irEh.s pldta Yield srreryth of orrul@s lîn yield of lsi cours? For.e coefficient site Arnplif icotion fdctor
Weight of tonk contnis
|z16-l
Fq.f--ffi-lturin' r,".|--ffi-.]tuuin'
c'
f-63o-l
@nr.ii3
=f-o;-l s:l r.@
wl:
3112963719
- 2.600 , = 0.613 T.k(Dd5). a.95a C2: 3.375 s/T? : 0.0135 wl/Wi. 0.4344 wt= 44O7f444.59 W,/W'. 0-5309 W,.53870759,14 Xr = 30.76 Xt/ta= O3IAJ x,/H: 0,5693 X2= 46.69 l.ndt (ESt) lb-fi = 937391231 Product rejghr wL. 1212996 lb/ft : 73U lt l{in width of omkr d= 1-?91 ft 5l6hin9 ME h.ignr . 1331396 6H6"F . sh.ll liE load Wt M46.72 lbltt . 7.475 ^.!/lo'(wi*wJ : 6 797A2.A6 l6/lt M lo'g .olnp fft. r4itudjel @nP 5116 6254.5a lb/inz F,. 49A4.68 lb/i.z otkMbl coinp iifd
0/H
dlebl. conP.6iv. !tr4 sceed.d olloftbL @hPte$iv. st,B O( chal srohili'y ol' zIq+\atdzrc2=A. (mlu.s of z did c,.djGr.d r. suir) amslor lhte rhicktEs iMr@.d to lllow d tukhor.d $iurroh Eotros shll couE. 6lso ind.@d to ollow oh uMchorsd $lution Othc. low *ell cdr36 tjll rcquir. chcli'g fof 4Pr6ive str4 dd 5ow
chck
!i..sg
= Wornhg Enhohc.d
6/H= ?.600 I : 0.613 T. k(Dot) = 8.956 c2 :3.375 s/.'2. 0.0135 wy'W.= 0.4344 Wt. 32459497.b? wrl4. 0.5309 W,: {01503?0.8 0.3750 X, = 30.7b X,/H : X/H: 0.5693 X, = 46.69 iLn r$ G8P) lb-fr : 6984?51Y.4 P.oduci ri9hi wt= 9o42.al lb/L l in wadrh of .nelqr = 7.304 f+ 1.291 tr dSloshiis *6ve heighi . t36a295 6Hb'/{ wl: 1378.39 lb/ft shelllihe lodd l 4D'z(wi* wD = 1 475 b = 59472.33 lh/tr |mx loig conp for@ 4662.34 lb/i,J longiiudiml .onp s+fss F,= 49W.6a lb/i^z .lloebr. comp dr63
check
sire$e.
chak ndbility
: Ol : Ok
N.ie ZIc'=iiand 2TCr:,t"

(e. Figta
26-24)
1o erit) uekhored solution Sottoh colrse sh.ll plot. thickns. incM!.d fo dlloa oi un nchor.d
(wiues of Z 6nd C, adjusted

on
lnruld. pldle thickrcss inc@!d to dllo{
sorution
lJSOrffi.rO
ap|.""O"n""t calculations for stability and axial compressive
Figure 26.25 Spreadsheet calculations for stability and axial compressive toaotngs
The calculations are simple and are shown in Figure 26.29 for the 65 m diametertank. The direction ofthe verticalcomponent is taken to give the minimum effective self-weight and consequently the minimum horizontal restraint.
using the materials and finishes proposed. Small-scale testing must be carried out with care by those experienced with this type of work. The apparently simple small scale friction tests can be misleading. There is some published data available and one such source is Reference 26.8. The various design Codes give some limited guidance in this
rc
tr
The maximum value of the required coefficient of friction between the tank and the underlying base is calculated, for the SSE case with the verticalcomponent in the unhelpfuldirection, as 0.3478 in this case. For mnventional LNG tanks, the inner tank bottom will be constructed of9% nickelsteeland the base insulation willmost usuallybe capped with a concrete screed or similar lt is this interface that predominantly concerns the designer, although it is worth considering the possibility of there being another interface within the base insulation "sandwich" which may be the more likely slip plane. This is not usually the
case. Assuming the 9% nickel steeliconcrete screed situation in this case, the efiective ooefficient of friction can vary widely depending on the surfacefinishes ofthe steeland the concrete. The steel can be supplied untreated, shot-blasted or shotblasted and primed. The concrete screed can be supplied with a wide variation of compositions and finishes. Proprietary mate-
. . o
API 620 Appendix L This suggests the use of a coefficient of friction of 0.40. BS 7777 This gives no advice regarding this matter.
ta
prEN 14620 This gives the following mandatory (i.e. shall rather than should) requiremenb
Horizontal sliding ofthe tank shall not be allowed Friction factors shall be based on literature ortesting For the OBE case a factor of safety of 1.5 shall beapolied Far the SSE case a factor of safety of 1.0 shall beapplied
rialssuch as are often used onfactoryfloors and concretewalkways can be used to increase the coefficient of friction.
The best source offriction
datia is derived from
laboratorytests
The resistance-to-sliding throughfriction between the tank bottom plating and whatever lies beneath will impose significant
I I
XE
Seisnic besion of Storooe Tar*s

EL
l,.d .@
66h dia x 27n high L|.l6 tdnk SSE 301 hod:ontal + $0n varicdl
rzor..o.tfi.i!nt
ilr"
-Jr" lJ' lJh
z=[-o.orE &= D: H:
rtrtidl F@iliris f.dor W.i+t of iq.k 3h.lllin{ldrion Roof lo.d.dried hy!hll

Holgnt ot
*l r=[--i]ii-l
1238549
rb
| lflr
|
tok4.ll
f-0.i-l
27.00
TokOl6etcf
Prodlcr Sp.cltic 6.dviy Mdxinub liqlid l.!.1
o.[-i]EEiil
2F-45 ft 42.02 fi
f6r.oo
Ta5.oo
l''
Thickn.# of fir.t .oqrr. Thickn.s of d.ular pldr.r

Yalld rtrcngth of dnnuldH
I rirzii-l
T ,oJo
r',=l---5i6-o_lruzi"'
Fo
fiin yi.ld of l.r couB. Forc. co.ffi.iqt 5it. Anplif icarioi f @r.r
=f-166-d--lttri"' c,=f o.o--l
s:l 1.00
W.igl'r of
rdk.6ir.nr.
D/H: 2.600 k= 0 613 T= ktDo6) = a.958 C2= 3.375 Sff2. O!:o41 WtIWr= 04344 Wt:440774aa.59 WrlW1: 0,5309 Wr= $47O75t14 0.3750 x= 30.76 x/l: X?Al: 0-5693 Xz= 46,69 l 6at (EBF) lb-ti = 27361536!.3 PFodu.r w.ighr WL= 1?12956 l6/tr : Min odth of qnnula 7.304 fi slhingMw highr d: O.ll7 ll : 1831396 a\bz/rz sh.ll litr. load Wr = t84A.72 lb/lr . M/tD1W'tw.) o43o nd hn9 .ohP f.r.. b = 94f,7-9o lb/I1 longitudind conp.rr.s 74537 lb/it' .lloeble conp dr.# F. = 49t4.68 lb,li?
chak.t..#ee
= Ok
Figure 26.27 Figure C4.5lrom Reference 26.3
ch.ckltability:
Ok
ACiArad4cz=A\
Annuld Phterhi.kn
{vdlue of
# in+.c.d
zod c, adjBred to surr 16 i{ir rcO%H+30AVcG (i..li9
26.24)
=igure 26.26 Sp.eadsheet calculalions fof stabilily and axial compressive odrngs
ing
N|s
loadingson the bottom as a membrane. The loadings which are the cause ofthe sliding are acting on the tank walls and the resistance to this are acting on the iank bottom. Consequently there is a need to transfer the loading from the bottom to the wall. For reasons which are not entirely obvious, the industry has largely turned a blind eye to this aspect ofthe seismic design. lf this scenado is to be taken sedously, it could result in increases in the bottom plating joint factor (i.e. from single-sided lap welds to double-sided lap welds or buttwelds), increases in the bottom plate thickness or changes to both joint factor and thickness.
no
lrs
nt
Figure 26.28 Alank whjch has suffsred an elephant's fool buckle in the tirct
lfthe requirements for sliding resistance cannot be met and the argument that sliding does not matter are not accepted, then the designer has no option butto provide some form ofphysical restraint or to change the tank geometry The design of a system to provide physical horizontal restraint to a large tank is
both difficult and problematical.
An early design forthe 65,000 m3 LNG tanks at Revithoussa lsland in Greece had a system of inclined seismic anchorsforthis
down systems were even more relevant. This option, despite being cheaperthan the eventually chosen seismic isolation arrangement, was rejected for reasons associated with the perceived increased risk of failure due to stress concentrations in the lower tank shell. lf there are particular constraints which prevent either of these courses of action being appropriate or
possible, then the next steps are relocation of the facility or

seismic isolation.
purpose. These are illustrated in Figure 26.30. The anchor

straps were large (some 300mm x 25mm in section) and gave rise to serious congestion in the bottom corner ofthe tank. The loads transferred to the tank shell were massive and the arguments which have been used agalnstthe use of simple holding-
26.12 Liquid sloshing

This is discussed in Chapte|l5, Section 15.2.7. The basic Apl formula for calculating the slosh height is given in equation 15.27. There is a suspicion thatthisformula may not be correct. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 495
6 s ei
]!f39:p!!!
j!!!!9E!Ep!t
Inc_rsd-di(a|a
W
ho|tl tt'" cclier 6ladrtilm5 thc 6lbr'1l|g psk grod dccetariicrs d[I b. ur.d r. if tl'. i||'s td* is sbirct t6 taizurtol stdiB due ro s.irric fr.c.i
d"rrfriE
o!!E 55E
,tccbnrion of /tcclrlti)|| of
itqdd!. .o{pqsr,
",=f.:,645-1
o.e:r,
6aE in:coi?orE r'. raridl coi?aEr,

of dcftE fof.es;
q..r3ffi-l rT:6m-l
.,=r-T:iE-l f-6r6o I
,t...lel!tia
of
TIle dio4.|n sl|ors
d'. drsfim
@Cdr|lcti{dcc *Elqdicft?cc
.@
hortzortrlslidiq
I t'
slf |.dgkr
W
ll'a folbaing
l.3ds nrrst S oo.6id.rc4
5.F r"&||l of tu* dE[,

of
niffas!
drd 6rry
aiidch.j in$hticr
f:G6]r.
i.c-.rn crirc %:
b E tecti tr6 c
Ef6".ti!"
tutt c.frbs rhich nlows iI l,|is.ri rith rE k C*ll is irqrli\*; Y,r:

ne!s
in
tl6otftikdrdlnt3di.fi
r.iglt
t E fst slo*iT hode
fEzlr. fiiifiIlr.
&srn'c
td*
s?F
Fc*.rr&ds tipubw
bc
liquid
Thre 3".isric
eE|rs dbfi
cordd:rc,*
Horizlrdrl sisnic ont "!'t|rt lhrizontdl + O-3 V"rli.al sieric ?Etrt o'3 lhri:ontal + V.rtiool s.isfc ?srt irors Dirr.tiofi df l.rlic.l ac.dadi|n is idl(.,' to educc
I 2 3
ff..tiE
slidh9
rt*rdi.c
Figure 26.29 Sliding calculations - pag6
496. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
m
3.1
OOE
das.
r+: 4:
T6id
oYrrytq . (w'q,
4:n 5-OO
T.
.tf,lctiri sdf rdghr.
S'Wi YrW,rW? 5Ir:

t69ta@
TG
R!+irdcocffid.nrof
fti.t.\
i=
jL
SI'
O-t?re,
3,2 sSE lhi.(rrhl
CG
frtr.G,
t+= f+!
(y . yiq + (g?)q.
rtg-17 L
Totd
dnlciiF.dfndgftt, frLrhr.
Sl{: t' + yr. y, SAr:

3AIa.lD Tc
F.{itd *fftdarot
t*
ff
= o-gf
%aant.
/t.f
OBE
d@
lhdzrrrd
ft.c.,
rliE.dt
l*= +: $rhr
(W*Ur)c * (Vtq.
,r7 .q)
Tc +
Tordcft
-O.3
tdtid -{* er,
SW: tW. Vr + W.) - O.3atU 5Y: 37@a97 f. rt fl :

O.ta,3
Ur
W.)
r.4*ld.ocffi.irrt.ffii.tbq
4.2 SSE Cca
!t:
l|f:
Tstd
(v.woq + (w!)q tt66-ry

(W
Jc
.ff.clir! rdf
-
Oi tr.rfi.d
r4tr *-*rr,
su.
Stit:
g ' lyr - o,3o.(V + ry1, W,

T. O-:ifrt
33535,64
S.!d .o.ffi.-riof 6icrbr.
|lt= _!L : fl
Frgure 26.29 Sliding calculations - page
26 Seismie design of low tempenturc tanks
Fgcrh f@ o3lr,rard fq!..

5.1 OBE
lt= or'[*'t1". ft;* 143E8O TG +:

S[tr ff:
3?45{.54
TG
Totdcff*li*rdf righr,
- V.rnid
aidsckt
(V r lttr . vr) - * {rry,rv!)
Rlqild.o.fftd.'t|ot ftidn ,
O-Oa3a
5.2 SsE Cot
o.3lci',id
fd!..
rlr: *'fo-*,1.,. (r * ] 3,1t9.34 T. llr =

slt: 54.! (ly.
Wr +
Taid.f6EiiEdf dgft!.
-
trrlird ..*ric .{t|t

20976,80
r, -.r (I+w|tlrt
T.
o-165t?
Fleftd @ctfi.i''taf ticfdt.
6!
}t 5v
Figure 26.29 Sliding calculations - page 3

It does seem to give similarslosh heights fortankswith verydifferent geometries. For this reason it is probably wise to check the value given by equation 15.27 using the following:
d=0.837xRx,\
wnere
AASE
equ26.'14
INSJLATId'l
R A
=
=
tank Edius design convective acceleration (g)
MNCRETg
This is taken from Reference 26.1.

It is generally accepted thatseismic calculations should be carried out based on the normal maximum tank filling level and not
BASE 5LA8
the very maximum under excursion conditions, (i.e. HHLA

level).
26.13 Seismic isolation

By placing the tank on seismic isolators, it is possible to reduce
the horizontal seismic loadings which act on the tank and its contents. These isolators do little or nothing about the vertical component of the seismic loading which is passed to the tank
undiminished. The arguments for and against the use of seismic isolation involve a mixture of cost and safety considerations which are briefly reviewed as follows:
For seismic isolation:
. . . .
PAO
The facility can be constructed on the desired site
Large local loads on the tank shell due to holding-down

straos or lateral restraint are avoided
Savings to the inner shell due to thinner shell and thinner/narrower annular olate are Dossible Loadings on the foundation, especially the high peripheral line loads, are reduced Sliding problems are reduced
. . . . .
Against seismic isolation:

Costs ofthe second base slab are high Seismic isolator units are expensive Construction programme is extended Large horizontal movements may cause problems with the design of the connected pipework
There are a number ofdifferent types of seismic isolator avail
able, illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 26.31. These include the conventional steel/rubber sandwich type of isolator
similarto those used to isolate vibrating machinery the conventional steel/rubber sandwich type with an energy absorbing lead core and the friction pendulum type. The latter two are proprietary designs which are marketed by the companies which own the various patent rights.
ANCHORAGE INTO BASE
SLAB
--__\
A photograph of a friction pendulum isolator is shown in Figure 2632. fhe relative merits of the different types of isolator is a
complex and contentious area involving such subjecb as:
. . . . .
Cost Efficiency in reducing the horizonbl seismic loadings

Resistiance to property changes due to ageing
Virgin cycle problems Vertical load bearing ability (dichtes the number required)
Figlre 26.30
A proposed system ofseismic restraint using inclined anchors
lf it is decided that the isolators willnot require reDlacementduring their service life, the upper and lower base slabs may be constructed with a small space between them. lf it is decided that the isolators should be capable of being inspected, and if
Figure 26.32 Afriction pendulum lsolator Couiesv af Eanhquake Protecliot Systems /nc
The calculations involved surrounding the influence of a particular type of isolation system on the design horizontal seismic design event (i.e. the reduction caused by the isolators to the site design criteria to provide the tank design criteria) are complex and should be left to specialists with the necessary expenrse.
^____l
26.'14 The design Codes

of the seismic design of low temperature tanks has been included in the relevant Sections eadier in this Chapter. For LNG storage facilities in particular, a number of the basic
principles, in addition to the definition of the OBE and the SSE (see Section 26.2) come from NFPA 59 A and these are perhaps worth repeating as they relate to the tanks:
Much of what the tank design Codes have to say on the subject
.
(M.s.)
The LNG container and its impounding system shall be designedto remain operable during and afreran OBE. The design shall provide for no loss of containment capabilityofthe primary container, and it shall be possible to isolate and maintain the LNG container during and after the SSE'
::
Lead Core
Steel Load Plates Steel Reinforcing Plates Internal Rubber Layers

Figure 26.31 Different types ofselsmic isolation units
required, replaced during theirservice life, then the space must be large enough to allow personnel to enter and room for the various activities to take place. This will require a gap ot some 2.0 m.
Two of the better known examples of seismic isolation of large low temperature tanks are to be found in the numerous conventional and membrane type of LNG tanks of 100'000 m3 capacity constructed at Inchon and Pyeong Taek for KOGAS in South Korea and the two 65,OOO m3 LNG tanks constructed for DEPA
in Greece. The former used conventional steel/rubber sandwich isolators and the latter the friction pendulum type'
The Greekexample is perhapsthe most sophisticated, and cer-
tainly the most expensive example. Each tank required some 216isolation units, each costing around $10,000 each There is more to be found regarding the design and construction of this facility in References 26.9 and 26.10. The layout of the seismic isolators is shown in Figure 26.33
Flgure 26.33 Layout
of seismic isolatorsfor
a typical LNG tank
' .
ihe impounding system shall, as a minimum,

:apability.
be designed :c withstand an SSE while empty and an OBE whilefull. Af:eran OBE oran SSE there shallbe no loss ofcontainment
have evaluated the influence of the outer tank itself on the design seismic criteria (usually a subsbntial enhancement).
An LNG contiainer shall be designed for an OBE, and a stress-limit check shall be madeforthe SSE to ensure comcliance with above. OBE and SSE analyses shall include Jre effect oi liquid pressure on buckling stability. Stresses ior the OBE shall be in accordance with the rules given in API 620 and forthe SSE, tension shall not exceed the material minimum yield strength, and for compression the critical buckling stress (this is forthe metallic components, different rules are Drovided for Dre-stressed and reinforced concrete oarts).
26.16 References 26.1 Guidelines forthe sebmic design of oil and gas pipeline systems, Chapter 7 - Seismlc response and design of
liquid storage tanks. Committee on Gas, Liquid fuel lifelines, American Society of Civil Engineers, November 1984, ISBN 087262428 s5. Myers,
26.2 Above Ground Storage larks by Philip E.

Mccraw Hill, ISBN 007 044272 X.
26.3 26.4
S"N:
: :-E t5a-'
-rind
these rules lie two simple but slightly contradictory con-
Seismlc des/gn of storage tanks, Recommendations of a Study Group of the New Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineering, December 1 986.
USAEC Regulatory guide 1.60 - Revision 1, December 1973, Design Response Spectra for Seismic Design of Nuclear Power Plants, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commtsston. Se,'smlc Des,gn Rules for Flat Boftom CylindricalLiquid Storage Tanks, N.J.l.Adams. The International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, lssue no. 49 (1992) pp 6'1-95.
=r-
The impounding system is normally empty and must of

course be designed to resist the SSE in this condition. The SSE may cause the innertank to leak, filling the impounding system. The aftershocks ofthe originalSSE are assumed to be at the OBE magnitude and the impounding system must resist these whilst full.
26.5
:f*:
.
)5{ :g-
The primary containment is designed to continue to operate as normal during and following an OBE and to maintain its liquid containmentfunction during and following an SSE, although this event may cause the primary containment dam-
26.6
API Standard 620 - Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage lanks, Appendix L, Tenth edition, February 2002.
Basls of selsmic design provisions for welded steel oil storage tanks, R.S.Wozniak and W.W.Mitchell.
age which may require its subsequent repair

reconstruction.
or
26.7
:-.:E
-:.le provisional European code prEN 14620 makes reference :tr other European codes as would be expected for the seismic :esign of low temperature storage ianks. These are ENV '998-1-1:1996 (Reference 26.11) and ENV 1998-4 :1999 (Ref=rence 26.12\
26.8
26.9
Nippon Kokran technical repod Overseas No. 42,

1984.
Seismiciso/ation of LNG tanks,Bob Long, LNG Journal,
Jan/Feb 1997.
26.15 Gonclusion
The foregoing outlines a calculation method of modest comrlexityto justify the design ofa vertical cylindrical metallic liquid :ontaining inner tank. lt is clearly possible to carry out a much 'nore rigorous and sophisticated analysis of this component.
26.10 Seismlc lso/ation of industrial tanks, Victor Zayas and Stanley Low of Earthquake Protection Systems, presented to the American Society of Civil Engineers, Pro-
ceedings of the Structures conference, April 1996,

Chicago.
26.11 ENV 1998-1-1: 1996. Eurocode

slrucrures.
\othing has been said about the seismic design of the outer
usually pre-stressed concrete) outer tanks or impoundments. This is again the province ofthose armed with the appropriate :ools and expertise. The design of roof-mounted equipment ?nnot meaningfully commence until the outer tank designers
for eafthquake resistance of structures - Part 1-1: General rules- Seismic action and generalrequirementsfor
I-
Design provisions
26.12 ENV 1998-4:1999. Eurocode

earthquake reslsfance tanks and pipelines.
of structures - Paft 4:
8-
Design provisions for

Silos,
27 Miscellaneous storage systems

Miscellaneous storage systems such as gasholders, silos and elevated tanks, although peripheral to the main thrust of Storage Tanks & Equipmenf, are of interest for a number of
reasons.
Gasholders have a long and interesting history and have been constructed in substantial
capacities for a surprisingly long time. Silos face a variety of new problems arising from the properties of the products stored and elevated tanks are very much a part of our landscape.
Contents:
27.1 Gasholders
27.1.1 Wet seal gasholders 27.1.2 Dry seal gasholders
27.2 Silos
27.2.'l Materials of constuction
27.2.2 Silo shapes 27.2.3 Product removal 27.2.4 Silo design 27.2.5 Codes and design guidance
27.3 Elevated tanks
27.4 References
27.1 Gasholders
Gasholders are probably the most visible large tanks, especially around the UK. Stemming in the main from the days when most towns ofany size possessed theirown gas works, the spi-
ral-guided wet seal types are still a common site, often withjn the built up areas of towns. The dry seal types of gasholder are often associated with industrial plant such as steelworks and are more often sited in industrial areas, but are highly visible due to their height.
Although Sforage Tanks & Equipmenf is directed mainly towards liquid storage systems, it is interesting to look at
gasholders which in many instances led the way in the design and construction of large storage tanks.
Little seemsto have been written about gasholders bycomparison with their liquid storing companions. What is available is
somewhat dated, so that the brief descriptions which follow

may not reflect current practices accurately, for which the author apolog ises. lt is interesting that in the introduction to Reference 27.1, the afihor l\,4r R.J.Milbourne observes "At the pres-
Figure 27.1 Askeich ofan exiernallyJramed wei seal gasholder
ent time (1923), when the attention of the gas industry the
Institution of Gas Engineers, and the Board of Education is being so wisely directed to the education and technical training of young men forthe Gas Engineering profession, it is a matterfor
regret that the publications obtainable on Gasholder Design

and Construction are neither numerous nor exhaustive.". There do not appear to be any Standards or codes of practice covering the design and construction of gasholders. There is a document published by the lnstitution of cas Engineers (Reference 27.2) which covers the design of both wet and dry seal gasholders in a very general manner. The main
thrust of this document seems to be the safe operation and maintenance ofthese structures. NeveTtheless, it does contain a lot of useful information, some of which is repeated below
A quite detailed description of the design of spirally-guided

gasholders by M.A.Thompson has also come to light (refer ence 27.3), so ifthere is a resurgence ofinterest in this subject, then we will at least have something to refer to, albeit rather
dated. Thanks must go to Mr Peter Hutchinson who has also provided a lot of what follows.
Figure 27.2 Asketch of a spiral-guided wet seal gasholder
27.1.1 Wet seal gasholders

l\,4ost ofthis Section is abstracted from Reference 27 i .fhis paper is a compilation of a series of articles which appeared in
or lifts are supported against lateral loads and guided by a substantialframework. An example is shown schematically in Figure 27.1. The first is where the external guide framing is equal to the full height of the top of the top lift when the holder is fully inflated. The second is where the guide framing is shorter allowing the top lift to protrude above itwhen fully inflated, and the third type having no externalframing at all. This latter type is the spiral-guided gas holder which is most familiar to us today. The spiraltype is shown schematically in Figure 27.2 and a photograph of such a holder is shown in Figure 27.3. The reasons for such large capacities may lie in a combination
1922, written by Mr R.J. lvlilbourne, managing director of C & W Walker Ltd, describing various aspects of the design and construction of a 12.5 million cubic feet capacity gasholders in Sydney, Australia. Thjs type of gasholders seems to have been made in large capacities for a long time. In 1880 the world's largest holder was
recorded at 5.5 million cubic feet (155,700 m3). In 1887 two holders of6.25 million cubicfeet (172,100 ms)were built in Birmingham and in 1888 a holder of 8.5 million cubic feet (249,700 m3) capacity was constructed at East Greenwich. In 1892 a six-lift holder of 12 million cubic feet (339,800 m3) was built. For some years this was the world's b;ggest gasholder until it was
overtaken by two in the USA, each of 14 million cubic feet

(396,400 m3) capacity. Bearing in mind the fact that we currently consider a crude oil tank big at 100,000 m3 and large LNG tanks are being considered at 200.000 m3, these are massive structures and one can only admire the nerve of the designers and erectors of such holders. Three types of wet seal gasholders are described. The first two arethe externally-framed typeswhere the various moving parts
Flgure 27.3 A spiral-guided wet sealgasholder
27 Miscellaneous storage sysfems
!H
-7
2, l6 ,2 ., il
OE.TAILS OF CUF CARRIAGES PLAN Of. ]OP
CARR1ACES
OIJ}ER LIFT
: !ure 27.4
Some detail ol ihe 12.5 million ft3 wet seal gasholder
of the economies of scale together with the presumption at the time that to ensure economical working of the facility, the storage capacity provjded should equal the daily output of the gas-making plant.
27,1.2 Dry seal gasholders

Dry seal gasholders are most usually associated with steelworks where their function is to capture and contain the gases issuing from the blast furnaces for both economic (these gases have usefulflammable portions) and the more obvious environmentat reasons.
The 12.5 million cubic foot capacity holder described in Reference 27.1, was ordered in 1913 by the Australian Light Gas Company, of Sydney, NSW, from Messrs. C & W Walker Ltd, Nilidland lron Works of Donnington, near Newport, Shropshire, UK. All ofthe steelwork was fabricated in the Donnington works with the first shipment leaving in September 1913 and the last in December 1915.
There are
number of proprietary designs for dry
seaL
gasholders which are licensed to a small number of fabricators
and constructors. Amongst these are the M.A.N., Klonne.

Wiggins and Hammond types. Little has been written about th s type of gasholder over the years.
The excuse for this lengthy fabrication period is attributed to

problems associated with the enlistment of workmen, the difficulties of transport and the prior claims of the N4inistry of Nilunitions and the Admiraltyfor the manufacture of munitions of war. In March '1917, the holder was inflated, tested and put into commission. lt apparently gave every "satisfaction in service". The fixed lower shell was 300 feet (9'1 .44 m) in diameter, the guide frame is 188 feet (57.30 m) high and the crown ofthe roof is 202 feet (61.57 m) above the internalwater level. There are four lifls and some indication ofthe complexity ofthe watersealing system and various details can be seen in Figure 27 .4. The completed holder is shown in Figure 27.5. The internal gas pressure varied as the holder filled due to the changing weight supported, so that when:
An exception to this trend was an article in The Gas Joumal.

dated August 1933, by lvlr W. Beswick, who was at that time the
managing director of Ashmore, Benson and Pease Ltd of Stockton-on-Tees, who were licensed builders of the Kl<inne type of dry seal gasholders. This article describes a holder of 126' 0" (38.4 m) in diameter and 180' 6" (55.0 m) in heightto the curb. This was of2.0 million cubic feet (56,600 m3) capacity and was erected in the UK atYork. A generalelevation ofthis structure is shown in Fioure 27.6.
. . . .
the inner lift only is inflated the inner & second lifts are
5.6 ins watergauge
inflated
7.8 ins water gauge
the inner, second & third lifts are inflated 9.8 ins watergauge
allofthe
lifts are raised
11 .6
ins
watergauge
Distant memories of elderly relatives complaining that "the gas pressure is down" whilst cooking Sunday lunch, may not only have been due to the peaking of gas consumption, but also the decreasing pressure in the system as the local holder was emptied. In several ways these gasholders were easier to design than
their liquid containing counterparts:
. . .
The internal pressures were modest as described above
There are no axial compressive loads applied to the lifts

apart from the self-weight of each lift The roof framing is always supported by internal gas pressure when the inner lift is raised or by an internal wooden framing when it is lowered
Figure 27.6 A generalelevation of a 2.0 m llion ft3 capacity dry sealgasholder
The bulk of the vertical shells or lifts are carbon steel of either 0.25" or No. 9 lmperial Standard Gauge (0.144") thickness.
The complex arrangement of guide rollers, dry seals and oi seals are shown in Figure 27. 7. The stability of the piston was
improved by arranging a concrete weight as low as possible as shown in Figure 27.8. As in ship design, this gave a centre oi buoyancy above the centre of gravity. This could also be sized to suit the desired gas storage pressure. The shell was a true cylinder, (rather than the polygonal shape adopted by some other gasholder types), and was of riveted construction using counter sunk rivets to give a smooth internal surface. The turret located at the centre of the dome roof contains an electrically-powered liftwhich gives access to the top of the piston. Such wasthe confidence in the efficiency ofthe sealing arrangements that operators entered this space and wefe lowered onto the top surface of the piston for inspection and greasing operations whilst the holder was in service. A list of gasholders of this type in service at the time of writing
The majority of the roof plating is No. 8 lmperial Standard

Gauge (0.160") thickness.
the article is shown in Figurc 27.9. The 6.0 million
ft3
; :r*.
Figure 27.5 The completed 12.5 million ft3 wei seal gasholder
(170,000 m3) gasholder for the Syracuse Lighting Company in the USA is a monster by any standards and perhaps the world's biggest.
Dry seal gas holders of this type were frequently fitted with an
lases lases
Gs lilhr Codrlv, Dtu!'d Blbdnk Corir.ry unDu', H.* Minn'.r S{.ir C.lli6, Doeuld
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Eqrld t&rd C..l Colli.ry At@irtioo, H6reo
c.*ii.h- ci' Li.hild w.# wcr.r .r . l

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Uiiild Bleio Pdd Sd.io, Ud., CiFEla, Ruhr CrworG, Ld" P@s Colti.r, BdE@Sod.. Iiddvfldld s.clrm A.C. O.ehhrrir, Gr wdke Ni.i.rlEhliE - - '
razr El+FCn.Eid wdrrq B.rr. . . . . !db!$ 9d-wur suppir cmFny,ca wdl!, 8i!l l-J:}.rJu.IonlDd@ia'rkl'Kbj$h ?du< Im lDduwia Lrd., xhtu cg
worlrr, B.yo,n.
Gs CoDBrr, Mon@lnr sosi.d du Gs d.Pff,!, vUdt Glr worta soci.la d E.u .r d. rEohin{.. L. M!.!,
wor,c, k Mr4 Cir, dq BouLonnn! Gr wqlc, A
ca
Urbntt ud q'qer
SUDpD
comDlB Glr work'
SL
Ch.dnd
].bon & C.- AlaerL Hrdhq
Al&c
'
:igurc 27.7 The sealing arangemenls for a dry seal gasholder
Se- ToMid Azi.ndr, Gd Wrlc,
Flar.M .
-
'
Snoq
Co.sD6'
Lilhdnr Coopuy, sF Phirrd.lDhh Gd wdkq Rddidt

Pow*
Cm@t, xrlh
Figure 27.9 A lisl of'Kl6nne-type" dry seal gasholders instalted up to 1933
:igure 27.8 The installation of concrete on the underside of the piston
3l
external dial, operated by cables, which indicated the level of 'Jre piston, and hence the volume of gas stored. The Kliinne holder illustrated in Figure 27.10 shows such a dial.
The N.4.A.N. gasholder also originated in Germany. This type of
= J
3ra
holder uses a sealing arrangement using oil or tar which is stored in tanks on the holder roofand is allowed to run down the inside of the tank to form a liquid seal around the edge of the piston. The liquid is contained in a trough sealed to the sides of
the holder wall by a sailcloth membrane held in place by coun-
id
t
a-
terweighb. This arrangement is shown in Figure 27.11. From this trough the liquid leaks and runs down to the bottom of the tank where it is collected and pumped back to the tanks on the
holder roof. The Wiggins gasholder uses an internal piston in combination with a synthetic rubbercoated fabricseal. This is a trulydry system and has been used to store gases as varied as ammonia, sulphurdloxide, LD convertergas, ethyleneand dimethyl ether.
Figure 27.10 An externalview of a typical Kldnne holder
s
F
coarse granular products and damp or wet products. Typical materials to be found in silos include flour, wheat, sand, coal, coke and cement. All possess very different properties which have an influence on the manner of their bulk storaoe and the coniainers used. The bulk handling industry has an extensive historyof failures. These range from catastrophic collapses to shortfalls jn performance. Whilst the former events are infrequent, they attract the attention of the media. The latter are more common and result in inefficient performancewith its consequentcosts and delavs. STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 507
27.2 Silos
Silos, bins and hoppers are the terms most commonly used for structures whose function is to store particulate solids. The materials stored rangefrom dryfine powdered products through to
It
_)
27 Miscellaneous stonge syslems

Weights !o hold rubbing Dspth ottar measursd
bydippin9
Steel rubbing
sii
e)
Figure 27.11 Atypicaltar sealarrangement for a M.A.N. type dry seal
b( a(
Figure 27.'13 A typical fat-bottohed silo
27.2.1 Materials of construction

The most commonly encountered materials are carbon steel
and reinforced concrete. Wood was a widely used material in the earlydays ofthe storage ofsolids, butwould not be a sensible or economic choice these days.
T(
Cowiesy of Whessoe
ti *
Flat-boftomed silos are not uncommon and relyon internalmechanical handling equipment to ensure efiicient product removal. One such silo is shown in Figure 27.13. This is a 35,000
tn
fo
tonne silo built some years ago, in Dubai for the storage of
Alumina.
ri
27.2.2 Silo shapes

The mostcommon shape is a vertical cylindrical shell fitted with a conical outlet. Rectangular section silos with symmetrical or
27.2.3 Product removal

The reliable and consistent removal of Droduct ftom silos has bedevilled the solids storage and handling industry for many years. The behaviour of particulate solids is complex and the vagaries and range of flow possibilities is illustrated by the following possibilities for elevated conical outlet type silos:
No flow. This is when the material being stored remains in
F tr d
2
non-symmetrical, pyramidlike outlets, are also common.

These are fequently supported at a suitable elevation so that theycan discharge theircontents into a truckor railcarbygravity alone. Silos are ofren built in groups, eitherwithin a building or comprising a single composite structure.
Atypicalsilo of the cylindricalshelland conicalbottom is shown in Figure 27.'12. This is one of a number of PTA silos made for lCl's Wilton Works. The materialwas stainless steelto ASTM A 240 type 321and the silos were 11.5 m in diameter and 17.5 m
in cylindrical length. They were manufactured in an offshore rig yard on one side ofthe RiverTees, transported across the river by heavy lift floating crane and taken toWilton Works by road on
equilibrium under the action of gravity and the internal

forces within the material itself. Commonly known as arching, bridging or doming, it can result from poor design or cohesion between the particles, often caused by dampness, surface tension or electroshtic effects.
T t(
r s
low loaders.
Coreflow(also known as funnelflow). This is wherethere is no flow of that part of the product in contact, or close to the vesselwalls. This means that onlythe materialthe middle of the vessel is discharged so that the full capacity ofthe vessel in not realised. Ratholing or piping. This is an extreme case of core flow where only a very smallfraction oi the vessel capacity is utilised.
I t
!
Mass flow. This is what is needed for efficient oDeration. Arching, coring and ratholing are avoided and the whole volume of the vessel is utilised. Erratic flow This is where the flow rate and bulk density of the discharged product is highly variable. This is common with find powder materials. When a fine powderis placed in a silo, it de-aerates and compresses under the pressure applicable at the particular location within the silo. When this powder tries to flow out of the silo outlet, the reduction in pressure causes the powder to expand leaving voids that must be filled with gas, and this requires an inflow of air through the outlet. This inflow of air obstrucb the outflow of product and this phenomenon is known as slurping, and reduces the outflow to a small fraction of what was dnticipated. Uncontrolled flow. Ofren referred to as flushing or flooding,
Figure 27.12 A typical cylindrical silo with a conicaloutlet
Coulesy of
lcl PlcMhessoe
this occurs with fine particle matedals in core flow situations. lt is the resultofa sudden instabilitywithin the product
resulting in very rapid and uncontrolled outflow of material.
Pulsating flow. Often referred to as silo quaking, this is most common in poorly designed mass flow silos. The surface of the stored product has regular periods of movement and rest whilstthe materialcontinues to flowoutofthe silo. This can result in high shock loadings on the shell and supporting structures. This is the subject of a paperby Roberb and Wiche in Reference 27 .4. Eccentric flow. Usually found in silos which have off centre discharge connections. This can give rise to high transient over pressures and variable material discharge rates.
,::3:
Eoo
I
!Ec!q
iartafi |fnxsl *-crl !02.!6 nu3!u,|' ------ ,^riEi ta$|.|!rl -t$orri/,r $:xaEtru{l -r-':rnrF Rlrtl/nEDrarfl
,rN.sEN loir&
Silos which do not perform as anticipated, in particular with regard to the rate and uniformity of product outflow offen bearthe marks ofthe oDerators' efforts to persuade them to conform to
*"
Fisure 27.14 computed
""'""t
tE )c{
)cf
expectations, These can be marks on the cone resulting from beatingsor rodding holes drilled in the coneto overcome blockages or inadequate flow rates. To ensure that the outflow rates are suited to the plant production or the vehicle loading requirements, it is common to utilise devices for this purpose. These take a number of forms involving air injection, vibration and local modification of the disciarge connection. Many propriebry devices and details are found in this area of aclivtty. Reference 22.5 contains descriptions of a number of commonly adopted solutions with comment on their various applications and advantages. Flat-bottomed silos require specialised equipment to remove their contents. This usually takes the form of screw type dischargers, often fitted into suitable recesses in the silo base.
w",
From Refercnce 27.9, figure ll-3
"J"i*ffi"J
27.12, is anothet wide ranging document containing a great deal of useful intormation regarding steel silos.
When discussing silo design, it would be unfair not to mention Professor J.M.Rotter of the Universities of Sydney and Edinburgh, who over the years has published an enormous volume of material on this subject.
27.3 Elevated tanks

Most elevated tanks are for the storage ofwater and also serve to maintain the waterpressure in the locality. Some arethe rect-
]:ts
Xr_l
r b-
27.2.4 Silo design

The design of silos for the storage and handling of particulate solids is more difficult than the design of liquid storage tanks. The determination of the required properties ofthe stored materialsandthe loading applied bythese materialsto the silo understatic and dynamic conditions are complex. One ofthe major differences between liquid storage ianks and silos is thatthe solid product gives rise to longitudinal or axial loadings on the vessel shell in addition to the internal pressure loadings. lt is hese loadings which tend to dictate the wall thickness of the
silo. The early silos wereforthe storage ofwheatand were designed
angular Braithwaite types, supported by brick or steel structures which are afeature ofairfields, factories and occasionally urban settings. The Braithwaite type of tank is rectangular in form and made up of factory-fabricated panels, which are
bolted together. The internal pressure from the contained liquid is resisted by a system of internal rods stressed in tension.
The cylindrical elevated watertianks, usually supported by reinforced concrete structures are also common. In the USA in particular, elevated water toweF made of steel and supported on either a steelframework orthe more elegant single central column are to be found. These are often made in the form of a well-known local product or other interesting
ir
la
>--
ts
!5
ne
s-
: f
f
F
n
r
6
,!
I f
using methods derived from the field of soil mechanics. The work of Janssen (Reference 27.6) dating from 1895, is cited in Milo S. Ketchum's book, (Reference 27.n as the method of determining the radialand verticalforces in silowalls (in the chapter on Steel Grain Elevators). This remained the method of deriving these forces until the 1970s when work of Jenike, Johanson and Carson were published ( References 27.8, 27.9 and 2Z 70). These provided more sophisticated methodswhich took account of certain additional oressures which occurred during product movement conditions, especially in the cylindrical-to-conical jointarea. Atoraround thistime there seemed to be an upsurge of interest in silo design and numerous papers were published. Atrawlthrough the bibliographies ofthe listed references will provide the interested student with any amount of reading on the subject. A plot ofthe internal pressures computed using various different methods is included as Figure 27.14 where the pressure spike at the cylinder/cone junction is quite apparent.
27.2,5 Codes and design guidance

A useful guide to silo design is found in Reference 27.11.
Figure 27.15 The steel "peach" water tower
A second publication, again produced jointly, see Reference
cau'lesy ol Chicago Bridge
& lron Conpany (CB & l)
-J
27 Miscellaneous stonge systems
design. The seismic design section is especially good. There are companion Standards published by the same organisation covering factory-coated bolted steel tanks (Reference 27.14),
wire and strand wound circular prestressed concrete water
tank lReference 27. t5) and circular prestressed concrete water tanks with circumferential tendons (Reference 27.16\.
27.4 References
27.'l
Design and construction of a 12.5 million ft3 gasholder, R.J. l\.4ilbourne, Managing Director of C. & W. Walker Ltd, Donnington,Shropshire, first published as a series ofarticles bythe Gas Journal ('1922) and lateras a compilation by Walter King Ltd (1923). Low-pressure gasholders storing lighterthan air gases: Safety recommendations: IGE/SR/4 Edition 2 Communication 1624, The lnstitution of Gas Engineers, London, June 1996 Designing spira y-guided gas holders, M.A.Thompson, reprintedfrom the Gas Times by Hallowsand Slaughter, Grove Road, Leighton Buzzard, 1 940.
27.2
27.3 27.4
Figure 27- 16 "The world" water tower CowTesy af Chicaga Bidge & lron Conpany (CB & l)
Bulk 2000 : Bulk materials handling towards the year 2000, International conference sponsored by the Bulk Materials Handling Committee of the Process Industries Division of the L Mech.E., October 1991. Solving problems in hopper and sl/o sysfems, from a seminar organised bythe Bulk Materials Handling Com-
27.5
mittee of the Process Industries Division of the

l.Mech.E., June 1996.
27.6 Versuche Aber cetreidedruck in Silozellen,

Ingenieure1895.
H.A.Janssen, Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher

The Design of Walls, Binsand Eleyators, M.S.Ketchum,
27.7 27.8 27.9

27
Mccraw Hill 1909
Bin loads
Johanson, J.W. Carson, ASME, Paper no. 72-lVlH-1 1972.
Paft 2: Concepts, A.W. Jenike, J.R.
- Paft 3: Mass Flow Bins. A.W. Jenike. J.R. Johanson, J.W. Carson, ASME, Paper no. 72-MH-2
Bin loads 1972.
2: Funnel Flow Bins. A.W. Jenike. J.R. Johanson, J.W. Carson, ASME, Paper no.72-MH-3
.10 Bin loads * Pad

1972.
27.11
The Draft Code of Practice forthe Deslgn ofs,'7og B,ns,
Bunkers and Hoppers, The Institution of Mechanical Engineers and the British Materials Handling Board.
Figure 27,17 An elevated watertoweron a concfete masonry column
27.12 Useful lnformation on the Design of Stee/ B/ns and
Coulesy of Chicago Bidge & lron Conpany (CB & I)
S//os, John R. Buzek, - The American lron and Steel Institute and the Steel Plate Fabricators Association lnc.. 1989. ANSI/AV|/WA D 10096: AVIWA Standard for Welded Slee/ Slorage lanks for Water Storage , AW WA, Denve r
shapes. Many of these water towers in the USA were constructed by Chicago Bridge & lron Company, indeed the company's in house magazine was called The Water Tower. Some examples are shown in Figures 27.15, 27 .'16 and 27 l7 . fhe
design of such structures for seismic loadings is both interesting and challenging. Any failures would be very public evenb! The design of steel water tanks in the USA is covered by the American Water Works Association Code D 100, (Reference 2Z 73). This is an interesting document in that it is not so tied to the practices ofthe petrochemicalindustry as most ofthe other liquid storage codes. lt is written in a refreshingly different way and has its own view of what is appropriate. lt is well worth spending a bit of time with for those interested in storage tank
27.13
Colorado.
27.14 ANSUAWWA
D 103-97: AWWA Standard for Factory-coated Bolted Steel Tanks for Water Storage.
110:95: AIUWA Standard for Wire and Strand Wound Circular Prestressed Concrete Water Ianks, AWWA, Denver. Colorado.
AWWA, Denver. Colorado.
27.15 ANSI/AWWA D
27.'16 ANSUAVVWA Standard for Circular Prestressed Con-
crete Water Tanks with Circumferential Tendons.

AWWA. Denver. Colorado.
IfsB
saE!!
7-11t
28 Glassification guide to
e*>
YiF
manufacturers and suppliers

The classification guide summarises ambient and low temperature liquid storage tank, classifying them according to tank type, maximum diameter or capacity, materials of
construction, products stored, materials of construction, containment type etc. The guide has been categorised in a particular way to try to impose tight boundary limits on product types and classifications, with the specific aim of simplifying the choice of supplierfrom the useis point of view.
*. *s
efEs
ocnrsgs
The guide also covers the essential components and ancillary equipment and services
associated with the industry. Trade names are comprehensively lisled as well. These sections are preceded bythe names and addresses and contactdetails ofall companies appearing in the guide. These are listed alphabetically, by country of origin. The information in Section 28.3 is provided for guidance only. lt is strongly recommended that
ltalttF
6atr
l*r la
direct contact with all companies is made to ensure their details are clarified wherever
necessary-
&,r
i.6ma (tt* ttE
en
Contents:
28.1 lntroduction 28,2 Names and addresses
28.3 Storage tanks 28.4 Ancillary equipment and services
ht
28.5 Trade names
.R {-t
R-
t2
R
L3
It
a
F
F
l-
28 Classification guide to manufactuters and suppliers
28.1 Introduction
The guide classifies liquid storage tanks into main groups:
The storage tanks section (Section 28.3) is preceded by the

names and addresses and contact details of all comoanies aopearing in the guide. Names and addresses
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Ambient temperature Low temperature
Section 28,2
The principal ambient liquid storage tank types are then classified by: Vertical cylindrical above ground hnks Maximum diameter
l\y'aterials of construction
This Section has been based on a questionnaire sent to manufacturers and suppliers woddwide. Where possiblethe information supplied has been used. Full company and contact details are given. Companies are listed alphabetically, by country of origin.
:
a
Storage tank types
Section 28.3.
Other types of above ground tanks

In or below ground lanks
Low temperature Iiquid storage bnk types are classified by:

Tank type
Capacity Products stored Containment type Materials for primary and secondary conbiners
The data presented in this Section is based on the same questionnaire. Where possible all the information supplied has been used. Discussions were held with many companies to ensure wherever possible, that their activities were correcfly interpreted. There will however inevjtably be some overlapping due to limitations of descriptions and space, and the information given is for guidance only. Where there was doubt in interpreting the data, some of it has been omitted. lt is strongly recommended that direct contact with all companies be made to ensure their details are clarified wherever necessary
E.
Ancillary equipment and services
The guide has been classified in this way to impose tight bound-
Section 28.4
ary limits on categories with the specific aim of simplifying the choice of supplier from the user's point of view. Although these are not always strictly logical, it should be obviousto both userand manufacturer what is meantbya particular group or ancillary equipmenVservice.
Also based on the same questionnaire, this Section lists companies alphabetically underthe relevant productor service and with their country of origin. Ambient temperaiure tank ancillaries are listed first, followed by those for lowtemperature tanks.
s,
Trade names
Section 28.5
The guide also covers the essential ancillary equipment and services usually available for both ambient and low temperature tanks. Trade names are comprehensively listed as well.
This Section has been compiled similarly. lt lists companies alphabetically under the relevant trade name and with country of oflqtn.
A
R
NI
E.
:_-
E.
ta
a-
Te
F.
28 Classification guide to nanufacturcrs and supplierc
the
3p-
28.2 Names and addresses
AUSTRALTA
Angus Fire Australia
(AUS)
E-mail: info@egemin.com Web: wwwegemin.com

FCX Truflo Rona SA Parc Industrial des Hauts Sarts 8-4040 Herctal Belgium Tel: 04 240 6886 Faxt 04 248 0246 E.mail: sales@fcx-truflo-rona.com
E-mail: info@flir.be Web: wwwflir.com wLs

Smederijstraat '16 B-2960 Brecht (St Job) Belgium Tel: 03 633 16 10 Fax: 03 633 25 12 E-mail: info@wls.be
luia)rls
A'1 Janine Street
of
)sen tre
JE
Scoresby Indust.ial Park Scoresby Victoria 3179 Australia Tel: 03 9765 3800 Fax: 03 9765 3801 E-mail: info@angus.com.au Web: www.kiddeuk.com
Web: wwwfcx{ruflo-rona.com
Fernand Desplentere
Oostendestraat 329 B-8820 Torhout Belgium Tel: 050 22 06 36 Fa* 050 22 02 08 E"mail: desplentere@wanadoo.be
Web: wwwwls.be
Zeppelin Belgium NV
I\,4unsterenstraat
Baillie Tank Equipment Ltd

10b/201 New Sooth Head Road Edgecliff New South Wales 2027 Australia 02 9327 5481 Faxt 02 9327 5488 E-mail: sales@bailiietank.com
Genk-Zuid - Zone 7
8-3600 Genk
cn
Tel:
Belgium 0Bg 62 94 00
felt
Web: wwwdesplentere.be G&G International

Molenweg 109 B-2830 Willebroek Belgium NV
Fax: 0Bg 61 18 31 E-mail: zeppelin.belgium@zeppelin.be Web: wwwzeppelin.com
Web: wwwbaillietank.com
't:c
Syltone Australia Pty LU
Unit 1, 100 Station Street Nunawading Victoria 3131 Australia Tel: 03 9874 2900 Faxi 03 9873 2422 E-mail: melb@syltone.com.au
BRAZIL
Syltone do Brasil Ltda
(BRA)
Tel:
Fax:
05673 2121
056 73 4040 sales@geldof.be Web: www.ggi.be
E.mail:
Avenue Ricardo Bassol Cezati 1620 Campinas, SP cEP 13050-080
Brazil
Ieli
Fax: Web:
Geldof Metaalconstructie NV
Broelstfaat 20 8-8530 Harelbeke Belgium 056 732121 Fax: 056 73 4040 E-mail: sales@geldof.be Web: www.ge dof.be
015 3269 4247 019 3269 5083
Web: wwwsyltone.com
E.mail:
sylbra@syltone.co.bf
www-syltone.com
AUSTRTA
NBN Elektronik cmbH Riesstrasse 146 A-8010 Graz Austria Tel: 0316 402805 Fax: 0316 40 25 06 E-mail: nbn@nbn.at Web: www.nbn.at
(A)
felt
CANADA
l\,lix Bros. Tank Services 14707 - 17 Sireet NE Edmonton Albe.ta T5Y 6E2 Canada Tel: 780 471 1386 Fa* 780 474 0877 E.mail: mixtank@connect.ab.ca
(CAN)
Ortmans Inox SA
Rue Fernand Houget 13 B-4800 Verviers Belgium
Telt
OB7
322811
Sattler AG
Sattlerctrasse 45 4-8041 Graz Austria 0316 41O 42A2 Fax: 0316 410 4354 E-mail: r.dietl@sattler-europe.com Web: www.sattler-europe.com
Fax: 087 31 59 98 E-mail: info@ortmans.be Web: wwwortmans.be

Pommee SA
3idme Avenue 15 Parc Industriel des Hauts-Sarts 8-4040 Herstal Belgium Tel: 04 256 90 00 Fax: 04 256 90 09 E-mail: info@pommee.be Web: www.pommee.be
Web:
208 r2E
www. mixta
n k-
cjb.
nei
Tanksate lnc
3112
reli
-lfth
St NE
Calgary
Albeda
7
J1
Wolf Systembau cmbH

Fischerbrlhel 1 A-4644 Scharnstein
Canada Tel: 403 291 3937 Fax'. 403 291 5125 E-mail: dualtank@tanksafe_com
Web: wwwtanksafe.com
Oenso North America lnc
90 lronside Crescent
Aust.ia
Tel:
07615 3000
Recinco
Hoogveld 5 B-9200 Dendermonde Belgium
Fax: 07615 300313 E-mail: email@wolfsystem.at Webi www.wolfsystem.at
Unii 12
Toronto Ontario M1X1M3 Canada Tel: 416 291 3435 Fax: 416 2910898
Telt 052220127
(B) Faxt 052 22 61 13 E-mail: recinco@skynet.be
VBR Flir Systems AB
Uitbreidingstraat 60-62 B-2600 Berchem Belgium Tel: 03 287 87 10 Fax'. 03 287 87 29
BELGIUM
Egemin NV Baarbeek 1 B-2070 Zwindrecht Belgium 03 641 12 12 Fax: 03 64'1 '13 13
Web: wwwdensona.com
UAS Canada lnc 2656 Deacon Street
Abbotsford
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TANK JACKING AND HEAVY LIFTING
Drayton Tank & Accessories Ltd
NEW CONSTRUCTION
BASE REPAIR
Emair: info@byeswik.com
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29 Reference lndex
The refercnce jndex conlains a large n umber of key words used wiihin the industry. lt ists the page numbers on which the key wofds are used. The list ofcontents al the siad ofeach chaDteralso Dfovides a usefutouide.
APt 520 Abovsground and in orbelowground stoEge systems

Above ground low temprature bnks Acoess arrangements
6 367 365 307
418
234
As{onstructed foundation tolerances

APl650 requirements
BS 2654 Equiremenls prEN 14015 requnernenis
250
25Q
247
251
251
Air Eising ot tank roofs

Double-Walled lank Pre-Shessed concete ouier tank
452 453 452
ASItE 8.96.'l
220 216
asMEv
Aluminium
alloys
438, 351, 361,442

't5
185
15 113
13,438 Austenitic stainless stesl Automaied welding method6
t I
Ambient temphture lanks

Ancillary equipmenl and nliings Design
99,434,442
461
I I
7,'t00
22, 26, 319, 334, 335
rools Design oftank roois Design ol tank
lixed
floating
153
Axial compression loadings
324
Erectiorconsid-arations
Fabr calion considerations
235 249
231
B
Base heating sFtems 415
380,466 Baseinsulallonrnatrlals centalarea

Base insu ation free oforganic maleriats Base insuation materials- periphera area
B asl
Layoul ol tank installalions Non-verlical cylindrcal tanks and other iypes
257 215
103
384 386 387

387
Nozle des gn and efiecl ofapplied oading

Materia se eclon crileria
219
263
iurnace sag
245 composit sysloirs
384
387 386 386
Amedcan P.troleum hstitute (APl)
8, 13
Damp-proof course materia
Ame can Unifom Building code (UBc)

American water works Association (AVVWA)
264
14 Lightweight concrete
387
387
291,394,507
425 426
Inspection and repairof iqu d ammonlastorage systems 433
Poyurelhanefoam
387 380
381 381 381
Ammonia storage - what

Elecl.i@l@nducl vty
mak* itspecial?
426
427
426
427 Slress Coffosior
Deia led design Code Equircments

BS 7777 requirements
384 344 384 384 380

381
ccklng (SCC)
427 426 412
EEMUA147 requirements
prEN 14620
Ancillary equ ipment for low tsmperature tank6
39,338
aNsr/Awwa 0103-97
aPt 12C
aPr 2000 aPt 2210 aPt 2517
214
7,220
367,424,461 B.low-ground cavems Bitumen storage tanks

Bitumen.baed paint system
7
'
1,6
201
101
197,414
197
281
a, 13, 30, 117 , 220, 277 , 295, 302, 314, 338, 34,t, 347, 358, 361, 418 438, 466, 44,t, 490
181,279 Bolted cylindrical hnks Bottom and annular

218
338
341
APt650 APt653
8, 19,21, 30,75,90,93, t04, 106, 114, 154, 190,206,232, 251, 264, 277
d*ign
APl620 Appendix O apprcach

Liquid containing meta lic lanks
252
341
Non LquLd conlaining meiallctanks
341 338
Cavern storage syslems
311
APl620 Append x R appDach

L
385
quid @nlaining mela lic lanks
338
340 341
384,466
Cenira, crown rinq design calculation
133
22
Non lqud conlan ng metal clanks

Llqu d conla n ng metallc tanks
Non- iqLid contalning metallc tanks
charpyv-notch impact testing chicago Bridge & hon Company

Civil monitoring syslems column-supported roof s
Compression area forfixed roor tanks
t,225,
337 , 4X8,
444
13
424
115
341 341 131
prEN 14620 approach
80
83
Bottom boom of the truss Boltom oorner protection systems
362
API lmitatons lor the length ol the rooi compresslon area CalcLlating lhe compresslon zone area Compression zones BS and API Code difiernces oi allowab e compressive svess Compression zone area
83
81
4,2't6,509
Brine-based heating sYsten 416 34
13
82
toAP
Code
a2
81
British slandards Institution (BsD

BS 150'l
BS 2454 BS 2654
220
Compresson zone area lo BS Code cosl-effecl ve design

Derivation ofthe requned conpresson zone
88
I
19,20.27, 90, 114, ',t54, 190, ',|92, 193, 206, 221,222,225,232, 236, 246, 274,277
aea
8l
81
Effecl of rooi slope on cross-sectrona area
86
BS 2654 requirementsfor shell

F
nozles
147
188 188
Economyoidesign
Rationa islng the calcu ation Roof compresson area Shell compression area
86
86
lsh lype cear-oLt doofs
86 86 80 83 83 85 85
Nozzes 80 mm outslde d ameter and above Nozles lesslhan 80 mm outside diameler

BS 449 BS 4741 BS 5387 BS 5500
1AT 190
97,115
9, 13,294,428, 450 9, 't3, 34, 295, 450
of nterna presslre Eslab shing lhe compressiof area

Effeci
M
nlmuff c!rb ang!e requnemenls

Angle sizes for lixed
rooilarks
216
337 433
Cases where minimum curb angLe requ renents Effect ol inlernal pressure and iank d ameter on requ red compressDn afea
Pos
BS 5950
BS 6072 BS 7777 BS 8004
9,30, 294, 298, 300, 302, 334, 344,

345, 347 , 351 , 35A, 446, 490, 416, 444
85 88 88 8a
tiofi.g the centroid ol area

F
466
232
AP Code Appendix
BS EN 10028 BS EN 10029
8S4741
88
295 492
Praclical cons derations Provlding the required compression area For the APlCode
For lhe BS Code
83 a2 a2 a2
ephanfs loot buck lng
492
236 237
Ereclng the she by lhe lradiliona method
236 238
Peaking and banding Piate m sa ignment
342
AP 620 appDach (Appeidices R and a)

BS 7777 appDach
342
238
239 238
prEN 14620 approach
283 206
291
Concrete raft foundations
42
345,459,479
Concrete wall construction
460 460 460
6,291,394,467
Calculation olthe design accelerations calculations for slabilily and axial compressive Carbon manganese steel
Carbon sleel contamination
489
toadings
491
460
220,361 232
concrele/concrte tanks Aumenlslorand against cryogen c concrele tanks
309 310 309
19, 25, 35, 48, 6't, 232, 351
cathodic protecrion system
243
31,41,62
STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPIVENT 543
364
prEN 14015 temperatures 'Vinimum APt 650

BS 2654
222
221 221 221
Construotion and erection of ambient temperature ranks

Joints
235
241
ir wind girders
position
Other forms ot constructon
243
243 243 243
Anlifting a roof rlo
p|EN 14015
222
Co umn-supporled rcois
D$isn ofa
sing
le{ecr floating roof
157
I I
Design of ambied r6mp6rature storagelanks

Compression area ior nxed rooftanks Fransible roof
15 80
Pejabrlcaled roof section

The roof shuclure
243 236
241
20
joinl,
or weak
roottcshell joint
89
100
Construction oftanks with reinforced condete roofs
459 459 459
Semi-buied ianks for the storage oi aviai on fuel
94 36 Tanks produced in slain ess steel malerials 99 26 56
contenrs measudng syslms

High accuracy .adar lank gauge F gh accuracy seryo lankgauge Automatic tank gauge
F
194
196 195 195
'Variable desigr point method

Wind and vacuum stiffenlng
43 113
D6sign of fixed roofs for ambient tempeEture tanks

Differences behveen lixed and floaling rools
195 195
oal, board and target syslem
194 Temperalue measuemenl

195
Design of low tmperature tanks

Bottom and annu ar design prEN 14620 approach
317
Coniingency Design Eanhquake (CDEI cra6k Openins Displacement (COD) tests
485 438
135
u1
317
132 Cryogenic stonge
history
I
485
BS 7777 apprca.h
334
317 131
D
Diking
DIN
DtN 4119
476
507
David Taylor Model Basin Fomula Dead-weighl vacuum rcli.f valve Design and construction regulations
Amedcan slandards
76,329
420 't83
't3
t3
274
467
Directional combinations
3
243 Double containm.nt tanks

BS 77TT
Chicago Bridge Eng neerng Standards Company Standards
13 13 13
294,
$2,454
294
299
2A1
EEMUASlardard Euopean slardards
EN i473 Double stringer spiral stairca6e
I
13 13 13 13
Euon basic Pcilces olher Eurcpean nallonal Slanda.ds
't99 423 179 507 ,l88 247
standards for other prodLcls
13
Ductility
Dye peneirant tssting
20
21
E
269 EEMUA EEMUA147
Bs code 2654
Alternal ve lrformalion to be supp ied by ihe purchaser
20
2A
21
9,13,294
13,336,384
7 183
Inlormafon to be igrced behveen ihe plrchaser and ihe manuiactur

Information ro bespecilied bythe purchaser
20
21 21
Eurcpean Code prEN 14015 -1 2000

Annex A (normative) Techn ca agreemenls
Elaphant's foot buckllng
492
467 509 509 509
181
Oesign metal temperature
221
Ma{mum temperaiures
API 650
BS 2654
222 222
222
274
EN 10025 EN 10028
EN 10088 EN 10113
F
Factory-manufaclured bnks made from
225,226
19'226
99
non-metallic materials Fasl t6ck erhylone tank

Wire winding atrangenents Fast track liqui<I orygen tank
214 454 456 456 456 415
226 226 216

295, 297 , 299,302, 414, 420
EN't0210
EN 13445
EN 1473
Engineering Equipment and lvlaterials Users Association (EElllUA)

ENV't998 Epoxy-based p6inl system Erecting theshell by thejacking method Condete wall construcl on
Tanks w th reiniorced concrete rools
9,13,294
501 101
Fire protoction syslems

Deteciion sysiems
200,420
421
240
200 202
R
242 451
460 452 459
msea loam poureB
241 241
421
Top loam poure6
292,334,426 292,334, 426, 454,

European Code requiremenls for sh.llnoz2les
Euf opean Fertiliser lManufacturcrs Association (EFMA)
467 ,
507
13
Dry powder systems

Fne waler
422
421
systens
190
422 Loca protecl on
433
'|
olvllneEble equ pffenl
422
EUropan Pressure Equrpme urecrve te/ruJrE!)

Amb enl temperalure
259
13 13
Fire.fiqhting
174,240 43,206
114
115
European Standard Committeo TC 265 European sieel Slandards European tank desig. Codes
European Standard prEN 14015-1 : 2000 Annexes
10
I
226
19
l9
19 19
115 115
116
ihe Slandard
Fixed and noatng roofdesgn
t9
19 19 115
Primary and secondary w nd g.ders
278 Float type level indicators 278
19
Rool to sheilcompression zone

19
Floating roof designs

19 19
t54
154
154
Temperature rating
Prncipal ollhe lloating roof Types offloating roof
154
German sioragetank Code DIN 4119
2A 2A 2A
220
36,43,142
239
193
External f loating roof appurtenances
174
1Ta
APl650 requ rcments

BS 2654 requiremenls
194 193
f re delect on
1Ta 154 156

156 155 155 155 155
Exlernalfloating rooG
Floating roof design
Des sn of a sinsle-deck roof
Elropean Code prEN 14015 requiremenls
194
2TA 183
241 384,387
Types oI erternal noal ng roof
Doube-decklype
Other types
Formwork
low temerature tanks
460
ofloallng rool
250 253
Concr ele slab fo0ndation
253
25X 236
Snge deck pontoon type

External pipework insulation
155
395
140 Foundalron to erances
Externally.framed dome roof
236
236
BS 2654
236 236
250 Gas
217
prEN 14015
stomg.
Foundations for ambietrt temperature ta.ks
history
1,504
506
255
Foundalions in a horzontalplane
Drysealgashodels
Wel sea gasholders
250 250 250 465 466 466 466

467 467
504 142
7
Foundations of low temperature tanks Code requnemenls and guidaice APt620

BS 7777
Geodesic dome roofs
141,241 312
GEvity.based systems (GBS)
42,254,467
175 240
prEN 14620 Examples and problem areas
H
Handrall construction
Hoat 198
Fransible roof Joint, of weak roof-to-shorl joint anchor EqliEments APl650 Code
Allowable stresses in anchoB
lMinimum bo t d amelef
89,94
93
234
u
93
91 91 91
91
Afected Zone {HAZ)
Heat leak calculation for a large LNG tank
400
396 396 399 399 396 396
Heat leak calculations

Basic calculation methods
CalculaUon oI lhe hol face temperature
Spacing olanchors
conflicl ol design inleresls "Service' and "Emergency' desigr condilions

Difference between codes Examples oilrangible and non+angib e rcoljoinls
The influence of diffeEnl interstitial gases Thermal 6nduct viiy values Heated storage tanks
Tali desqled Io
an opp."tr1g p5sure
ofr0 rba'
7.5mbar
91 91
400
Tankdesgnedforanoperatingp.esslreof
1,6,243
283
30 3 7
Fomua as exprcssed
n APL650
90 90 90 90 89
Hsavy or viscous products
Addiliona requiremenrs to APl650

Formula as expressed in BS 2654 Addit onal requiremenis lo BS 2654 Frangib e rooliointtheory
Historical background lo stobge tanks History of the design and construction regulations
American standards
Chicago Bridge Engineerrg Standards

EE]\4UA
13
13 13
94 89
Cornpany Slandards
EEMUASiandard Eubpean Standards
l',4arimum @mpression zone area a lowab e
89 90 90
I
13 13 13
Other iactors affecting lhe frangible roofconneclon
Euon basic PclL@s

Olher European nat onal Slandards
Sizeolwed atthe rooi pare to shel connection

Tank
90 92 92 92 93 93 92 Slandards for other producls
anchorage
a means lo lrangibi
ily
13
13
Delermining anchof age.equirements EnsLring a frangible roofcon.ection using anchoge
Holding-down anohoF
409
Furtherdes gn check
Olher anchorage considerat ons Worked example
26,47,81, 318, 319, 331,334,338

217
284
241 Hydrocarbon pro.luels
21, 18, 220, 252,
274
242
21, 30, 36, 39, 41, 56, 60
Friction pandulum isolatoF

Frozen ground sysiems Full containment LNG tank Full coniainment sysiems Full containment hnks
Bottom comer Proieclion syslem
BS TTTT
500
312,379,463
311
t36.334, 367
244
363,432,479
300
301
tL58
226,228
476 206 400
300 300
301
EN 1473
Fully-pre$u sed
LPG storage
292
Inround hodzontal cylindrical storags tanks
217
368
295 Joinas in wind girders

241
In.ground membrane tanks
294,310
310 310
K
396 241
310
lnspection and tesling the tank

Fixed roof plate tolrt lesllng
246
247 247 246
48,101
Floaing roof lesllng

Floor
p
L
Lafge in.ground LNG tanks Laser measuring nethods Layout of ambienr t.m perature bnk installations
Above ground tanks
ale joint testing
462 't96
257
Hydroslatic tank testing Radiographic inspectlon
244 246 246
254 264 254 254 254

258
BS 2654
246
246
LocaUon
prEN'14015
SheLf lo-boltom joint tesiing
247
and ayoul
Testing ol sheLl nozzLes and aperlures
244
286
13
Inspection f requoncies Institute of P.tfoleum llP)
254
Separal on d slan@s ior grcups ol
422
sma lanks
259 259 264

260 469
423 423 Leve neasurement

Level temperature density {LTD) rneasurcmenl Pressure measurement Temperalure measuremenl
Separalion dislances lor large tanks
separation from olher dangerous subslances
422 423 423 423 380

393 393 395 394 400 EENIUA Probabil iy oi botlom eakage
layoul ol refrigeraled liquid gas bnks

Regulaiions governlng LNG storage Reguiations govern ng LPG
faciites
507 285
Insulation mat. als for refrigeraled storage lnsulatiod of hear broaks andfiltings
Heai breaks lor roof conneciions Heat breaks iortank botom connections Heat breaks tortank sidewallcofnecl ons
Leak detection and pfevention ofground conbmination
254
254 255
255
Base insulalion failure Exlernal vapoLr sealing
400 409 409 409

377 379
Liqueried Natuhl Gas (LNG) Liqueried Peholeum Gas (LPG)

7
6, 29'1, 293, 30?, 310,
317.36A,393, 400, 426, 462

, 216, 291, 292,
420.473, 426
467
Insulation syslems for tow temperature ianks

Basic design and maleral requirements Basic requ rements oi the insLlaiion sysiem Design Code f equirements
ExlernaL pipework insu ation
Liquid Natural Gas (LNG)
I
456 217
495
375 380
395 379 LNG
2al
6,291,426
6, 216, 2S3, 303, 308, 412
lnsla lalon cons derations Insulation ctegones The inirared camera
379 400
389
427 ,
412, 423, 463. 495
Wealher proleciion syslem
ln-tant pumps and their handling equipment 400, 412,

Pump
432
Loadinq on the foundations Loadings in an insulation ringwall

LODMAT Low temperatu re ranks
250 342
222 289
411
refiova system
156
Iniernal f loating roofs

Types of inlemaL I oal ng rooG
Anc llary equipment and littings Ammon a
173
slorage
a sp-"c
alcase
425
Double cortainment sysiems

173
294 435
Erectior considerallons
Pontoon and skin roof
'173
Internal pipework insulation Interna! shuGoff valves
Ful conla nmenl syslems

395
417
300 291 292
Historica background
LNG tank at Slaten sland
293 294
377
454
242
Qatar LPG term na
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPIIIENT 547
Layoui of refrlgerared lquid gas ranks Low lemperalue gases
469
291 437 441 297
Malerials ior rhe ourer meraLlic ranks of s ng e @ntainmeni
438
lllale al selection cribna

Single contairmeni systems
Itaximum Considered Earthquake {iilCE)
483
57,63,76, 10't, 327

241
Membrane in foundation
308
BS 7777
42 302,463 302 302
308 Storage of induslria gases in liquid lorm

Tank slzjns considerations
249 294
30 365, 395
7
Comparison ot above ground membranetanks and convenlional

DeveLopment
EN
LOX and LIN

LPG
Land-based membrane
, 216, 291,
426 476 291
M
507
sysiem lnsllation sysiem lMeia lic membrane Outeriank The knot

slorage
1473
lanks history
306
303
302
304 306
304 306 304 307 303
Lined mined rock cavem iniliative fof tuturc LNG
Magnetic Panicla Flaw Detection {MPl)
433 285 295 245 234

441
234
itaterial groups, 5lUni6

Itaterial quality control
Material selection criteria for ambient tenperatufe
223
221
232 220
Requiremenis of the tank design Codes 222
cariiers NFPA 59A prEN 14620 lrreial arc wlding lrelhane lrilf scale Mineralwool Minimum impact test rquifemenb Minimum spacing requirements Miscellaneous storagesFtems Morton
LNG
342
342
241
334
234
390
224 475
503
46.80
461
itodulafconstructionandprefabricationtchniques
APl650 requnements
BS 2654 requimenls
222
225 226
prEN 14015 lequiremenls
Itaterial seclion critria for low tempeEturetanks

Example of a material selection meihod
438 450 438 438
Reqlirements ofAPl 620
seclions plaiforms Sleelshel plates Tower slaituays Wire wound lype Mounded storage lvlouseholes llulti-strand tendon typs
Roof frame
461 461 461

461 461
Roof
217,292
241 460 397
APl620 Appendix Q
l\4ateria s for parts subjected to
lllultl-layerinsulationcomponentcalculation
N
National Board ofFire UndMritere {NFBU) Natio.al Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Ho.izonlal convecUve lrequency
Horizontal impulsive lEquency Veriical banelling irequency
ambienttemperalues
Maierials lor parts subjecled to
7 7
owlempetures APl620 Appendix R

l,laier]als for parts subjected lo low lenperatures Requirements of BS 7777:Part 2 Malerials lor pa.ts sublecled to
442 438
486 486
447
Matehalsfof oarls sub ected to ambient lemDeraiures 438 443
488 489
7
ambieniiemperatures
443 443 446 446
NFBU 30
lv,laledals ior parts subjected to low tempeEtures
42r
Requnements of BS 7777:Pan 4 Parts subjeci to ambient iemperatures Parts subjected lo iow lempelores Requ rements of PD 7777:2000 Requ remeris of prEN 14620 Malerials fof parls slbjecl
1o
I
291,421,470
302, 421, 471 , 476
421,500
277 442 444 Nil Ductility lest Temperature {NDTr) 446
amb ent lemperalures
Materials for pads subjecl to low temperatures
lvlaterlals ior primary ard secondary liquid-@ntaining pans 438
351,442,454
214
30
Pellini Dfop Weight
Test
221,434
317, 387, 391, 393, 396,399,409
Penile
312
104
Nozzles and nozle design

Assessment of
102,344
106 106 108 106 110
nozle
oadings
APl650 approach
Determinatior ol a lowab e oads Determ nation oi loads on lhe nozle Loadirg on the nozze
Meihod of analysis example Nozz e loading exampLe
She
30,105
108
107 109
ldefeciion ard roiai on
106
o
OBE
5
"One foot" method or rule Operating Basis Earthquake (OBE)
28, 60
2f4,443
ODaraton and maintenance of ambient temDerature

Product identlicanon
tanks
275
2AT
277
2TT
277 Wilh lnternaL i oat ng covers Floating rooi lanks 277 277
Op.raiion of fixed roof hnks

F
274 279 279 279 279

279 242 242
2AA 2AA
requirem6nts 244 6 Petrochemical and other industrids 6 Petrolstation forecolntanks pressure 419 reliefvalve Pilot-operated 103 Piping loads 232 Plat6 fabrication 233 Pfate mills 232 Pfate thiokness tolerances 306 Polyurethane foam (PUF) 306 Polyvinyl ch lorid. foam (PVC) 183 Pontoon manholes 234 Poslwold Heat-Treatment {PWHT) 4, 299, 371, 429, 454, 460 "Preload" wire winding system prEN140rs 9, 19,30, 99, 114, 154, 193, 194,207,251,277 prEN14620 9, 302, 341, 346, 350, 446, 419, 490, 50',1 206, 277 , 414 Pressu re and vacuum .elief valve I Pressure Equipmenl Regulations 1,215 Pressurevesse,s 309, 460, 461 Pre-stressed concror.lanks 370 Preshessing bultresses Probablo Design Earlhquake (PDE) 445 Product identification 277 Producl liquid pressuresacting on tank shells 489 490 APt620 490 B3T77T prEN 14620 490 Protessor A. S. Tooth 31 , 43, 56, 63, 'l04, 1'16 Propane 6,291,394 Propylene 291
Personnel add equipnent
xed roof lanks with interna ioaiing coveB
Hazardous atmospheres
R
Radial raiter type cone roof
'124
Operation of floaling roofhnks

Access lo the ioallng rool
472
216
6
Colecl on sump delais Efiecls oi roof type on dra rage
Refrigerated liquefied gas storage a ternative storage system
Refrigeraled stora9e of liquid ammonia

Chemical Induslies Associaion gu dance Convenl onal syslems Inspecllon and ma ntenance Recenl developdents
history
424 430
431
lManaging eg suppots
284 279 242 279 242
424 433 433 432 476 476 479 479
static electricily @nirol
240 279 279
Regulations governing LNG storage facilities
Operation ofbnks
general
277
2TT
EN1473: 1997 rules m!m spac ng requiremefts
Preveniion oi overfi ing
278 247 206
lMin
480 479
Operational malfunclions Outer hnk concrete wall and bottom liners
Scenaros to be considered
479
363
Themalradation
479 480
P
234
1
476
Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA)
485
equirements Development Thermal radiation Vapourdilution considerations Regulations goveming LPG storage facilities hsltule ofPetroeum rules Bunding requnemenls GeneEl LPG pssure siobge (Volume 1, Chapter 2) Reirigeraied LPG stose (Vo ume 2, Chapler3) 9orage tank spacing Vapour tEvel requirements APl2510 Pessurised LPG storage Reffigerated storage NFPA58 Pressudsed LP-Gas siorage Relrlgerated LP Gas storage NFPA5g Pressurised LP-Gas storage Refr seraled LP-Gas sioEge
l4inimurn spacins Odgin and
479 476 47a 478 470

471 Exiernal roof nsulation Internal suspended deck insLrLalion prEN 14620appmach
3,16
APl620 apprcach (Appendices R aid a)
347 347
350
392
392
393
473 472 472 473 473 473 473 474 475

47O
't93
APl650 requiremenls
BS 2654 requiments
193 193 193
Eurcpean Code prEN 14015 quiements
192,441
APl650 requlemenls BS 2654 lquircmefts

ELropean Code prEN 14015 requiremenls
193
'192
193
Roor plaforms ror plmp handling

Compresslon p ale type sea s
415 176
'177
470
4TO
177 Seals incorporating foam dams 177 177 Liqu d flled fabric sea Resi inl foam-rlled seal
471 471
471
176 176
'176
Reinfofced and prestrcssed concrete component
design
367
367 367
General Tank bases Tank rools Tankwals

Above groLnd
345
374
368 368 372 372 369
APl620approach (Appendices R and O)

prEN 14620 approach
345 345 346
tanks Bonom corner delails In-groundtanks

Preslressedconcretewal-intemaltendonlype
Prestressed corcrete wall wirc wound
234 174
Roof water drench system Roof5 wlth no supporting st.ucture
Co umn-supported 421
116 142 143 116
371 lype Reiniorced conc.ete wal wilh earlh embankment 372 Top comerdetais 373 Rinfored base slab 468 Reinrorced concrete 101 Reinfored concrete roofs 345, rt59 Refoase Prevention Barier(RPB) 254 420 Resetue capacily relief valve Rim venb 174 433 Risk Based Inspection (RBl) f Rivetted and weld.d structures
oofs
cdumnseeclion selisuppodns cone (of membEne oo0

Thickness of roof plating
116 116 117 116
Folded plate lype
118
122
'122
45,101,133
279 '182,232
122
122 122 Roofs wilh supponing strLclures
174
179
180
Cenlral crown ring
127
123
Amoured nexible hose Aniculaied piping syslem DEin design Codes
179
'179
123.128
136
180 180
Externallyjmed lype
Radia frertypo
Extemal y{ramed roois Design calcu ation
139 136 136
BS Code
'
180
180
..137
141
Helicalflexible hose
179 Geodesic dome roois
142
She
lslfien ng lor exlerna insLlation oadings

R approach
3'18
Trussed lrame type
127
Wind and vacuum slfiening
Rool-lo'shell 60mpression zone
82,92,243
26, 50, 52, 53, 55, 89
AP 620 appendx
319 End (ie lop and boltom) stifferers Hoopiension lqud conlaining meialictanks 330 319 329
S Saie Shutdown Earthquake {SSE)
274,477,443
T
domes Saunde6 andwindenberg sampte/dip hatch sealing syste'ns Secondary bottons Secondaryseals
Salt
lntemediale shel stifieneE Non'lqu d contain ng tanks
45,101
183
319
324 324
Shelslllening
for enernal insr ation loadlngs
279
362 241
Wind and vacuLm slffenirg
Hoop
tenson
iq! d conlanlng metal c ia.ks

335
Seismicdesign of ambient temperature
tanks slress oadings
264
264 273 264
Addendumlo Bs 7777on parlialheight hydroslal c lesting 336 335

336 336 337 Hoop ters
AP 650
approach data lqud

oflhe product
Alowabe longitLdna compressive

Basc sesmc
Behav our
Nor
Lqu d
conlanng metalLlclanks
Shelstifeningforexle.nalinsllation loadirgs
Wind ard vacuum stffening
269 273 270

271 271
Othefconsideliors arising from seismic

Overturning
moment Res siance lo overtlrning Shel compression Anchored lanks Unanchored tanks Slosh he ghl and lreeboard consideralons BS 2654approach lniroducllon prEN 14015 approach Seismic design of lowtemperature tanks Basic seismic design dala Behaviour olthe product liquid Calculation ofihe des gn acceleraions Danprg Design Codes Ducllily General Liquid sloshng Natural lrequencies Productliquid presslres acting on tankshels seismc isolation Tark siding Tankslablily under seism c load ngs Seismic Hazard Assessmenl (SHA) Seismic isolalion seismic loads Seismic zones worldwide Self-supporting 6one roofs Semi-bu.ied lanks forthe storage of aviation fuel
Separation distances
on
lrquid
6ntaining mela lic lanks
338 333 338 338
Nonliquid @ntaining lanks
Shl stiffening ior external lnsu allon load ngs

Wind and vacLum stifien ng
2T2
271
Shellfiltings
APl650 fequ rements
BS 2654 reqlnements
352 192 192 192

192
273
274 264
274
441
European Code prEN 14015
103
16, 44, 53,60, 334, 336, 336, 328
482
485 489 485

500
Shell thickness formula
23,27,3A
240
3,14
Shellwelding sequence sherl-roof compression a.eas
80. 89
488 442 495 446 489 499 493 490

Codes ard design guidance
40.342
l. 5!7
409
aa9
tvlale als ot consir!cliof
::?
:::
Single containnent tanks
BS TTTT
zar 291 !31

!'.:
251,442
499
2a
EN 1473
241 251
265
1'16
BS 2654
aa,
100
prEN 14015
.t1
252
semi-refrigeratdandfllly.refrigeratedethylenestorage 292
forsmalllanks S.trlement in seNice Shellbuckling shetldesign APl620AppendixQ approach Axlal compression Hoop tenson - iquid cortaningianks Non liquid @ntaining lanks
259 252
318 318
331
334
331
334
h2.. ai Spacing of welds a..--i ::-,-e-,-s AP 650'::, _:-: = BS 26ar -.:, _: : = Eurcr.:_:r:- =: --: . F rs_::e ::: -: :::Spherssc'e1- =-rr
Solids storage and
503
190
192
190 192 192
216, 302,308
S-:F-r- -+$.r:
4 :QUIPMENT
551
475 Spillage collection systems 283

457
Parliclpaling rcoi and shellplate area
96 96 97
Seciion size tof the secondary wind girder
95 95 95 99
348 283
457 459
Shellwird girder ca cuLalion

Shell-lGroof compression zone
Spihlly-9uid6d gasholders
504 417 274, 477,443 220, 232, 304, 351,361
wrd
loading to APl650
Tank anchorage
6ystens
Tank and bund drainage
Staircases and slaiMays

Earihing and bonding
234, 365
234
Tank bottom annular pate analysis
Tank capacity 49 317
242 283
282 7 105, 109
Precautons lo minirnise or avoid staiiccharges Steel Tank lnstitute (STl) Storage ol f lammable liquids
245 248
Tank cool-down anangements
417
260
421 231 234

Stain ess steel naleria s
Storagesysteds and conhinment categories Storage lank dab sheol

Stomge
295
22
nks
Stnp and bolt ancho.age
delinition
93
100
232 234 234
Surfa@ protectior iof plates and secllons

Tank appurtenar@s
pN 14620approach
244 Surface proteotion fof plates and sections
prEN 14620 approach Requ rcments oJAPl620 Requ remenis oi BS 7777 Requiremenis ofAPl 620
360 355 358 358 355 358 358
234
360
APl620 Appendix R APl620AppendixQ APl620 secUon 5

Design of heat breaks ReqLirements of BS 7777
362
361 361 180
Innerlank and olterliquid @ntaining lank
Tankaccess Horizontal p adorms Rada slancase sp Elsla rcase Vertlladde6 Tankanchorage BS 7777 requirehents p|EN 14620 app@ach
Requiremenls ol API 620 Appendix
198 199 198 198 199
Connecting pipework bendeen innef and oulerlank @nnect ons Outer @niainer moLntings
359 358 36
American Code requnernenls Annular plates >12.5 mm thick

F F
39
350
?51
oorairangementlor ianks requiring optmum drainage

oors lormed from lap welded plates only 40
352
351 351 351
Ldpppd loor pates.
oraniJldrpa,a'
12.5
rm ifi.k
40
4A
tanks Nor-Lquid @ntainng tanks

Liquid conlaining
Shel tofloorplatewelds considebtion for speciic maleria s

Tank foors wh ch requne specia @nsideralion
R metalictanks TankanchoEge furthef considerations Anchorage attachmenl Spacifg ofanchors Wind loading and internalseryice pessurc Worked example Anchorage ca cu alion Check for iranqib lity Comp eiion oiiank design Design oflhe anchoge Alax mum urstifiened height otlhe shell Ovefturning momenl due io wind action only
Requnenrenls ol API 620 Appendix
350
350
Brtish Code rcquirenrenls

Tanks above 12.5 m diamelef Tanks up to and includng 12.5 m diameler
Env ronmenial @nsideralions
36 37 36 42 36
Liqlid conlaning
94
94 94 94 94 97 99 95 98 95
9T
Floor p aie arngements
424 246, 433

Tank ja6king {or jack buildins) Welding and inspeclior
454 454 454 454
284
Permii-lo-work syslems Work on equipment n operation
244 244
Overturning moment due io wind acton while in
sewice
97
552 STORAGE TANKS &
EQUIPI\,IENT
244
147
USAEC Regulatory Guide
485
493 495 496

Tank stability under seismic loadings
Vacuum bor testing method
246
24,206
306
490
196 197
197 196
"variable design point" method Botlom shel course

Conparison of the thickness resulls Delaibd "vadable des gn point method
Method deveLopmeni
19,56
5T
63
lcllaion
63 56 60
Prcssurc and vacuum (P &V)valves
197 99
Tanks produced in slainless steel materials
Shel siifiening
Technigd mmbEne
304
241
Comparison behveen Brilish and American secondary wind girder requnmerts Primary wind g rders lo
-wind
gnde6
76 78 76 76 60
242
242
APl650
secondary wind gkdeE to APl650
26 Alowab e compressNe srress

Axial skess in the shell Actual compress ve sress Allowable compressive slresses for she I colrses 35
31
Ventilation - maintenance v.nting of ambient tanks

Deslgn code rcqu rements APt 2000
lr.4eans oi
285 205
206
34 34 34
31
209 veniing
212 212 212
Axialstress due io wnd loading on ihe shel
cylindrielshel BS 2654 Alowab e slee stresses Ex@ption to"one iool' rnethod l,laximu.n afd minimum operating tempeEtures Maximum and mlnimum shl thickness Praclical appl calion ofihickness iormu a Pressure in lhe roofvapouf space
a
Dervallon and assessmeni oI dialstress ln
Pressure limitaUons
Re iel valve nstalaiion 2T
Venting requiremenls
209 206
29 2a 30 29
BS 2654
206
2AT
prEN 14015
Venling eqlirements
207
,a
30 2a 30
31
206 206 206 Rliefvalve equiPment

212
Princjpalfaclorsdeterminngshellthickness
Specilicgvily or relative densLtyolthe slored
Tank shelldesign
producl
ilustration Design ofthe lank shel Failure along the length oflhe cylinder Fa lure around the crcumlerence ofihe cyinder Thermal insulation Timber Top boom of the truss Towns gas Toric materiats Type I steel Type flsteel Typ. fll steel Type lV steel Type V steel Type Vl steel
u
UL 142
414 26
131
26 27 26
very Larye Crude cariers {VLCCS)
243
363,463
361
130
1
Waltand base liners

Design Code requiremenls Insulal on for the wals ofsingle-wa ed meiallic tanks Loose
Wa
461
388 389 388 388 388
245
444,444 444,444 444,444 444,444 444,444

444
fil insllation systens
Rigid lnsulaton lorlhe wals oidoub e-walled lanks
nsulaiion nater a s
389
389
Loose li
I nsulallon
391
390 Olher plasiic loam matera s 7

'123 T
389
390 389 389
Perlile loose
Umbrella type dome roof
lil
nsulaUon systems
UndeMrite6 Labohtories Inc (UL) Unifomly Dist buted Loads (U.D.L.s)

United Kingdom Pressure Equipment Regulations Unrestrained shell deflection and rotation at
thE
PoLyurelhane loam
129
Reslienlbankel
Water cooling systems 109
391
203
203
nozle centreline
Specialcase
Floating rooflanks
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPII4ENT 553
Tank cooling methods
203 204 203
Equivlent shell method Numbor of
45 45 46
Fixed and lraileFmountod water cannons Water
gideB rcquted
spy and detuge sprinktr systems
worked example
Vertical bending of the shell
Weld edge preparalion Wells Wde Plat6 (wWP) tests Wind and vacuum stiffonlng
29, 221,
4a 233
$4, $O
507
Ronon and stress analysis

Shell-to-bottom connection
4A
ambisnt temperature bnt(s
43
51
lvind and vacuum stiftuning

low temperature lanks
324, 334, 336, 338
Ch@sing BS or APt shelt thickness design methods Shelldesign slresses

Shell plate lhicknesses Use of shell design fomuiae Worked examples
53
51
51
239 Saiety measurcs against wind damage 240

329
Wlndenburg and Tdlling
53 53 56
wlnd girder *ctions

318
30
mary wind
gideE
dsign technique
43 43
Wire wound .oncrele lank walls Wlre wound concrele waGr tanks
372
Rfining the
43 45
z
57,63,328
Secondary wind
sidels
554 STOMGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
Acknowledgements
The publishers acknowledge ihe help and assistance ofthe following organisaiions in supplying dala, photogEphs, illusttations and where apprcp ate, permissionto reproduce matefialfrom their own publications.
Advant ca
Alibert Buckhorn UK Ltd Amadeus Pss Ltd

Anderson Greenwood
Angus Fie Antuerp Gas Termina NV API (Amedcan Pelrcleum Inslitute)

BSI Cell U Foam CoQoralion CEN (Eumpan Commifiee for Slandad zalion) chi@so B dse& lrcn Company(CB&l) DEPA S,A. DOT (US Depadmeni of Transportalion) Eadhquake Proleclion Syslems Inc EEMUA EFIVA Enagas Endrcss+Hausr Systems & GauginS Ltd (formedy the Institute ofPetrcLeum) Energy 'nstiluie tci Plc lnslitute of Petroleum lntemalional Code Council (lCC) JFE Engineering Corpoiion LNG JoumEl lM W Kellogg Lid IMB Engineering Se ices Lid McTay Molhsrwel Conlrol Syslems Lld N FPA (NaUonal Fire Poleclion Association) Nikkiso Cryo ELrrop Philips Pelrcleum Company Pilt-Des Molnes lnc Pittsburgh Corning Corpoalion Prsload lnc Recinco NV
Roya Aronautca Soc ely Roya Vopak

Taylor Woodrow Construciion The Mot Otrce Ty6 Va ves & Conlrols Universal Shipbuilding Corporation Whessoe Woodside Petoleum Ltd
Aspeclal acknowldgement to Protussor A.
S. Tooth
Bob Gamer is greaily indebted to the late PrcfessofAlwyn Tooth, Prcfessor of Mechan ical Engineering, at the lJnive|siiyof Srathclyde, Glasgoq lor his huge contribulion to ihe undersbnding ofthe theory of siorage lank design. Much ofthe explanation to the backgrcund ofthe theory included in the ambient tank Section of this book is taken from work produced bv Professof Toolh.
STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMEI{T 556
lndex to advertisers
AConsult
Allibed Buckhom Uk Ltd
Bayham Ltd Braby Ltd Brimar Plastics Ltd Bureau Veritas xviii 527 xxvi
ByggwikUK Ltd
Cookson & Zinn (PTL) Ltd CPV Ltd Drayton Tank & Accesso es Lld Ebara Intemalional Corporction Emco Wheaton GmbH Fod Vale Engineedng Ltd Franklin Hodge lndustries
H[,1T Rubbaglas Ltd
x)o(t,5zl
xxviii 527
XXII
Inside Back Cover

XViii
HSB Inspection Quality
xvi xxviii
viii
XXXi
Lloyd's Regisler
I\,1W Kellogg Ltd IvlB Engineedng Services Ltd
MC Inieg Ltd
I\,,1cTay
Inside Ffont Cover
I\,lixing Solulions Ltd I\,lotherwell Control Systems
xxiv
Ld
xiv
Nikkiso Cryo Europe
Nomanby Induslries LH
Prccolor Saies Ltd
Seetru Ltd Sinclair Slainless Fab cations Ltcl SN Technigaz Sui Generis Intemational Ltd
xxviii
Taylor Woodrow Construction TesTex NDT Ltd
527 vi Outside Back Cover
Tmctebel Gas Engineering GmbH
secriona ste assembd r,ru d sr

storaqe o. po1ar.
he
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srrts Fr.m 10m:lo nxcessof5000m'

a
quia
reclangu
ar v
ualy aiy shape .pproved lo
54m heisht Frcm lomrto nexcessot5000ml
. ,
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nsra
hydrauicFck
. Lonqrfe neersLPclype a 15yearmnmum . ntrnatonalapprova s for pola
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15 The seismic design of ambient

temperature storage tanks

15.2.2 The behaviour of the pmduct liquid

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 263

15 The seismic design of ambient temperature stoftge tanks

15.2 The API 650 approach

sign where the subject of seismic design is considered in a

cations outside the USA. This tabulation is shown in Figure

264 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

5 The seismic design of ambbnt temperature sto@ge tanks

Alge. Orar Bdtin

Tangrer Mozambique Maputo

Brkavu Ki$hasa tubumbashi

Thna!arive Blantyre Lilongw Zonba

Zimbrbwe Hardrc (srlisbury)

Figure 15.2 Tabulation of tho seismic zones woddwide - pagg

Fromthe Uniform Buildino Code

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 265

15 The seismic design of

ambientlewenfiJre slorage fanks

BIunei Bandu Sci Begiunn

Jiild.! Khnis Mwl|arf

ChiuB irri Songlllla Tn!ftcy

YDetr Aran Republic

AT'I,ANTIC OCEAN AREA

CARTBBEAN SEA hlruna Islsods

Domiricar nepublic Sanlo DoninSo

266 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPiIENT

5 The seismic design of ambient tempenture stgnge tanks

Kngsion lreward Islalds

stralbouB Ocrnrny, Fcdelsl Republic Bcdin

El Sakador San Salvador Guatemala

H!ngary Budapa{ Icebrd

Russia 0 St. Pelrlsbulg

5,2 Tabulatlon of the selsmlc zones woddwide - pagg 3

Ftufi fie Unitom Building Code

STORAGE.TANKS & EQUIPMENT 267

15 The seismic de'ign of ambient.bnpenture storage tanks

Ediiburgn Edzel Classow^cnfrew

PACIFIC OCSAN AREA

Carolin blrrds Kolsr, Psh! ls. Frji

Cal$!y, Alb Cturcni4 Man Cold l,ah., Alb Bdmortoq Alb

Tbronb, Ont Wimcpcg, Man SOUTII AMERICA

Porl r'roruby Islrndo

All \lblc khnd All

Ecrador Guataquil Quito

268 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT

15 The seismic desjgn of anctea:

Seismr Zone FlcLor (horzon'3t acceierario!

A soil ponle wirh ejrher a) a !o*-tii. chemderizd by a she2J walc velocin

A soil prcnb wir! stiff or derse soit condfuons

*bE lire soil

stiffclnybutmoFrhd t2n({Oft)of sonclay.

Figure 15.5 Site coefficients S

Frcn API 650, Appendix E. table E-3

The impulsive component The convective component

solid. lt experiences the same accelerations

This equation requires the tank diameter to be in feet. lf

the diamete_r is in metres, then the equation becomes