CUSTOMER

ABSTRACT

BUYING BEHAVIOUR

customers make purchases in order to satisfy needs. The wealth of products and services produced in a country make our economy strong.All the behaviour of human beings during the purchase may be termed as "buyer behaviour".. In this article there is a view about birth of buying ideas, what is buyer behaviour, How consumer buy, why consumer buy, types, Decision process, Motives,conclusion.

INTRODUCTION Consumer is the king and it is the consumer determines what a business is, therefore a sound marketing programme start with a careful analysis of the habits, attitudes, motives and needs of consumers. In particular a marketer should find answer to the following questions: What are the products they buy? Why they buy them? How they buy them? When they buy them ? Where they buy them?

THE BIRTH OF BUYING IDEAS Mr.A owns scooter. The scooter is causing dissatisfication because of some defects or troubles in it. He decides to replace it with another scooter. He anticipates the idea of a trouble free and dependable scooter. He decides not to buy a scooter of the same make, because of dissatisfication and lack of confidence. Thus a thought seed about a new scooter is born in him, the moment he thinks,"I must replace the scooter " the buying ideas come up. With the thought in his mind, he thinks of the benefits. And this leads to further thinking: what sort of a scooter will give the benefits, he wants. The benefits make the desire. He may buy any one of many makes of scooter, which can give the desired benefits. He makes enquiries and observe through talking to his friends. He reads advertisement about the new scooters. He chooses one with all

the possible advantages and which is wholly dependable. Mr.A is a prospective customer to a dealer. WHAT IS BUYER BEHAVIOUR? The wealth of products and services produced in a country make our economy strong. Almost all the products, which are available to buyers, have a number of alternative suppliers: substitute products are available to consumers, who make decision to buy products. Therefore a seller most of his time, seeks buyers and tries to please them. In order to be successful, a seller is concerned with.

Who is the customer? What do consumers buy? When do consumers buy? How do consumers buy? From where do consumers buy? Why do consumers buy?

A buyer makes a purchase of a particular product or a particular brand and this can be termed " product buying motives" and the reason behind the purchase from a particular seller is " patronage motives" When a person gets his pay packet, and if he is educated ,sits down along with his wife and prepares a family budget, by appropriating the amount to different needs. It may happen that after a trip to the market, they might have purchased some items, which are not in the budget, and thus there arises a deviation from the budgeted items and expenditure. all the behaviour of human beings during the purchase may be termed as "buyer behaviour". HOW CONSUMER BUY 1. Need/Want/Desire is Recognized In the first step the consumer has determined that for some reason he/she is not satisfied (i.e., consumer's perceived actual condition) and wants to improve his/her situation (i.e., consumer's perceived desired condition). For instance, internal triggers, such as hunger or thirst, may tell the consumer that food or drink is needed. External factors can also trigger consumer's needs. Marketers are particularly good at this through advertising, in-store displays and even the intentional use of scent (e.g., perfume counters). 2. Search for Information Assuming consumers are motivated to satisfy his or her need, they will next undertake a search for information on possible solutions. The sources used to acquire this information may be as simple as remembering information from past experience (i.e., memory) or the consumer may expend considerable effort to locate information from outside sources (e.g., Internet search, talk with others, etc.). How much effort the consumer directs toward searching depends on such

factors as: the importance of satisfying the need, familiarity with available solutions, and the amount of time available to search. 3. Evaluate Options Consumers' search efforts may result in a set of options from which a choice can be made. It should be noted that there may be two levels to this stage. At level one the consumer may create a set of possible solutions to their needs (i.e., product types) while at level two the consumer may be evaluating particular products (i.e., brands) within each solution. For example, a consumer who needs to replace a television has multiple solutions to choose from such as plasma, LCD and CRT television. 4. Purchase In many cases the solution chosen by the consumer is the same as the product whose evaluation is the highest. However, this may change when it is actually time to make the purchase. The "intended" purchase may be altered at the time of purchase for many reasons such as: the product is out-of-stock, a competitor offers an incentive at the point-of-purchase (e.g., store salesperson mentions a competitor's offer), the customer lacks the necessary funds (e.g., credit card not working), or members of the consumer's reference group take a negative view of the purchase (e.g., friend is critical of purchase).

5. After-Purchase Evaluation Once the consumer has made the purchase they are faced with an evaluation of the decision. If the product performs below the consumer's expectation then he/she will re-evaluate satisfaction with the decision, which at its extreme may result in the consumer returning the product while in less extreme situations the consumer will retain the purchased item but may take a negative view of the product. Such evaluations are more likely to occur in cases of expensive or highly important purchases. To help ease the concerns consumers have with their purchase evaluation, marketers need to be receptive and even encourage consumer contact. Customer service centers and follow-up market research are useful tools in helping to address purchasers' concerns. Why Consumers Buy : customers make purchases in order to satisfy needs. Some of these needs are basic and must be filled by everyone on the planet (e.g., food, shelter) while others are not required for basic survival and vary depending on the person. It probably makes more sense to classify needs that are not a necessity as wants or desires. In fact, in many countries where the standard of living is very high, a large portion of the population's income is spent on wants and desires rather than on basic needs. For example, in planning for a family vacation the mother may make the hotel reservations but others in the family may have input on the hotel choice. Similarly, a father may purchase snacks

at the grocery store but his young child may be the one who selected it from the store shelf. So understanding consumer purchase behavior involves not only understanding how decisions are made but also understanding the dynamics that influence purchases.

TYPES OF CONSUMER PURCHASE BEHAVIOR

Consumers are faced with purchase decisions nearly every day. But not all decisions are treated the same. Some decisions are more complex than others and thus require more effort by the consumer. Other decisions are fairly routine and require little effort. In general, consumers face four types of purchase decisions:

Minor New Purchase these purchases represent something new to a consumer but in the customer's mind is not a very important purchase in terms of need, money or other reason (e.g., status within a group). Minor Re-Purchase these are the most routine of all purchases and often the consumer returns to purchase the same product without giving much thought to other product options (i.e., consumer is brand loyalty). Major New Purchase these purchases are the most difficult of all purchases because the product being purchased is important to the consumer but the consumer has little or no previous experience making these decisions. The consumer's lack of confidence in making this type of decision often (but not always) requires the consumer to engage in an extensive decision-making process.. Major Re-Purchase - these purchase decisions are also important to the consumer but the consumer feels confident in making these decisions since they have previous experience purchasing the product.

For marketers it is important to understand how consumers treat the purchase decisions they face. If a company is targeting customers who feel a purchase decision is difficult (i.e., Major New Purchase), their marketing strategy may vary greatly from a company targeting customers who view the purchase decision as routine. In fact, the same company may face both situations at the same time; for some the product is new, while other customers see the purchase as routine. The implication of buying behavior for marketers is that different buying situations require different marketing efforts Consumer Buying Decision Process "Nothing is more difficult and therefore, more precious, than to be able to decide is quoted to be the words of Napoleon. This is amply true in the case of consumer too. It is for this reason that the marketers are bound to have a full knowledge of the consumer buying decision process.

However it should be remembered that the actual act of purchasing is only one stage in the process and the process is initiated at the several stages prior to the actual purchase. Secondly even though we find that purchase is one of the final links in the chain of process, not all decision processes lead to purchase. The individual consumer may terminate the process during any stage. Finally not all consumer decisions always include all stages. Persons engaged in extensive decision making usually employ all stages of this decision process. Where as those engaged in limited decisions making and routine response behaviour may omit some stages. The consumer decision process is composed of two parts, the process itself and the factors affecting the process. SURVEY BY THE MARKETING TEAM A survey conducted by the marketing team of shoppers stop Ltd. Reveals the psychography of the modern shopper. Acordingly the survey classifies customers in to the four segments namely

Convenience Shoppers Value Shoppers Image Shoppers Experience Shoppers

Convenience shoppers for instance ,are people who consume relatively less amount of time while shopping. Also they look out for the width and depth of the range they purchase and conduct their annual shopping at one shot. Value Shoppers always hunt for value for money ; Prefer quality reassurance and benchmark offerings among other related attributes. Image Shoppers are fashion- conscious and look out for the latest trends and labels. On the other hand , Experience Shoppers are attentive and prefer personalized services look out for the right ambience, prefer giving personal advice on clothing at the time of purchase , and prefer not to buy at one sold. MARKETING IMPLICATIONS OF CONSUMER'S DECISION PROCESS It was during 1960's that a number of theories to explain the consumer s decision process started appearing. The three leading theorists were Howard-sheth , Engel Kollat-Blackwell and Nicosia. Since then a considerable research on the marketing implications of the process has been developed and tested the applications of many elements of marketing. Many of the marketing dtrategies and tactics will have to be developed in relation to consumer attitudes. Marketing strategies ,if effectively used, will go a long way in initiating and developing consumer attitudes in favour of the products.

ECONOMIC FACTOR AFFECT THE BUYER'S BEHAVIOUR 1.Disposal personal income : The economists made attempts to establish a relationship between income and spending. Disposal personal income represents potential purchasing power that a buyer has. The change in income has a direct relation on buying habits. 2.Size of family income : The size of family and size of family income affect the spending and saving patterns. Generally large family spend more and short family spend less, in comparison. 3. Income expectations : The expected income to receive in future has a direct relation with the buying behaviour. The expectation of higher or lower income has a direct effect on spending plans. 4.Propensity to consume and to save : This goes to the habit of spending or saving with the disposal income of buyers. If the buyers give importance to present needs, then they dispose of their income. And buyers spend less if they give importance to future needs. 5. Liquidity of Fund : The present buying plans are influenced greatly by liquidity of assets i.e., cash and assets readily convertible into cash, eg bonds, bank balances etc., 6. Consumer Credit : " Buy now and pay later" plays its role effectively in the rapid growth of markets for car, scooter, radio, furniture and the like. Economic model suggests behavioural hypothsis :

Lower the price of the product, higher the sales. Lower the price of substitute products, lower the sales of this product Higher the real income, higher the sales of the product. Higher the promotional expenses, higher the sales.

Internal influences of buyers

psychographics (lifestyle), personality, motivation, knowledge, attitudes,

beliefs, and feelings. demographics,

consumer behaviour concern with consumer need consumer actions in the direction of satisfing needs leads to his behaviour behaviour of every individuals depend on thinking process. EXTERNAL INFLUENCES OF BUYERS

culture, sub-culture, Locality, royalty, ethnicity, family, social class, reference groups, lifestyle, and market mix factors.

.CONCLUSION Competing for the consumer is a never-ending challenge. This is due principally to the uniqueness and competitiveness of each individual market, for they are all different and all require different approaches" . Knowledge of the buying motives of consumers is essential for a marketer.The changes in the market are brought by the consumers. REFERENCES Consumer Behavior In Indian Perspective Suja Nair Himalaya Publishers Consumer Behaviour Walker Modern marketing - - R.S.N Pillai, Bagavathi
References : 1. Consumer Behaviour & Marketing Action, Thomson India Edition, 6th Edition, 2006. 2. Consumer Behaviour & Marketing Research, Suja R Nair, Himalay Publishing House, 1st. Edition, 2004. 3. Consumer Behaviour & Marketing Strategy, J Paul Peter, Jerry C Olson, 2nd. Edition, IRWIN, 1990. 4. Consumer Behaviour : Basic Findings and Management Implications, G Zaltman and M Wallendorf, John Wiley & Sons, 1983. 5. Consumer Behaviour in Marketing Strategy, John A Howard, Prentice Hall, 1989. 6. Consumer Behaviour, David L Loudon & Albert J Della Bitta, TMGH, 4th. Edition, 2006. 7. Consumer Behaviour, ICFAI University, May - 2005.

8. Consumer Behaviour, James F Engel, Roger D Blackwell, Paul W Miniard, 8th. Edition, The Dryden Press, 1995. 9. Consumer Behaviour, Leon G. Schiffman & Leslie Lazar Kanuk, PHI - EEE, 9th. Edition, 2006. 10. Consumer Behaviour, Roger D Blackwell, Paul W Miniard, & James F Engel, Thomson India Edition, 10th Edition, 2007. 11. Marketing Management - Planning, Implementation & Control, Global Perspective, Indian Context, V S Ramaswamy & S Namakumari, MacMillan India Ltd., 3rd. Edition, 2003. 12. Marketing Management, 12th. Edition, by Philip Kotler & Kevin Lane Keller. 13. Marketing Management, Philip Kotler, PHI - EEE, 11th. Edition, 2003. 14. Marketing Research, G C Beri, TMGH, 3rd. Edition, 2000.

Definitions :

Consumer Behaviour (or Buyer Behaviour) is broadly defined by various scholars & researchers as :
1. It's the behaviour displayed by the consumers during the acquisition, consumption and disposition of products, services, time and ideas by decision making units. 2. It is the body of knowledge which studies various aspects of purchase and consumption of products and services by individuals with various social and psychological variables at play. 3. The behaviour that the consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs. 4. The process and activities people engage in when searching for, selecting, purchasing, using, evaluating, and disposing of products and services so as to satisfy their needs and desires. 5. The activities directly involved in obtaining, consuming, and disposing of products and services, including the decision processes that precede and follow these actions. 6. The American Marketing Association (AMA) defines consumer behaviour as "The dynamic interaction of cognition, behaviour & environmental events by which human beings conduct the exchange aspect of their lives.

Meaning of post purchase behavior;

Post-purchase behavior involves all the consumers' activities and the experiences that follow the purchase. Usually, after making a purchase, consumers experience

post-purchase dissonance. In other words, they regret their purchase decision. The reasons for high postpurchase dissonance can be attractiveness and performance of forgone alternatives, difficult purchase decision, large number of alternatives, etc. A high level of post-purchase dissonance is negatively related to the level of satisfaction the consumer draws out of product usage. While experiencing post-purchase dissonance, consumers become acutely aware of the marketers' communication. To reduce post-purchase dissonance, consumers may sometimes even return or exchange the product. Marketers, therefore, can use these opportunities to reduce consumers' risk perception by way of good return/exchange policies and reduce their post-purchase dissonance by messages targeted at this segment of their consumers. Consumers' retail store selection behavior depends on - store image Despite post-purchase dissonance, many consumers proceed with consumption of the product. How consumers use the products is an important knowledge source for marketers, as they can offer better products and reach more consumers based on these consumer usage patterns. In some cases, however, consumers initially use the product but after a period of time fail to do so. Marketers, therefore, should not consider a product purchased as a product consumed. A nonused product is also more likely to affect the repurchase pattern of the consumers negatively. Consumers need to dispose off the products or packaging before, during, or after the use. The issue of disposal is gaining considerable importance for marketers as it directly affects the repurchase pattern of the consumers. As more and more products are consumed and disposed off, it is likely that repurchase will also be more. Many a time, consumers cannot repurchase without disposing off the product first, due to space and financial constraints. Thus, many marketers, especially retailers, are helping consumers to dispose off their old products. This not only gives consumers a reason to repurchase but also increases marketers' sales. The disposal options the consumers have are keep the product, temporarily dispose off, or permanently dispose off. Product use/consumption is followed by its evaluation, which may then lead to satisfaction (perceived performance > minimum desired expectations); non-satisfaction (perceived performance = minimum desired expectations); or dissatisfaction (perceived performance < minimum desired expectations). Consumer dissatisfaction may result in complaint behavior. Consumers may choose to take action against the marketer/service provider by way of warning friends, returning the product, boycotting and brand switching, complaining to the marketer, complaining to the relevant government/non-government bodies, and/or taking legal action against marketers/service provider.

Marketers should try to use consumer complaints as a way of assessing their performance as perceived by their consumers and should use this opportunity to delight them by showing their commitment to consumer service. Many marketers are actively seeking consumer feedback to improve their products and service quality with a view to retaining their existing consumers and attracting new ones. They have identified consumer retention as a major concern, as research has shown that even satisfied consumers can't be termed as loyalists and often switch to competing brands to get a better deal. Marketers thus, have identified the quality of product and service as the parameter to evaluate consumers' intention to repurchase instead of their level of satisfaction. Only totally satisfied and committed consumers are recognized as brand loyalists. Brand loyal consumers not only spread positive word-of-mouth for the brand but are also less likely to switch to other brands. Marketers are increasingly indulging in loyalty marketing to increase consumer retention, with various schemes and discount offers for their high value regular consumers. However, many observers believe that these kinds of tactics, if not implemented properly, can fail to deliver what they initially promised, resulting in frustrated consumers. Others also believe that marketers should classify their consumers on the basis of their satisfaction thresholds and then treat each group differently

UNIT 15 PURCHASE PROCESS & POST-PURCHASE BEHAVIOUR The Buying Process

Objectives After going through this unit you should be able to explain: how the purchase stage is completed in the buying process; the emergence and variety of the non-store buying alternatives available in India and abroad; the development of post-purchase attitude, and; the buyers' complaint behaviour and the marketer s response. Structure 15.1 Introduction 15.2 An Overview of Purchase Process 15.3 Buying Stage and Situational Influences 15.4 Steps to Benefit from Situational Influences 15.5 An Anatomy of Non-store Buying 15.6 Routes of Non-store Buying 15.7 Developing an Attitude to Post-purchase Behaviour
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15.8 Theories of Post-purchase Evaluation 15.9 Marketers' Response Strategies 15.10 Summary 15.11 Key Words 15.12 Self-Assessment Questions 15.13 Project Questions 15.14 Further Readings A well-known brand of a black table fan in India was recently grappling with a unique .marketing problem. The brand name was strong. The brand recall too was equally strong. A research study conducted by the company on those buyers who were intending to buy a fan in the next six months, found a strong intention to buy the brand. Yet a large number of buyers ended up buying competitive as well as look-alike brands. Another curious aspect of the brand was that those customers who owned the brand of the black table fan, were totally satisfied with the purchase. Yet the brand's market share tended to decline. The purchasers of the brand, when questioned after the purchases, did not indicate any negative reaction.

15.1 INTRODUCTION
Going through a buying process and that too so involved like an extended problem solving (EPS) situation, is never easy for a consumer. The enormity and complexity of the buying alternatives and attributes in each alternative, as seen in the unit 14, could often leave the buyer exasperated. The purchase and post-purchase are the last two stages of such consumer decision-making. While the purchase stage is more crucial from the manufacturers' or marketers' perspective, the post-purchase behaviour indicates the ultimate satisfaction perceived by consumers, and has implications for marketers as a determinant of future purchase decisions. A good in-shop experience brings three advantages to the marketer, known as the three R's of marketing. R1 is return of the customer to buy the product again. R2 is the recommendation to the potential customers. R3 is retaining the customer for other products of the company. The stage of buying and post buying affords the first opportunity to gain in this respect. 38

Activity 1 Narrate your general experience in shopping (15-20 words). What feelings come to your mind first?

15.2 AN OVERVIEW-OF PURCHASE PROCESS

It will be interesting to visualise the types of buying here before we analyze the anatomy of buying. Consumers make two types of purchases. Trial purchase and repeat purchases. `If a consumer purchases or is induced to purchase for the first time, a smaller quantity than usual, and with a certain degree of hesitancy', this is termed as a product trial. Thus, a trial purchaser could remain or drop out of purchasing the product after the experience. In any event, the trial is the phase of purchase behaviour where intention is to evaluate a product through use. Repeat purchase on the other hand, indicates commitment on the part of the customer towards the product, company and others. It is closely related to concept of development of brand loyalty and signifies that the product has met with the consumers' expectations. Another important point is to be noted here. The purchase process marks the recognition of actual purchasing environment and its obvious effects on the process. Uptil this point, all that marketers know about is supposed to happen in the mental framework of consumers. This is the stage where marketer can observe how mental evaluation is translated into purchase activity at the point of purchase. The importance of purchase process is further increased by following two reasons - one each from marketers and consumers perspective. From marketers' perspective, purchase process is linked to marketing-mix, Thus, if customers purchase the evaluated item, it confirms effectiveness of the marketing mix employed by marketers vis--vis competitors. The non-selection on the other hand, will signal to marketers towards the need of a change in marketing mix, after a careful analysis of underlying reasons for brand rejection. For customers, purchase action marks the end of their efforts for an optimum brand choice. Not only do they give up money in return for a product, but the choice of brand once made, also means that they must depend on it alone for the delivery of expected benefits and satisfaction, at least until next purchase occassion. Activity 2 Identify three benefits or implications of the purchase stage to the marketer. 1. 2. 3. A customer, when committed to the stage of choice process, will have to take decision pertaining to: Where to buy from? (store selection vs. non-store purchasing) How much to buy from? (Quantum choice) How to buy? (Cash or credit purchase or hire purchase etc.)

39 Information Processing

These decisions are influenced by two major sets of forces. While the first set of forces relates to buying intentions, the second set comprises situational influences. Figure 15.1 outlines these influences on choice process. Figure 15.1: Determinants of Choice Process.

15.3 BUYING STAGE AND SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES

The figure 15.1 exemplifies certain facts about the process of buying. First it confirms the fact that the choice process is accomplished only through a combination of buying intentions and situational variables. The other is that the individual impact of buying intentions or attitudinal data on choice process though significant, is not adequate by itself. Though situational influences can be endless, the five influences as mentioned in figure 15.1. are the major ones. Situation, in general, is defined as "something outside the basic tendencies and characteristics of the individual but beyond the characteristics of the stimulus object to be acted upon". Thus, physical surroundings include noise, light, or temperature in the store. Social surroundings refer to the type of clientele patronising the store. Task definitions include motives for shopping and goals. Temporal considerations comprise time-pressure and time of the day chosen for shopping. Finally antecedent conditions refer to cash and funds situation and the mood under which the purchase is completed. Such influences will be self-evident to you if you recall your last purchase made in an elegantly designed departmental store in Bombay or Delhi and compare your feelings with the ones arising out of a similar purchase made in an ordinary shop. Though purchase intentions were of similar power, .the situational factors would have made the difference between the two similar purchase process. 15.3.1 Physical Surroundings Research has now clearly highlighted the influence that physical surrounding have on consumer choice. Physical surroundings are the most readily visible features of a purchase situation because they include geographical and institutional location, decor, sounds, aromas, lighting, weather and visible configurations of merchandise or other material surroundings in the purchase process. These stimuli influence the choice process through sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste of consumers.
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Kotler underlined the importance of physical surroundings in the following words : where goods and services are intended for specific social classes or life style groups, the vendors try to create an overall atmosphere suggestive of that segment. That atmosphere provides cues as to the intended market segment and also enters as part of the consumption process since the consumer wants to enjoy the class qualities of that product." In order to exploit the physical surroundings effect to the maximum, marketers use the concept of
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`atmospherics by devising and controlling a right mix of physical 40 The Buying Process

surroundings during purchase process. Music and crowd management are two very popular elements of atmospherics at the point of purchase. Figure 15.2 illustrates the effect of physical surroundings on purchase process. Figure 15.2 physical surroundings and purchase process. 15.3.2 Social Surroundings Like physical surroundings, social surroundings too have significance in shaping up the choice behaviour. The social surroundings mainly refer to the presence of other people and their effect during purchase or usage of a product. There are a variety of situations in which the presence of others may influence choice process. In a store, for instance, after having noticed the presence of high-society people, you may buy a premium item even though you had intended to buy only a low-price product. Further, it may also affect your resistance to the store or enhance product credibility if you find highly respected people or friends known for their good sense in buying. Furthermore, shopping is often a social experience in which, besides the buyer and seller, many other persuasions interact. They also affect the communication. Following are some general findings in this respect: while shopping with friends, a consumer is likely to make more unplanned purchases and visit more stores, selling to unaided buyers is easier than to those accompanied with advisers, compliance to group views is there even though the buyer knows that others are wrong with reference to a given product choice. Activity 3 You have visited a shop for buying a pair of trousers for regular wear. What will you do if a) Two of your friends insist on helping you in your purchase? 41 Information Processing

b) You are accompanied with a family member or a relative with an objective to enjoy shopping with you? 15.3.3 Task Definition A host of motives initiate the purchase decision-making. The motives decide both the content and direction of a purchase process. These buying purposes are what we call as task definition in the present context. Task definition influence the purchase process in the following ways: The purpose of purchase may alter the purchase outcome. If for instance, the product being purchased, is meant for a gift to a close friend, the expected reaction of that friend, will define the purchase task. The use situation of the product will determine the task definition. A public consumption of products in such gatherings as wedding and social get-togethers etc. will place higher emphasis on purchase of a product than in a private consumption of the same product. Thus marketers use task definition as a prominent feature of purchase. Occasion-based marketing opportunities, (Godrej storewel. in wedding and Amul Chocolate bars or HMT watches etc., as products in gift giving situations) have been explored by Indian marketers. 15.3.4 Temporal Factors For any given purchase, temporal factors Or timing play a decision role. These timings may range from the allocated minutes of a day to shopping, and to even a season of the year perceived relevant to the purchase. Time can be considered both in absolute units of measurement (example: 45 minutes for buying this product) and in comparative terms (example: The purchase of ceiling fan will take more time than buying a cigarette pack.) Temporal factors affect the purchase in the following ways: Availability of time will decide the purchase strategy for a given product. Higher the amount of available time, greater will be the information search. Time, when accompanied with other variables (like, hunger or happiness) can produce a more visible effect. Time-compression, a device in which marketers use time effectiveness for maximum impact, can be used by marketers. Research on time and consumer behaviour has indicated that an `after five', shopper spends considerably less time in purchasing than a `regular time' customer does. Similarly, it has been found that greater the time-gap between two purchases, higher is the 'probability of extensive information search. 15.3.5 Antecedent States Finally, among situational variables, moods and physical states, and thoughts too have a bearing on purchase situation. A famished consumer is more likely to finish his 42 The Buying Process

shopping quicker than a contented consumer, keeping other variables as same. Similarly, a consumer frustrated at not finding the desired product or response at the earlier outlets, may reveal a certain amount of negativism towards the subsequent outlets he may visit for no fault of theirs. Mood, on the whole, has been found to have a significant influence with reference to product or outlet chosen, or even the attention to various advertising messages. Gardner (1985) after having completed a comprehensive review of mood states on purchase process, concluded that "advertising designed to create a mood or positive emotional
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response toward the product, worked only when the viewer was in a neutral or positive mood. Activity 4 Identify an Indian advertisement promoting any beverage item (tea, coffee or soft drink). Show it to a friend of yours before lunch time and after evening tea, and ask his opinion on it. Try to analyze the difference in his two opinions in view of the discussion on temporal and antecedent states (viz. timing and mood). .

15.4 STEPS TO BENEFIT FROM SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES

After having considered various situational variables in detail, it is important to outline the response of marketers to them. Following are some actions for the marketers: Identify the relevance of each situational factor on his buying process; Determine the impact of relevant situational variables through appropriate research; Consider appropriate segmentation and positioning based on the findings; Develop an appropriate marketing mix, incorporating the above; Remember the general findings and hypothesised relationships between situational variables and purchase process.

Activity 5 Imagine yourself as a manager of a large general store, dealing in a variety of cosmetics and beauty-aid items. Develop your specific responses to situational variables in the light of the steps mentioned above.

15.5 AN ANATOMY OF NON-STORE BUYING

India is changing in response to global trends. One of them is the emergence of non-store buying. Today, in most countries non-store buying has emerged as a major route for shopping. Popularly known as direct marketing, non-store buying too has an important place in the consumer purchase process. 43 Information Processing 44 The Buying Process

The Direct Mail Marketing Association (DMMA) has defined Direct Marketing as follows: "Direct (response) marketing is the total of activities by which products and services are offered to market segment in one or more media for information purposes, or to solicit a direct response from a present or prospective customer or contributor by mail, telephone or other access." The non-store marketing owes its prominence to a variety of reasons. These reasons are: Greater importance to comfort in consumer life style Higher discretionary incomes Demand for convenience in shopping Option of credit facilities through credit or charge cards In-store crowd and long queues in delivery and payment Under-informed and little-trained store personnel Pressure for spot decision under stress of store personnel The non-store buying option has become stronger not because of the sudden fad or fascination on the part of marketers or consumers. The economic environment also plays an important role in it. The development of non-store buying in a country is dependent upon several economic and social factors some of these are as follows: general economic development availability of logistics and infrastructure nature of product consumer awareness freedom enjoyed by marketing forces desire of marketers to reach new and uncovered market segments However, we find varying degrees of direct marketing practiced in different countries. Be that as it may, direct marketing and its interaction with consumer buying process is of special significance but largely undeveloped because direct marketing itself is growing only recently. In India, for instance, we have the well-known examples of Bull worker, Readers' Digest who have successfully served their target segments through direct marketing. Activity 6 a) List two reasons to which the slow acceptance of direct marketing, in India can be attributed. i). ii). b) Suggest two major ideas that can help the progress of direct marketing in India. i).. ii)..

15.6 ROUTES OF NON-STORE BUYING

There are five best known routes of direct or non-store buying. These are:

 The in-home buyer

 Tele Marketing Mail-order buying Direct in-home sales Interactive video selling 45 Information Processing The in-home buyer places an order from the home through mail or telephone or even a catalogue. Though such route of buying is quite known to business-to-business marketing (a retailer placing an order with a wholesaler or to a distributor), its scope is highly limited in India to only known and tested customers. For individual consumers, the in-home order placement is merely to avoid an extra-trip for the known, familiar and standardized items only. Tele-marketing, mostly western in origin, comprises using pre-paid telephones (known as toll free numbers in the West) by customers for product enquiries or purchasing. Owing to limited facility of telephones and widespread complaints in their functioning, this route of non-store buying is again confined to select cities and customers in India. Direct in home sales is quite prevalent in India; especially as a large number of women in semi-urban and rural areas like to stay in-home while males do the major shopping mostly alone. Also, at many places, market structure is not available for sundry household items. In many cases, housewives prefer this route as it provides them with an opportunity to have pleasure in bargaining, total attention of salesmen and a convenience in buying individually consumed female product items. This route may, however, decline in importance as the store-shopping habits and freedom increase in the rural and semi-urban areas.
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Videotext or interactive video is the pointer to the kind of shopping in future. In this method, buyer-seller interaction occurs through TV sets and computer terminals. The buyer, while sitting home, may type in his purchase information and requirements through the keyboard of his computer terminal or switch on the desired channel on his cable TV or videotext facility. Highly limited to only a few consumers in metropolitan and major towns, this route of non-store-buying in India is currently little known. It may however in future grow into a familiar and fascinating route of non-store buying . in many countries. Activity 7 Suggest some non-store buying routes for buying jewellery.

15.7 DEVELOPING AN ATTITUDE TO POST-PURCHASE BEHAVIOUR

As mentioned before, the post-purchase behaviour plays an important, part in developing a relationship between the customer and the marketer. On the part of marketer, an attempt to recognize consumer's postpurchase behaviour indicates his desire and commitment towards the implementation of marketing orientation or marketing concept in business. In this, the marketer identifies with his customers and thinks from customer's perspective. If purchase represents customers consumption motives and purposes, the post-purchase behaviour indicates whether or not those purposes and motives have been achieved. Thus, purchase activity is the means while post-purchase is an evaluation. 46 The Buying Process

Post-purchase Use and Disposal Marketer should also monitor how the buyers use and dispose of product (See Figure 15.3). If consumers find a new use for the product that should interest the marketer because this use can be advertised. If consumers store the product (not using it) that indicates that the product is not very satisfying and word of mouth would not be strong. If they sell or trade the product, new product sales will be depressed. If they throw the product, the marketer needs to study how they dispose of it, especially if it can hurt the environment. The formation of satisfaction or dissatisfaction is, however, a function of many factors. These factors are: Use, occasion of Product/Brand Cost/Investment involved in choice making Number of outcomes and their desirability Prior experience of product/brand Personal expectations and norms Group expectations and norms Cultural forms Outcome endurance - the duration for which the outcome persists Time lag between the choice and use of the product

Figure 15.3: Post-purchase activities in consumer decision making

The Consumer Behaviour Theory

An understanding of how the theory of consumer behaviour and its application tools evolved over the years will enable us to appreciate the validity of the theory and give us a guidance in its practical application. Consumer behaviour, like all human behaviour is very complex. But the consumer behaviour theory, like all theories is a simplified & abstract representation of reality. The more simplified picture of consumers provided by the theory helps us enormously to understand the consumers. It not only helps us to think about consumers, but also provides us with a language to talk about them. This language is very useful, because to be effective in an organisation - for profit or non-profit - one has to persuade others to accept his ideas. And in fact, lack of this language has been one of the greatest drawback of the modern marketers. Market Research or Marketing Research (MR) has been developing since "MARKETING" which brings together all customer elements, grew out of the concept of "SALES" in the early fifties. The theory of consumer behaviour draws heavily upon the famous psychologist Sigmund Freud, particularly with respect to the emotional, psychological, mental, subjective or nonutilitarian aspects of buying decision or behaviour of a consumer. The theory represents the hidden order in this very complex activity, which we call consumer behaviour. On the surface,

this highly complex & varied display of behaviour by consumers seems essentially unexplained. But slowly as the theory develops, the hidden pattern emerges, describing the order we suddenly see, and explaining why the behaviour pattern takes place. Now, what is the magic stuff called consumer behaviour theory that does all these wonderful things. It's not just a theory, as explained earlier, but more than that. It helps us to make better marketing decisions for profit & non-profit organisations. Thus we can examine the characteristics of a theory that enables us to do so. Researchers G Zaltman and M Wallendorf have came out with the most important attributes of a good & sound theory, after very close and careful thought. These are the following :

Activity 8 What are the most important factors on which you decide your viewpoint about any post purchase experience?

15.8 THEORIES OF POST-PURCHASE EVALUATION

Can the consumer dissatisfaction be theorized? If it can be done, it will make the task of handling it easier. Fortunately, the answer is favourable. There are several theoretical explanations that relate consumers' product expectations with its performance. Table 15.1 attempts a brief account of four such theories and their marketing implications. Although these theories somewhat over simplify a complex relationship between product expectations and performance, they succeed in emphasising the importance of postpurchase evaluation. This is the stage of decision making that ensures repeat purchase and favourable word of mouth advertising. It also determines consumers attitudes not only towards the product purchased and other products manufactured by the company but toward the company itself. Table 15.1: Explanations of Expectation-performance Disparity. Formation of Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction Every purchase inevitably results into either satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Satisfaction is the expected outcome. It signifies "a confirmation that performance of the chosen alternative is consistent with its prior beliefs and expectations." Dissatis-faction, on the other hand, signifies an absence of such confirmation with reference to the outcome. 47 Information Processing

Figure 15.4: Formation of Consumer Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction.

Post-purchase behaviour has witnessed, in the recent past substantial research efforts. Some generalisations out of these researches are as follows: There is no all-accepted definition of consumer satisfaction or dissatisfaction. In many cases, while presence of a particular factor may cause dissatisfaction, the avoidance of it may not necessarily= lead to satisfaction. Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction arises' out of a cumulative effect of many factors. The individual impact of each is quite difficult to isolate. Although consumer dissatisfaction is all pervasive, it is unlikely to result always in complaint making. Authors have suggested that complaint behaviour is related to such factors as the level of dissatisfaction; the perceived gain from complaining, the personality of consumer; the general attitude towards complaining; the convenience in identifying the person to be complained against; the resources available to the consumer for complaining; and the previous experience with product and complaining clearly, handling satisfaction/dissatisfaction is a logical process. For instance, Figure 15.5 outlines five possible responses of a dissatisfied consumer: Figure 15.5: Responses of a Dissatisfied Customer. 48 The Buying Process

Activity 9 Recall some purchase occasions when you felt dissatisfied against a bad purchase. How did you respond to those dissatisfaction situations?

15.9 MARKETERS' RESPONSE STRATEGIES

It may be noted here that although post-purchase evaluation is strictly concerning the buyer and seller, several other parties too get involved in case the consumer decides to approach the outside intervention mechanism against product failure or dissatisfac-tion. The intervention by the government and consumer protection organization is a case in point. Thus, a marketer has to design appropriate responses to postpurchase activities that will not only keep the consumer satisfied but also avoid the intervention of other parties in the matter. Following are the prominent responses that a marketer should consider in order to: build consumer satisfaction maintain consumer satisfaction avoid consumer dissatisfaction 15.9.1 Monitor Regularly the Consumer Reactions A marketer should initiate and encourage a regular monitoring of consumer reactions towards itself, its product range and a particular brand. A continuous inflow of such monitoring data will develop into an information system and serve as early warning signals. Such monitoring is of particular significance where products are sold through non-store purchasing route. 15.9.2 Bring product Quality under Marketing Responsibility Though we hear a lot these days about improving product quality, nothing . can substantially change until maintenance of product quality is brought under marketing responsibilities. Thus, quality control will upgrade itself from being an isolated function of production department to a joint mission of marketing and manufacturing departments. 15.9.3 Handle Complaints Quickly and Responsibly Marketers must go beyond the usual lip-service to handling of customer complaints. They should be taken up at the earliest opportunity and action notified to the complaint without delay. Even acknowledgement of the receipt of complaint contributes to reducing dissatisfaction. 15.9.4 Be a Courteous and Helpful Host Most of consumer dissatisfaction is attributable to poor service at the point of purchase. It may arise out of unhelpful or discourteous sales personnel, poor availability of product and inadequate service to customers. Marketers may note that even in standard products, considerable differentiation and competitive edge can be generated by being a courteous and 'helpful host to visiting customers. 49
Information Processing

Activity 10 Study the post-purchase responses as observed by you in any consumer durable product category (e.g. refrigerator, television, two-wheeler etc.). Explain below two most important responses that in your view, are most effective. . 15.9.5 State only Realistic Product Claims The previous explanations between product performance and expectation require a marketer to state only realistic product claims. Factual promotion-executed with creativity, brings about lasting customer loyalty and goodwill. 15.9.6 Help Consumer on Product Use The manner in which the product is used can be crucial to customer satisfaction/ dissatisfaction. It is in the interest of marketers themselves to help consumer in proper use of the product - especially those which may fail if wrongly opened or used blindly. Adequate instructions or information could be given to reduce potential consumer dissatisfaction. 15.9.7 Sell `Solution' instead of Product Nobody buys a product what consumer buy is `solution' through products. Thus, promotional attempts should focus on the solution or performance of product rather than the product. This will signify the desire of marketers to provide satisfaction to customers. 15.9.8 Assure Even after the Purchase is Over Marketers must assure the buyers, even after the purchase is concluded of their commitment to customers' satisfaction. A thank-you letter or a visit to customers enquiring about their post-purchase feelings can go a long way in building a healthy and satisfying relationship for both customers and marketers. Activity 11 Select a newspaper or magazine or TV advertisement that attempts (a) to provide the consumer with a decision strategy to follow in making a purchase decision or (b) to reduce the perceived risk (c) associated with a purchase, evaluate the effectiveness of the ad you like. Activity 12 Your friend plans to buy a new car. He prefers the latest models and his choice has narrowed down to Maruti Esteem, Fiat LINO and TATA Sierra. He looks for three things in a car. Economy, quality and roominess and he values them at 5, 3 and 2 respectively. On a scale of 1-10 (10 being best), he rates Maruti Esteem at 8, 8 and 2 on the three, Fiat UNO 3, 5, 9 and TATA Sierra 5, 8, 7. Predict which car he is likely to 50 The Buying Process

buy. If he evaluates cars according to the expectancy value model, which attribute change has the biggest impact on the overall evaluation of TATA's product? What strategies might TATA use to influence choice of its product? i) ii)

15.10 SUMMARY
The unit concentrated on purchase and post-purchase - the two very important stages of consumer decision process. While purchase activities generate cash for the organization, post-purchase behaviour retains the key to repeat buying and customer loyalty. The unit began with an overview of purchase process. The purchase process is influenced by the customer's intention to buy and situational factors. The situational factors are physical surroundings, social surroundings, task definition, temporal dimensions and antecedent conditions. These days, nonstore buying or direct marketing, process is as important as the store buying. A detailed description of each of the non-store buying - like the in-home buying, mail-order, telephone shopping and videotext selling, has been attempted. Once the purchase process is completed, the marketer's attention has to shift to the phase during which consumers handle their reactions to product purchase and use. Reactions could either be positive (satisfaction) or negative (dissatisfaction or dissonance). How consumers express both kinds of reactions and what could be the responses of marketers to these, are the focus of the rest of the unit.

15.11 KEY WORDS

Post-purchase Attitude: Attitude of satisfaction/dissatisfaction towards a product developed by consumer after the product is used. Complaint Behaviour: The overt actions taken by consumers to bring their product to service dissatisfaction to the attention of marketers and other consumers. Dissonance: A state of imbalance that results when a logical inconsistency exists among cognitive elements. Product Disposition: What consumers do with a product after they have completed the use of it. Outcome: The result of an exchange the feeling that whether the result was equitable to a buyer vis--vis seller. 51 Information Processing 52 The Buying Process

15.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the purchase process and its determinants. Do you consider them equally effective to Indian shopping culture? What changes you would recommend in this respect? 2. How far is an expensive styling and layout of a store justified in India? What precautions will you
'

recommend so that store design does not unduly affect an otherwise rational purchase decision ? 3. Explain the relationship between marketing orientation and attention to post-purchase process. Are they complementary to each other? Review one or two cases where a marketer has given a visible attention to the dissatisfaction of consumers. 4. You are a marketing manager of a company that has started manufacturing washing machine. How will you anticipate, analyse and respond to the post-purchase feelings of your customers?

15.13 PROJECT QUESTIONS

1. Contact your friend, neighbour or a family member who has recently been abroad. Encourage him to recall his in-store shopping behaviour and choices made therein. Contrast the choice process in markets in India and abroad on their important at-tributes. 2. Review the print advertisements (newspapers, magazine, journals etc.) for the last two years in a particular industry of your choice (personal computer, television etc). Identify how many of them are directed at the post- purchase behaviour of customers. Also evaluate their responses in handling consumer dissatisfaction.

15.14 FURTHER READINGS

1. Belk, R.D, (1974): "An Exploratory Assessment of Situational Effects in Buyer Behaviour", Journal of Marketing Research, pp. 156-163. 2. Runyon, K.E. & D.E. Steward. (1987): "Consumer Behaviour", 3rd ed., Merill Publishing Co.
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3. Mower, J.C. (1987): Consumer Behaviour , MacMillan Publishing Co. 4. Kotler P. (1994): "Marketing Management Planning, Implementation and Control , 6th ed. Prentice Hall of India. 5. Wilkie, W.L. (1986): "Consumer Behaviour", John Wiley & Sons Inc. 6. Engel, J.F., R.D.Blackwell & P.W. Miniard. (1993): "Consumer Behaviour", 5th ed., The Dryden Press. 7. Gardner, M.P. (1985): "Mood States and Consumer Behaviour", Journal of Consumer Research, 12 December, pp. 281-300.