CECW-ED Department of the Army EM 1110-2-2007

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Engineer Manual Washington, DC 20314-1000 30 April 1995
1110-2-2007
Engineering and Design

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

LINED FLOOD CONTROL CHANNELS

Distribution Restriction Statement

Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.
 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-2007
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-ED Washington, DC 20314-1000

Manual
No. 1110-2-2007 30 April 1995

Engineering and Design

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE LINED
FLOOD CONTROL CHANNELS

1. Purpose. This manual provides guidance for the design of reinforced, concrete lined flood control
channels which convey rapid and tranquil storm water flows to prevent flooding. This guidance
presents provisions for coordinating the disciplines involved in the design of channels, selecting
channel type, and identifying the critical aspects of designs which require quality assurance inspection
during construction. Channel design involves determining the overall channel configuration including
appurtenant structures, designing reinforced concrete structures and pavement or concrete lining,
determining type and location of joints, designing subdrainage systems, and designing appropriate
safety features.

2. Scope. This guidance addresses trapezoidal and rectangular flood control channels lined with
reinforced concrete. Guidance is not included for the design of channel linings formed by gabions,
riprap, shotcrete, gunite, or grouted mattresses.

3. Applicability. This guidance applies to all HQUSACE elements, major subordinate commands,
districts, laboratories, and field operating activities having civil works responsibilities.

FOR THE COMMANDER:

 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-2007
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-ED Washington, DC 20314-1000

Manual
No. 1110-2-2007 30 April 1995

Engineering and Design

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE LINED
FLOOD CONTROL CHANNELS

Table of Contents

Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page

Chapter 1 Drainage Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 3-1

Introduction Continuously Reinforced Concrete
Purpose and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 1-1 Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 3-2
Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 1-1 Construction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 3-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 1-1 Expansion Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 3-4
Design Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 1-1 End Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 3-4
Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 1-1 Cutoff Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8 3-4
Channel Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 1-2 Intersecting Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 3-4
Safety Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7 1-2 Deficiencies in Past Designs of
Aesthetic Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8 1-2 Paved Trapezoidal Channels . . . . . . . . 3-10 3-5
Relationship between Design Drainage Layer Construction . . . . . . . . . 3-11 3-5
Assumptions and Construction Maintenance Considerations . . . . . . . . . 3-12 3-5
Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 1-9 1-2 Repair of Damaged Paving . . . . . . . . . . 3-13 3-6
Computer Programs for
Structural Design . . . . . . . . . .... 1-10 1-2 Chapter 4
Special Design Considerations for
Chapter 2 Rectangular Channels Lined with
General Design Considerations Retaining Wall Structures
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 2-1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 4-1
Selection of Channel Type . . . . . . . . 2-2 2-1 Retaining Wall Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 4-1
Reinforced Concrete Structures . . . . . 2-3 2-1 Channel Bottoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 4-1
Drainage Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4 2-5 Joints in Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4 4-1
Vehicular Access Ramps . . . . . . . . . 2-5 2-6 Drainage Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 4-1
Control of Water During Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6 4-2
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 2-6 Special Considerations During
Maintenance During Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 4-4
Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7 2-6
Protection of Private Chapter 5
Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8 2-6 Special Design Considerations
for Rectangular Channels Lined
Chapter 3 with U-frame Structures
Special Design Considerations for General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 5-1
Paved Trapezoidal Channels Foundation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 5-1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3-1 Joints in Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 5-1
Constructibility of Paving Slabs on Drainage Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 5-1
Sloped Sides of Channels . . . . . . . . 3-2 3-1 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5 5-1

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Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page

Special Considerations during Appendix C

Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6 5-2 Drainage System
Designs for U-frame
Appendix A and Trapezoidal Channels . . . . . . . . C-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
Appendix D
Appendix B Equations for Continuously Rein-
Computer Programs . . . . . . . . . . B-1 forced Concrete Pavement . . . . . . . D-1

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Chapter 1 1-4. Design Philosophy

Introduction
Flood control channels are constructed for the purpose of
conveying heavy storm water flows through and from
areas which would otherwise be inundated, usually result-
1-1. Purpose and Scope ing in property damages and loss of life. Typically, these
projects are owned and maintained by local sponsors.
a. Purpose. This manual provides guidance for the These channels usually: are the primary feature of local
design of reinforced, concrete lined flood control channels flood protection projects, extend for great distances,
which convey rapid and tranquil storm water flows to require significant construction costs due to their exten-
prevent flooding. This guidance presents provisions for siveness, and present extreme consequences should failure
coordinating the disciplines involved in the design of occur. Therefore, channel design solutions should be
channels, selecting channel type, and identifying the criti- developed in a logical and conservative manner which
cal aspects of designs which require quality assurance provides for economical construction and serviceability
inspection during construction. Channel design involves and ensures functional and structural integrity.
determining the overall channel configuration including
appurtenant structures, designing reinforced concrete 1-5. Coordination
structures and pavement or concrete lining, determining
type and location of joints, designing subdrainage sys- Although this guidance pertains primarily to the structural
tems, and designing appropriate safety features. design aspects of flood control channel design, close
coordination with other design disciplines and the local
b. Scope. This guidance addresses trapezoidal and sponsor is required. Other disciplines involved in the
rectangular flood control channels lined with reinforced design are hydrologic, hydraulic, concrete and materials,
concrete. Guidance is not included for the design of geotechnical, environmental, and construction. Some of
channel linings formed by gabions, riprap, shotcrete, gun- the critical aspects of the design process which require
ite, or grouted mattresses. coordination are:

(1) Trapezoidal channels. Trapezoidal channels have a. Estimates of design slope and runoff volumes,
sloped sides and are formed by excavating in situ materi- selection of channel cross-sectional area, and location of
als. The sloped sides and channel bottom may require required energy dissipation and juncture structures.
paving for protection, depending on the stability of the
sides and the resistance of the in situ materials to erosion. b. Design water surface elevations.
(2) Rectangular channels. Rectangular channels have c. Topography of area containing the channel align-
vertical or near vertical sides which are formed with rein- ment and existing elements, structures, utilities, etc.
forced concrete retaining walls, I-walls, or U-frame struc-
tures. The channel bottom may be paved or unpaved d. Preliminary estimates of geotechnical data, sur-
depending on the resistance of the in situ material to face and subsurface conditions, and location of existing
erosion. structures of utilities.

1-2. Applicability e. Evaluation of technical and economic feasibility

of alternative designs.
This guidance applies to all HQUSACE elements, major
subordinate commands, districts, laboratories, and field f. Refinement of the preliminary design to reflect
operating activities having civil works responsibilities. the results of more detailed site exploration, laboratory
testing, and numerical testing and analyses.
1-3. References

Required and related publications are listed in

Appendix A.

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1-6. Channel Section to design integrity. These items should receive assurance
inspection during construction to assure that actual field
The proper cross section for a reach of channel is one that conditions and construction practices are in compliance
provides adequate hydraulic capacity at the minimum cost. with the design assumptions and specification require-
Economic considerations for selecting the channel section ments. Some assurance inspection items for channels are
include the costs of design and construction, right-of-way, listed below. These items should be adjusted as appropri-
required relocations, and maintenance and operation. A ate for the particular design.
trapezoidal channel is usually the most economical chan-
nel when right-of-way is available and is, therefore, the a. Subgrade preparation (materials, compaction, and
more commonly used channel section. A rectangular finished grade).
channel may be required for channels located in urban
areas where the right-of-way is severely restricted or b. Reinforcing steel (materials and placement).
available only at a high cost.
c. Concrete (materials, strength, mixing, placing,
1-7. Safety Provisions thickness, and other dimensions).

Channel designs should include safety provisions for the d. Waterstops and joints (type and installation).
needs of the public and operations personnel. Local spon-
sors are responsible for the safe operation of channels, e. Subdrainage system (pipe material, valves types,
and designers should coordinate designs with the sponsor filter materials, and other installation requirements).
so that appropriate provisions are incorporated to ensure
safe operation of the project. Railing or fencing should 1-10. Computer Programs for Structural Design
be provided on top of rectangular channel walls and walls
of chutes or drop structures for public protection. Lad- A listing and description of some of the current computer
ders should be provided on the sides of rectangular chan- programs which are suitable for the structural design of
nel walls and steps provided on the sloped paving of elements of rectangular channels are given in Appendix B.
trapezoidal channels to provide safe access for operations Corps programs and user’s guides describing program
personnel. capabilities may be obtained from:

1-8. Aesthetic Provisions U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station

ATTN: CEWES-IM-DS/ECPL
The merits of incorporating environmental quality into 3909 Halls Ferry Road
channel design have been established. EM 1110-2-38 and Vicksburg MS 39180-6199
EM 1110-2-301 provide guidance for channel alignment,
landscaping, and aesthetic treatment of channel linings.

1-9. Relationship between Design Assumptions

and Construction Practices

The designer should identify the design assumptions,

details, and specification requirements which are essential

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Chapter 2 protection will define the nominal elevation of the top of

General Design Considerations the channel. This elevation may be modified locally to
account for flow disturbances from causes such as bridge
piers, side channels, or channel bends.

2-1. General (2) Channel flow. Channel flow patterns and

changes in the water surface at bends in the channel
This chapter provides general considerations for selecting should be considered in determining the channel cross
the appropriate channel type and defining the require- section and overall configuration requirements.
ments for executing the selected design.
(a) Pilot channels. Pilot channels are constructed in
2-2. Selection of Channel Type the bottom of flat bottom channels which carry low flows
except during floods. These channels confine low flows
Paragraph 1-6 identifies the hydraulic capacity as the thereby maintaining higher velocities which may decrease
primary functional consideration and the costs of the amount of sediment and trash deposits. The success
right-of-way, relocations, construction, and operation as of pilot channels has been varied. Experience has shown
economic considerations for selecting channel type. that sediment deposits occur in a pilot channel when the
Existing site developments, existing geophysical site channel slope is not sufficient to maintain the velocities
conditions, and performance or service requirements required to transport the sediments. An alternate design
impact the selection of channel type and the resulting con- to a pilot channel is a V-shaped channel bottom. These
struction costs. The construction cost of trapezoidal channel configurations are shown in Figure 2-1.
channel sections is less than that of rectangular sections.
Generally, the lowest cost of erosion protection is sod, (b) Channel linings. Channel lining requirements are
and the cost increases with riprap protection and even dependent upon the maximum velocity of flows and the
more when reinforced concrete paving is used. Typical resistance of the in situ materials to erosion. The quality
trapezoidal channel types are shown in Figure 2-1. of contained waters may affect the design of concrete
linings. The presence of salts, sulfates, industrial wastes,
a. Existing site developments. Existing roads, brid- and other abrasive or scouring materials sometimes
ges, and buildings in highly developed areas often dictate requires thicker concrete lining sections with increased
the channel type and channel configuration. The more reinforcement cover. Mix design revisions using appro-
expensive rectangular channel sections, discussed in Chap- priate admixtures should be considered as an alternative to
ters 4 and 5, are commonly required in areas where the increasing the lining thickness.
right-of-way is highly restricted. Typical rectangular
channel types are shown in Figure 2-2. (c) Supplementary structures. Supplementary or
appurtenant structures such as weirs, tunnels, culverts,
b. Geophysical site conditions. Existing geophysical inverted siphons and chutes, sediment or debris basins,
site conditions including the characteristics of in situ and drop structures are often required. These appurtenant
materials, depth of frost penetration, ground water levels, features are designed to satisfy the channel flow
subsidence potential, faulting, and earthquake potential conditions.
impact design solutions. The strength and erodability of
in situ materials usually dictate whether a channel lining (d) Terminal structures. When the downstream end
is required. Reinforced concrete walls located in seismic of a channel lining project terminates in erodible material,
zones should be designed and constructed to resist the some type of energy dissipation treatment, such as stilling
earthquake forces. High ground water levels increase the basin, drop structure, or riprap, is needed.
requirements for subdrainage systems.
2-3. Reinforced Concrete Structures
c. Service requirements.
a. Materials. Materials for the construction of the
(1) Top of channel. The project’s level of protection reinforced concrete structures of concrete lined flood
is selected by a comparison of hydraulic flow line calcu- control channels shall comply with current Corps of Engi-
lations, construction costs for various channel sizes, and neers guide specifications.
economic benefits. These calculations are based on risk
and uncertainty principles. The selected level of

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Figure 2-1. Trapezoidal channel sections

-

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Figure 2-2. Rectangular channel sections

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(1) Concrete. Guidance for concrete materials and criteria given in EM 1110-2-2502 and ETL 1110-2-322
mixture proportioning is given in EM 1110-2-2000. Typi- for T-type retaining walls and EM 1110-2-2504 for
cally, a compressive strength of 25 MPa (3,000 psi) at I-walls. Free-draining granular materials should be used
28 days is used. Higher strengths may sometimes be for backfill behind walls to reduce the lateral earth pres-
justified for retaining walls, I-walls, or U-frame structures. sure, decrease pressures due to frost action, minimize
Air-entrained concrete should be used when freeze-thaw pressure increases from in situ materials having expansive
conditions are anticipated. Microsilica, fly ash, aggregate characteristics, and increase the effectiveness of the drain-
hardness, etc., should be considered as improvements in age system.
resistance to abrasion, when required. Type II cement
should be used when sulfates are present in moderate (2) Hydrostatic pressures. Hydrostatic horizontal
concentration. pressure behind walls and uplift pressure under paving
slabs should be determined. Uplift pressures should be
(2) Reinforcement. Steel bars shall be American determined for the steady-state seepage and drawdown
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Grade 60, conditions. The magnitude of hydrostatic pressures may
deformed, cut lengths, or fabricated mats. Steel welded be reduced by installing drainage systems as discussed in
wire fabric shall be deformed wire produced from rods or paragraphs 2-4, 3-3, 4-5, and 5-4.
bars that have been hot rolled. Consideration should be
given to the use of a lower-permeability concrete and (3) Earthquake forces. Seismic forces for vertical
epoxy coated or galvanized reinforcement steel in areas walls of rectangular channels may be significant and
where channel linings will be subjected to highly corro- should be determined using criteria given in ER 1110-2-
sive constituents such as saltwater or sanitary and indus- 1806 and EM 1110-2-2502. Seismic forces cause only
trial wastes. small increases in earth and hydrostatic pressures on
paving slabs and should be ignored.
(3) Joint filler. Joint filler shall be preformed sponge
rubber. (4) Wind. Reference should be made to
EM 1110-2-2502 for wind loads on walls but these are
(4) Joint sealant. Joint sealant shall be cold applied, usually negligible. Wind loads on paving slabs should be
multicomponent, and elastomeric. The sealant is installed ignored.
in joints to prevent weathering of joint filler and is sub-
jected to cyclic tension and compression loading as the (5) Surcharge. Surcharge loads from construction,
temperature changes. operations and maintenance equipment, and highway or
street vehicles should be included as appropriate. Criteria
(5) Waterstops. Waterstops should be installed in for determining surcharge loads are given in
joints of concrete sections when watertightness is desired. EM 1110-2-2502.
Guidance for use of waterstops is given in EM 1110-2-
2102 and EM 1110-2-2502. Waterstops in joints which c. Constructibility. The dimensions of the concrete
may experience appreciable movements should be rubber structures of flood control channels should be such that
or polyvinyl chloride. the reinforcement, embedded metal, and concrete can be
properly placed. The thickness of the top of walls greater
b. Structural design loadings. The forces acting on than 8 ft in height and footings supporting such walls
the structures and the weight of structures should be shall not be less than 12 in. to facilitate concrete
defined to perform the stability analyses and the design of placement. The thickness of the top of walls less than
the reinforced concrete sections of the structures. Some 8 ft in height and containing only one layer of reinforce-
of the applied forces may be indeterminate in nature, and ment may be decreased to 8 in. Walls should be designed
the designer must assume their location, direction, and for construction simplicity and maximum reuse of con-
magnitude. Assumptions should be based on available crete forms. Dimensions of monoliths, independently
criteria, loading conditions, and the application of engi- stable units of concrete structures, should be selected to
neering expertise and judgment. Unsymmetrical loading, allow practical volumes of concrete placements.
resisted by sliding friction or passive pressure, should be
analyzed. d. Joints in concrete. Joints are provided in the
reinforced concrete structures of flood control channels to
(1) Earth pressures. Earth pressures on walls of rect- divide them into convenient working units and to allow
angular channels should be determined by using the for expansion and contraction. The number of joints

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should be kept to a minimum to reduce construction and blankets, collector drains, collector manholes, and outlet
maintenance costs. There are no exact rules for deter- drains which drain into the channels. The outlet drains
mining the number and location of joints required in are provided with check valves to prevent the backflow of
structures. The structural design requirements, overall water from the channels into the drainage system. Weep-
dimensions, and form requirements should be considered hole systems have been used for paving on rock founda-
to efficiently locate the joints. Guidance on expansion tions and usually consist of a system of holes drilled in
and contraction joints of retaining walls is given in the rock and weep holes in the paving slab. These sys-
EM 1110-2-2502. The location of all joints should be tems are subject to clogging and require routine mainte-
shown in the drawings. nance. Channel water will tend to backflow into the
system and deposit silt during high channel water levels.
(1) Construction joints. Construction joints are used Open systems are obviously more susceptible to clogging
to divide structures into convenient working units and to because they do not restrict backflow and should only be
provide bonded joints where concrete pours have been used for noncritical channels, side channels, and small
terminated. Keys are not recommended for horizontal channels (about 3 m (l0 ft) maximum in bottom width and
construction joints because they are difficult to construct depth, respectively). Closed systems shall be used for
of sound concrete and to adequately clean for good bond- critical and large channels of which the continuous relief
ing. Reinforcement should be continuous through con- of hydrostatic pressures is critical to channel performance.
struction joints.

(2) Contraction joints. Contraction joints are used to b. System selection. The investigations, analyses,
divide structures into independently stable, constructible and conclusions made in the selection of a drainage sys-
monoliths to control cracking due to curing, shrinkage, tem for a flood control channel should be thoroughly
and temperature differentials. The spacing of contraction documented in the project design memorandum. This
joints is dependent upon the characteristics of foundation documentation should include, but not be limited to, anal-
materials, climatic conditions, channel flow patterns, and yses of the geological and geohydrological investigation
other geophysical site conditions. Reinforcement should data, suitability of the system type for the specific site,
not be continuous through contraction joints. and suitability of the system type for the operational
requirements.
(3) Expansion joints. Expansion joints are used to
prevent crushing or spalling of concrete at abutting sur- c. System design investigation. Design of a drainage
faces due to thermal expansion or differential movement system requires information on subsurface soils and/or
resulting from settlement or applied loads. Expansion rock and ground water conditions along the channel area
joints are commonly located at changes or junctures in and also information on the characteristics of streamflow.
structures. Reinforcement should not be continuous A general understanding of the geology and geohydrology
through expansion joints. of the area should be obtained. Specific project data
include information on the extent, thickness, stratification,
2-4. Drainage Provisions and permeability of subsurface materials along the chan-
nel and information on ground water levels, their varia-
Drainage systems should be provided to control excessive tions, and the factors which influence the variations.
hydrostatic pressures acting on the concrete structures of Information is also needed on stream stage variations and
lined flood control channels where the permanent water related ground water fluctuations so that the design differ-
table is above the channel invert. These systems should ential head condition can be developed.
also be provided where the temporary water table is
expected to be above the channel invert due to local d. System design. The design of a drainage system
ponding or seasonal variations. should be based on the results of seepage analyses per-
formed to determine the required discharge capacity of the
a. Drainage systems. Drainage systems used in past system. The design includes determination of the drain-
designs include open, closed, and weep-hole systems. age blanket permeability and thickness requirements,
Open drainage systems consist of collector drains which collector drain spacing and size, and manhole spacing and
drain through weep holes in the channel lining. The location. Appendix C provides example seepage analyses
collector drains are encased with a graded filter to prevent and drainage system designs. Contract plans and specifi-
blockage of the drain or removal of the foundation mate- cations should require modification of the drainage system
rial. Closed drainage systems consist of drainage to alleviate perched water conditions encountered during

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construction. Drainage systems for trapezoidal channels channel is often constructed while providing for diversion
are described in paragraph 3-3 and illustrated in Plate 1. of the water on the other side of the channel. After com-
Drainage systems for rectangular channels are described pletion of the first side of the channel, flows are diverted
in paragraphs 4-5 and 5-4 and illustrated in Plate 2. to the completed side while completing the opposite side.
Contract plans and specifications shall define the level of
e. System effectiveness. As discussed in para- flood protection for which the construction contractor is
graph 2-4a, drainage systems require routine cleaning and responsible. The contractor should be responsible for the
maintenance to relieve clogging. The need for routine means of controlling the water, subject to approval by the
operation and maintenance activities such as the control of government contracting officer.
aquatic weeds and silt removal should be addressed in the
design. Experience has shown that many local flood 2-7. Maintenance During Operation
protection projects are not adequately maintained. There-
fore, unrelieved clogging can be expected to occur, Proper maintenance of flood control channels is essential
thereby decreasing the effectiveness of the systems and to satisfactory performance. This requires periodic
resulting in increased hydrostatic pressures. Presently, inspection of the channels, including the concrete linings,
precise information on the extent of loss of effectiveness appurtenant concrete structures, and the subdrainage sys-
of drainage systems during the life of projects is not tem. Current Corps Operations & Maintenance (O&M)
available. However, since it is known that some loss of provisions require that flood control projects be inspected
effectiveness does occur, channel lining designs should periodically. The frequency of project inspections and
reflect possible increased hydrostatic pressures resulting other operation and maintenance requirements shall be
from some loss in effectiveness of the drainage system identified in the project O&M Manual. Any deficiencies
during the life of the project. Without supporting data, critical to the function of the project should be corrected
drains may be assumed to be 75 percent effective. The with urgency. Broken concrete and cracks in the concrete
criteria used in the design for determining the extent of which are wide enough to cause concern should be
loss of drainage system effectiveness should be thor- repaired. Subdrain systems that are clogged shall be
oughly documented. cleaned.

2-5. Vehicular Access Ramps 2-8. Protection of Private Property

Vehicle access ramps are provided to permit vehicular Certain reaches of the channels often require protection or
access during the construction and maintenance of proj- underpinning of private property during channel construc-
ects. These ramps should enter the channel from an tion. Shoring concepts often include drilled tangent pier
upstream to downstream direction. The number of ramps walls or steel H-pile (soldier pile) walls with lagging.
should be held to a minimum and each ramp carefully The wall system must control lateral deflections and pre-
located so that its effect on the hydraulic efficiency and vent loss of ground. These wall systems are sometimes
flood surface profile is minimized. designed with anchor ties or struts. Other less expensive
methods of shoring may be acceptable, depending upon
2-6. Control of Water During Construction the closeness and criticality of the property to be pro-
tected. The effects of construction vibrations and the
The channel flows which should be controlled during removal or loss of lateral resistances should be evaluated.
construction are primarily local runoff and a selected The effects of construction vibrations may be evaluated
storm runoff. This flow must be controlled by diversion, using the criteria developed by Woods and Jedele (1985)
pumping, or phasing of the construction. One side of the in Appendix A.

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Chapter 3 channel sides. Small trapezoidal channels with depths of

Special Design Considerations for 3 m (10 ft) or less may be constructed with side slopes of
1 vertical on 1.5 horizontal. Slopes between 1 vertical on
Paved Trapezoidal Channels
3 horizontal and 1 vertical on 2 horizontal are commonly
used for the sides of larger channels. Vibrating screeds
are commonly used in constructing paving slabs on sloped
3-1. Introduction sides within this range of steepness. Cylinder finishing
machines are available for finishing paving slabs with
a. Background. Corps practice, prior to the 1960’s, slopes up to 1 vertical on 3 horizontal in steepness. Con-
was to employ concrete pavement with expansion and trol units should be mounted at the top or bottom of
contraction joints for paved trapezoidal channels. sloped sides to provide the capability of finishing upgrade
Typically, the channel pavements contained light rein- to eliminate slump in the finished slab. Machines are
forcement. Many types of joints and a wide variety of available for trimming and slipforming the entire cross
joint spacings were used. The experience with these section of channels with bottom widths up to about 3.5 m
channels shows that substantial joint maintenance is (12 ft) in one pass. Paving construction procedures
required. Routine cleaning and replacement of the joint should provide for the curing protection of completed
sealing compounds and expansion joint materials is paving.
needed. Pavement blowups result from improperly con-
structed joints and an infiltration of incompressible mate- 3-3. Drainage Provisions
rials into the joints. Some of these jointed pavements
have also developed uncontrolled cracks away from the Drainage systems for channels formed in soil should be
joints that require repair. Many states were eliminating placed beneath paving slabs on bottoms of channels to
transverse joints and constructing continuously reinforced relieve excessive hydrostatic pressures. The drainage
concrete highway pavements during the 1950’s. By the system beneath the side slope paving typically does not
1960’s, continuously reinforced concrete pavement was no need to extend higher than one-half the channel depth due
longer considered experimental, and the Corps began to to natural drawdown of the water table near the channel.
use this type pavement for trapezoidal channels. The drainage system may need to extend higher than
one-half of the slope height if the normal ground water is
b. Pavement type. When concrete paving is used for nearer the ground surface or a shallow perched ground
trapezoidal channels in soil, it should be continuously water condition is encountered. Closed and open drainage
reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP). CRCP is concrete systems have been used in past designs. Based on previ-
pavement with continuous longitudinal and transverse ous discussion in paragraph 2-4a, closed drainage systems
reinforcement achieved by lapping the reinforcing bars. should be used for large channels and where long-term
There are no control joints, and the continuous reinforce- performance of the drainage system is critical to channel
ment is used to control cracks which form in the life. Open drainage systems are sometimes sufficient for
pavement due to volume changes in the concrete and smaller channels and short channel sections, such as sec-
foundation friction. Construction joints must be provided tions under bridges. The open drainage system can serve
in CRCP at ends of construction pavements. Slab con- as an additional measure of protection for sections of
tinuity is provided by continuing the reinforcing steel channel where excessive hydrostatic pressures are not
through the construction joints. Special measures are expected to develop. The design of channel paving slabs
required when the continuity of the CRCP is terminated should reflect possible increased hydrostatic pressures
or interrupted with fixed structures or other pavements. resulting from some loss of drainage system effectiveness
The procedures provided in this chapter for the design of during the life of the project as discussed in
CRCP have been developed from observed performances paragraph 2-4e.
of Corps flood control channels and the research of the
design criteria used for continuously reinforced highway a. Open drainage systems. Open drainage systems
paving. consist of collector drains which drain through weep holes
in the sloped sides of the paving. The collector drains
3-2. Constructibility of Paving Slabs on Sloped should be encased with a graded filter material to prevent
Sides of Channels the blockage of drains or the removal of foundation mate-
rials. The weep holes are commonly spaced not more
The characteristics of the in situ materials and the level of than 3 m (10 ft) apart horizontally.
the water table are considered in determining the slopes of

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b. Closed drainage systems. Closed drainage sys- diameter. The outlet drains should be provided with
tems consist of drainage blankets, collector drains, collec- check valves to prevent the backflow of water from chan-
tor manholes, and outlet drains as shown in Plate 1. nels into the drainage system. However, it may be more
Refer to Appendix C for a typical analysis of a drainage practical to attach the check valves to the collector drains
system for a paved trapezoidal channel. on the inside of the manholes where channels are sub-
jected to heavy sediment.
(1) Drainage blankets. A drainage blanket must
retain the foundation soils, allow relatively free movement (5) Maintenance considerations. The design should
of water, and have sufficient discharge capacity to convey provide for access to the drainage system to allow future
all ground water seepage which enters the blanket to the maintenance and rehabilitation. Manholes should be sized
collector pipes. Therefore, the drainage blanket must and constructed to provide access to collector pipes for
satisfy the requirements for both a drain and a filter. An flushing, jetting, etc. Provisions should be made for
open-graded granular material with a relatively narrow cleanouts at locations where collector drains and laterals
range in particle sizes has a higher permeability and dis- intersect, at intermediate points between widely spaced
charge capacity than a well-graded granular material. manholes, and at other locations as required to provide
However, a well-graded granular material is generally access to all segments of a drainage system for main-
required to meet filter criteria. A two-layer drainage tenance and rehabilitation.
blanket will often be required to satisfy both the drainage
and filter requirements. Estimated quantities of seepage c. Pressure relief systems. Pressure relief systems
which will enter the drainage blanket should be should be developed for areas where perched ground
determined by seepage analyses. EM 1110-2-2502, water is encountered during construction.
EM 1110-2-1901, and Cedegren (1987) provide guidance
on design of the drainage blanket. The blanket should d. Monitoring. The most positive method of moni-
have a minimum thickness of 150 mm (6 in.) for a single toring performance of the drainage system is to install
layer system, and each layer for a multilayer system piezometers in the drainage blanket to directly measure
should have a minimum thickness of 150 mm (6 in.). hydrostatic pressures acting against the channel paving.
Piezometers are sometimes installed to monitor the effec-
(2) Collector drains. Collector drains should be tiveness of the drainage system. When piezometers are
150-mm (6 in.) minimum diameter polyvinyl chloride not installed, the drainage system should be monitored for
pipe with perforations in the bottom half of the pipe’s discharge during drawdown periods. The drainage system
circumference. Drains should be located at the bottom of should be evaluated during the inspections discussed in
the sloped sides, inverts of channels, and at intermediate paragraph 3-12a.
locations, if required, to prevent development of excessive
hydrostatic heads in the drainage blanket. Drains should 3-4. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Paving
be placed on top of the drainage blankets and should be
encased with a coarse filter gravel. The coarse filter a. Concrete.
gravel should be covered with a material such as kraft
paper to prevent clogging during placement of the con- (1) Concrete strength. Concrete should have a mini-
crete paving. Guidance on sizing the drain pipe is pre- mum compressive strength of 25 MPa (3,000 psi). Chan-
sented in TM 5-820-2 and Cedegren (1987). Guidance on nel paving is not normally designed for heavy vehicular
sizing the perforations is presented in EM 1110-2- 2502, loading as highway paving; therefore, the compressive
TM 5-818-5, and Cedegren (1987). strength is specified instead of flexural strength. Control
of the concrete strength is important to the design since
(3) Collector manholes. Collector manholes should shrinkage increases as concrete strengths are increased.
be of precast or cast-in-place concrete and should be pro- Concrete with nominal compressive strengths higher than
vided with secured, watertight manhole covers for clean- 25 MPa (3,000 psi) will require greater percentages of
out access. Manholes should be provided with adapters or reinforcement than those given in Tables 3-1 and 3-2.
blind flanges for connecting outlet and collector drains. Therefore, CECW-ED approval should be obtained when
The size and spacing of manholes should be determined the nominal concrete strength for continuously reinforced
by a seepage analysis. concrete channel paving exceeds 3,000 psi.

(4) Outlet drains. Outlet drains from collector man- (2) Concrete thickness. Based on past experience,
holes should be a minimum of 150 mm (6 in.) in the minimum thicknesses of main channel paving

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the paving thickness, and the spacing of transverse bars

Table 3-1
Minimum Percentage of Reinforcing Steel should not exceed three times the paving thickness.

For Continuously Reinforced Concrete Paving of (1) Minimum cover. Reinforcement should be
Invert and Side Slopes of Trapezoidal Channels placed in such a manner that the steel will have a mini-
mum cover of 75 mm (3 in.). The thickness of paving
Longitudinal Reinforcing Steel
subjected to high-velocity flows or heavy sand scouring
f’c <25 MPa 3,000 psi - reinforcement = 0.40% should be increased to provide a 100-mm (4-in.) cover on
the reinforcement.
f’c > 25 MPa 3,000 psi - reinforcement percentage as
required by Equations D-1 and D-3 of Appendix D.
(2) Percentage of reinforcing steel. Reinforcing steel
Transverse Reinforcing Steel for CRCP slabs on soil foundations should comply with
Table 3-1 or Table 3-2, whichever governs. The mini-
Widths* < 12 m (40 ft) = 0.15% mum percentage of reinforcing steel is given in Table 3-1,
and the design percentage of longitudinal reinforcing
Widths > 12 m (40 ft) - Same as longitudinal
based on the seasonal temperature differential is given in
reinforcement
Table 3-2. Both longitudinal and transverse reinforcing
* The total channel width should not be used, but instead, the steel in paving slabs on rock foundations should be in
width of the slab sections which extends between changes in slope accordance with the longitudinal steel requirements of
or along the slope should be used. Table 3-1.

(3) Splices in reinforcement. Splices in reinforce-

Table 3-2 ment should conform to American Concrete Institute
Longitudinal Reinforcing Steel (ACI) Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Con-
Design Reinforcing Steel Percentage Based on crete 318 (ACI 1989). Splices should be designed to
Average Seasonal Temperature Differential develop the full-yield strength of the bar. Fifty percent of
the splices should be staggered, and the minimum stagger
(Equation D-2 of Appendix D, using f’c < 25 MPa 3,000 psi
distance should be 1 m (3 ft).
ft < 2 MPa 230 psi and fy = 500 MPa 60,000 psi)

Delta T, °C (°F) 67 (120) 78 (140) 89 (160) (4) Bar size. Typically, bar sizes #10, #15, or #20
Steel Percentage 0.43 0.48 0.53 (#4, #5 or #6), are used for reinforcing CRCP. The bar
size should be limited to a #6 to satisfy bond require-
ments and control crack widths. Reinforcing may be
supported on soil foundations should be 200 to 250 mm placed in two layers when a single layer would result in
(8 to 10 in.) for invert paving and 150 to 200 mm (6 to bar spacings that inhibit concrete placement.
8 in.) for slope paving, respectively. Thicknesses of pilot
channel paving should be 250 mm (10 in.) or greater c. Pavement subject to vehicular traffic. Channel
when flows carry scouring materials. The bottom slab pavement designed in accordance with paragraph 3-4a.
and side slope paving thickness may be decreased to and 3-4b is adequate for light vehicular traffic. Pavement
150 mm (6 in.) for small side channels with the bottom that will be subjected to heavy vehicular traffic, such as
slab less than 4.5 m (15 ft) wide and channel depths less loaded dump trucks, should also be designed in accor-
than 3 m (10 ft). Paving of rock is usually not required; dance with TM 5-809-12. The modulus of subgrade
however, when required, the paving thickness should not reaction k, used in designing for the wheel loads, is
be less than 13 mm (5 in). The designer should verify dependent on the drainage blanket material and the in situ
that the pavement is adequately designed for equipment foundation material below the pavement slab and these
loads which may occur during construction, maintenance, values should be selected by the geotechnical engineer.
and operation of the channel.
3-5. Construction Joints
b. Reinforcement. Reinforcing steel should comply
with paragraph 2-3a. Typically, a single layer of rein- Construction joints should be placed in continuously rein-
forcement should be used. The longitudinal steel should forced paving to provide longitudinal joints between
be located at or slightly above the center of the slab. The adjacent lanes of paving, where concrete pours are
spacing of longitudinal bars should not exceed two times

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terminated at the end of the day or when delays in con- Anchor lugs should not be used in soils having poor
crete placement would otherwise result in the formation of resistance characteristics. Two layers of reinforcement
cold joints. The length of time for cold joint development should be provided in the pavement in the area of the lugs
depends on the severity of temperature, humidity, and to develop the lug bending. Typical end anchorage details
other factors. Contract specifications should specify the are shown in Plate 1.
maximum delay time permitted prior to the requirement
for formed construction joints. Concrete should be placed 3-8. Cutoff Walls
alternately in lanes of channel with multiple lanes. Small
channels may be constructed without longitudinal joints. a. Scour protection at ends of concrete paving.
Reinforcing steel should be continuous through all con- Cutoff walls should be provided at the ends of the main
struction joints. In addition, the amount of longitudinal channel and side channel paving to prevent undermining
reinforcement through transverse joints should be or the transporting of foundation materials from beneath
increased 50 percent to accommodate stresses as the pave- the paving. Reinforced concrete cutoff walls should be
ment gains strength near the joint. This is accomplished provided when their use is suited to the foundation mater-
by the addition of a 2-m (6-ft) long bar, of the same size ials. Sheetpile cutoff walls should be provided in
as the longitudinal bars, placed between every other longi- pervious materials. Cutoff walls should be keyed into
tudinal bar. undisturbed foundation materials and should extend up the
side slopes to the standard project flood elevation. The
3-6. Expansion Joints unpaved reaches of the channels immediately upstream of
cutoff walls in side channels, immediately downstream of
Expansion joints should be provided in continuously rein- cutoff walls in side channels, and immediately down-
forced paving at channel intersections and where paving stream of cutoff walls in main channels should be pro-
abuts other structures such as box culverts, bridge piers, tected by riprap as required.
and bridge abutments. A 25-mm (1-in.) expansion joint is
acceptable for concrete linings on soft ground when end b. Cutoffs at top edges of paving. Cutoffs should
anchorage is provided. When end anchorage is not pro- be provided along the top edges of the channel paving.
vided, a 75-mm (3-in.) expansion joint should be provided The depth of approximately 0.5 m (1.5 ft) is usually suf-
for continuous paving on soft ground. Expansion joints in ficient to prevent water from entering beneath the slab
paving on rock will probably not function because of the foundation due to minor amounts of scour or ground
interlock and bond between the concrete and paving. settlements. A typical detail of the cutoff at the top edge
However, a 12-mm (1/2-in.) expansion joint should be of paving is shown in Plate 1.
provided in paving on rock where thinner paving sections
abut thicker sections or structures. Expansion joints 3-9. Intersecting Channels
should be provided with a waterstop, smooth dowels,
sponge rubber filler, and sealant. Expansion joint details a. Configuration. The design configuration of
for continuous concrete paving are shown in Plate 1. channel intersections should be coordinated with hydraulic
engineers. Channel intersections and interruptions such as
3-7. End Anchorage access ramps should have smooth curves, tangent to the
main channel when possible to minimize the interruption
There is not sufficient friction between the concrete pave- of smooth channel flow. Abrupt changes in the normal
ment and the drainage blanket material or soft ground to channel cross section can cause standing waves which
prevent substantial movements at the ends of continuously overtop the paving or impinge on bridges crossing the
reinforced concrete pavements due to temperature effects. channel.
End anchorage is typically used to minimize movement
and damage at the ends of paving or where the continuity b. Intersection of side channel and main channel
of paving is interrupted by other structures. An accep- paving. Paving damage occurs when long lengths of
table anchorage system consists of three structurally rein- intersecting side channel paving are made monolithic with
forced concrete anchorage lugs which are keyed into the the main channel paving. This damage occurs because of
foundation material. The lugs are usually 40 mm (15 in.) the “jacking” action during high temperatures. Therefore,
thick by 1 m (3 ft) deep, cast with dowels for anchoring an expansion joint should be placed in the intersecting
the paving and spaced transversely at 3-m (10-ft) centers, side channel paving no more than 15 m (50 ft) from the
beginning about 1.5 m (5 ft) from the end of paving. Lug intersection. When the intersecting side channel paving is
depth may vary depending on soil and frost conditions. more than 45 m (150 ft) long, the side channel

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subdrainage system should not connect with the main continuously reinforced paving was interrupted by large
channel subdrainage system. penetrations for drainage culverts or pipes. Reinforced
concrete frames, structurally integral with the continuous
c. Drop structures. Where the invert of the main paving, should be provided as a stiffening system around
channel is below the invert of the intersecting side chan- penetrations or openings greater than 0.6 m (2 ft) to pre-
nel, a drop structure may be necessary. A concrete or vent failure of the channel paving. Thrust stiffening
sheetpiling cutoff wall should be provided at drop struc- members should be provided in the longitudinal direction
tures to block transmission of pressure from the higher to with thickened members at each end to collect and distri-
the lower channel paving. bute the loads into the paving slab. A typical detail of the
stiffening system is shown on Plate 2. When the channel
d. Partially paved main channel. When channel paving is penetrated by structures with an outside dimen-
side paving does not extend up to the standard project sion greater than 1.2 m (4 ft) the paving should be sepa-
design flood elevation, provisions should be made at rated from the drainage structure with expansion joints
channel intersections to prevent undermining and scour which extend completely across the channel paving. A
which could cause failure and to prevent the occurrence typical detail for treatment at large penetrations is shown
of inflows which would increase the hydrostatic pressures in Plate 2.
beneath the paving. Channel side paving should be
extended up to the standard project flood elevation or top 3-11. Drainage Layer Construction
of bank, whichever is less, for a distance of 15 to 30 m
(50 to 100 ft) upstream and downstream of intersections. Major considerations during drain placement include:
Consideration should also be given to increasing the depth
of the cutoff at the top edge of the sides. a. Prevention of contamination by surface runoff,
construction traffic, etc.
3-10. Deficiencies in Past Designs of Paved
Trapezoidal Channels b. Prevention of segregation.

a. Jointed paving of partially lined channels. Signi- c. Proper compaction.

ficant changes in channel water levels, combined with the
formation of water paths to and under paving, have per- d. Proper layer thickness
mitted inflows greater than drainage systems were able to
relieve. These heavy inflows resulted in excessive uplift e. Monitoring of gradations.
pressures which have caused failures in jointed paving of
partially lined channels. The excessive uplift pressures EM 1110-2-1901, EM 1110-2-1911, and EM 1110-2-2300
caused separations at the joints in the channel bottom provide guidance for the construction of drainage layers.
paving and subsequent movement of the separated paving
sections by flowing water. Paving on the sloped sides of 3-12. Maintenance Considerations
channels usually failed after the failure of bottom paving.
Paragraph 3-9b discusses solutions to alleviate this A drainage system will be most effective when initially
deficiency. constructed and will deteriorate thereafter. Even with
design precautions, deterioration of the system will occur.
b. Intersecting channels. Excessive expansion or The system cannot be designed to prevent contamination
elongation of paving due to high seasonal temperatures throughout the life of a project without proper main-
has caused “jacking” in paving at channel intersections. tenance. Contamination of the drainage system can occur
“Jacking” action causes the paving to lift off the support- as a result of malfunctioning check valves, migration of
ing foundation and places its underside in compression. foundation soils into the drainage blanket, growth of algae
This compressive force causes localized cracking, pop- or bacteria, etc. Therefore, regular and routine main-
outs, and spalling. Expansion joints, similar to the details tenance is necessary for a drainage system.
shown in Plate 2, should be provided at intersecting chan-
nel pavements to prevent damage. Reference is also a. Inspection and maintenance. The frequency of
made to paragraph 3-9b. project inspections is discussed in paragraph 2-7. The
inspection should check for proper operation of check
c. Penetrations. In past designs stress concentra- valves, sediment in manholes, obvious differential move-
tions have caused failures in continuous paving when the ments between joints, leakage through joints, discharge of

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sands from collector pipes, etc. Routine maintenance sections. In some cases, the repairs were made without
should include removal of sediment from manholes and evaluating the cause of damage which allowed future
collector drains. Repair of check valves, etc., should be failures to occur. Therefore, when repair measures are
performed as deficiencies are noted, and all deficiencies necessary the cause of the failure should be determined
critical to performance of the project should be corrected and all provisions should be taken to prevent any recur-
with urgency. Additional guidance for inspection and rence of the damage. When such repairs are made the
maintenance of drainage systems is presented in reinforcing steel along the edge of removed paving sec-
EM 1110-2-1901. tion should be preserved and lapped with the new
reinforcement in the repair section. The area of the lon-
b. Rehabilitation. The majority of rehabilitation of gitudinal reinforcing steel in small repaired areas is often
drainage systems is in connection with contamination of doubled. This is done because the edges of the existing
the collector pipes and drainage blankets by the backflow channel paving around the break-out move due to temper-
of silt-laden channel water. Rehabilitation can also be ature changes, and the concrete in the repaired area
required because of incrustation, growth of algae or bac- shrinks during curing. High-early strength concrete is
teria, migration of fines in foundation soils into the drain- sometimes used to shorten the curing time of the repair
age blanket, etc. Pumping, jetting, flushing, and treatment concrete. For repairs requiring long periods of construc-
with certain chemicals or detergents can be used in rehab- tion, sheetpile cutoffs should be installed beneath the
ilitation. Guidance for the rehabilitation of drainage sys- existing paving at upstream and downstream limits of
tems is presented in EM 1110-2-1901. repaired area. These cutoffs are provided to prevent
further damage to the paving should flood flows occur
3-13. Repair of Damaged Paving which are larger than those which can be controlled by
the construction cofferdam and the bypass system.
Several concrete paving failures have occurred in the past
which required the removal and replacement of the failed

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Chapter 4 paving. Guidance for continuously reinforced concrete

Special Design Considerations for paving is contained in paragraphs 3-4, 3-6, 3-7 and 3-8a.
Rectangular Channels Lined with
4-4. Joints In Retaining Walls
Retaining Wall Structures
Vertical contraction joints should be placed in the wall
stem at a spacing of approximately 5 to 10 m (20 to
4-1. General 30 ft). Wall base slabs may be designed as continuously
reinforced slabs. Horizontal construction joints should be
The stems of retaining walls used to line rectangular provided at the base of wall stems and at vertical lifts of
channels are vertical or nearly vertical. These walls must 2.5 to 3 m (8 to 10 ft) in walls. Guidance for joints in
retain the surrounding soil and contain the channel flows. retaining walls is contained in EM 1110-2-2502.
Although rectangular channels are more expensive than
trapezoidal channels, they are sometimes justified in 4-5. Drainage Provisions
highly developed urban areas. Limitations on economical
right-of-way may not allow for construction of excava- a. Drainage systems. Except for I-type walls,
tions with stable slopes. In such cases, rectangular chan- drainage systems should be provided behind channel
nels are required. retaining walls and beneath channel bottom paving slabs
on soil foundations to relieve hydrostatic pressures when-
4-2. Retaining Wall Types ever the permanent or fluctuating water table is above the
invert of the channel. General information on the design
Cantilever and I-type reinforced concrete retaining walls of drainage systems is provided in paragraph 2-4. Since
are commonly used to form the sides of rectangular chan- construction procedures do not permit the installation of a
nels. These walls are used with or without bottom chan- drainage system behind I-type walls, these walls should be
nel paving as shown in Figure 2-2. designed for the unrelieved hydrostatic pressures which
may occur throughout the life of the walls.
a. Cantilever walls. Cantilever walls are usually the
inverted T-type or L-type. The inverted T-type wall (1) Retaining walls. EM 1110-2-2502 provides
develops additional stability because of the weight of the information for the design of drainage systems to relieve
backfill material resting on the heel of the base slab. The hydrostatic pressures on retaining walls. Details of the
base slab of the L-type wall does not have a heel. Hence, drainage systems for rectangular channels, including those
stabilization is provided only by the weight of the wall formed with retaining walls, are shown in Plate 2. Back-
itself. The L-type wall requires less excavation for fill material placed behind channel retaining walls should
construction. be a pervious, free draining, granular material to ensure
the lowest level of saturation and to minimize horizontal
b. I-type walls. I-type walls are often used when earth pressures. The pervious backfill material should be
right-of-way restrictions prohibit sloped excavations as covered with a layer of impervious material to prevent
discussed in paragraph 2-8. I-type walls often consist of surface runoff from entering the backfill.
driven piles or concrete drilled piers with attached con-
crete face wall. Concrete slurry walls are also an alter- (2) Channel bottom paving slabs. When channel -
native. The walls should be designed to prevent bottom paving slabs are placed on rock foundations, the
movements which would result in settlements or loss of drainage system usually consists of a system of holes
materials which would be detrimental to existing struc- drilled in the rock and weep holes in the slab. The depth
tures or essential environmental features. of holes required to achieve the required drainage effec-
tiveness is dependent on the type and condition of the
4-3. Channel Bottoms rock. The geotechnical engineer should be consulted in
this regard. If paving anchors are provided, the depth of
Paving of channel bottoms is often required to prevent drain holes should not be less than the depth of the
erosion of the in situ materials when subjected to channel anchors. When drainage is required for channel bottom
flows or to satisfy other environmental factors. Joints in paving slabs on soil foundations, a drainage system as
channel bottom paving slabs should be avoided, when discussed in paragraph 3-3 should be used.
possible, by the use of continuously reinforced concrete

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(3) Hydrostatic pressures. The intensity of the hydro- ground water level, adjusted to reflect the effectiveness of
static horizontal and uplift pressures on the structure is the drainage system; earthquake induced loads. See
dependent upon the effectiveness of drainage system. The Figure 4-1d.
drainage system effectiveness is discussed in para-
graph 2-4e. In past designs, it has been common to b. Stability.
assume a 25 to 50 percent decrease in drain effectiveness.
The design pressures must be based on these con- (1) Cantilever retaining walls. Stability analyses
siderations. The design memoranda must provide ade- should be performed to determine the horizontal, vertical,
quate documentation to clearly show that the values used and rotational equilibrium of these walls to ensure safety
in the design are proper and result in an adequately con- against sliding along the base or any foundation medium
servative design. Appendix C provides methods for the below the base, overturning, bearing, or excessive differ-
design of the drainage system by the use of seepage ential settlement of the foundation and flotation. The
analyses. criteria for performing stability analyses of T-type and
L-type retaining walls, including the factors of safety for
b. Pressure relief systems. Pressure relief systems sliding and overturning, are contained in EM 1110-2-
should be provided for those areas where perched water is 2502. The flotation factors of safety and the criteria for
encountered during construction. performing the flotation analysis are given in ETL 1110-
2-307. Computer program X0153, CTWALL, may be
4-6. Structural Design used for the analysis of these walls.

a. Loading conditions. The forces acting on rectan- (2) I-type retaining walls. Stability analyses for
gular channels should be defined to determine the design I-type walls should be performed using a model which
loadings as discussed in paragraph 2-3b. The following depicts the loaded wall embedded in the foundation mate-
loading conditions are representative of the controlling rial. Stability is achieved by the resistive foundation
conditions in which the design loadings are applied to pressures on the embedded portion of the wall. A pic-
cantilever and I-type retaining walls and the channel torial description of the I-wall is shown in Figure 2-2c.
bottom paving slabs of rectangular flood control channels. Computer program X0031, CWALSHT, may be used for
Earth pressures on walls should be determined by using the analysis of these walls.
applicable criteria in EM 1110-2-2502, EM 1110-2-2504,
and ETL 1110-2-322. (3) Channel bottom paving. Flotation stability of the
channel bottom paving shall comply with criteria in
(1) Case 1, Construction loading (unusual condition). ETL 1110-2-307. Pavement on rock may be anchored to
Wall and backfill in place; earth pressure; channel empty; resist flotation with reinforcing bars grouted into holes
compaction effects and construction surcharge loadings. drilled into the rock.
See Figure 4-1a.
c. Reinforced concrete design. Criteria for design
(2) Case 2, Design flood loading (usual condition). of reinforced concrete hydraulic structures are given in
Wall and backfill in place; earth pressure; water level on EM 1110-2-2104. For singly reinforced flexural mem-
the channel side at the design water level, plus freeboard; bers, the ratio of tension reinforcement provided should
backfill saturated to normal-low ground water level, be 0.375pb.
adjusted to reflect the design effectiveness of the drainage
system. See Figure 4-1b. (1) Cantilever retaining walls. T-type and L-type
walls should be designed for the loading cases described
(3) Case 3, Drawdown loading (usual condition). in paragraph 4-6a, as applicable, and the foundation pres-
Wall and backfill in place; earth pressure; channel empty; sures obtained from the stability analyses.
backfill saturated to highest ground water level, adjusted
to reflect the design effectiveness of the drainage system. (2) I-type retaining walls. I-type walls should be
See Figure 4-1c. designed for the loading cases described in para-
graph 4-6a and the resisting forces which develop on the
(4) Case 4, Earthquake loading (unusual condition). embedded portion of the wall.
Wall and backfill in place; active earth pressure; water in
channel to normal water level; backfill saturated to normal

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Figure 4-1. Loading conditions, rectangular channels with retaining walls

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EM 1110-2-2007
30 Apr 95

(3) Channel bottom paving. detailed to act independently or as a strut slab to provide
horizontal support to the wall.
(a) Minimum reinforcing. The minimum percentage
of reinforcing steel should comply with Table 3-1 or 4-7. Special Considerations During Construction
Table 3-2, which ever is greater.
When retaining walls are designed for the paving slab to
(b) Uplift loading. Channel invert paving should be act as a strut to provide sliding stability, contract require-
designed for the maximum net uplift load. Pavement on ments should stipulate that the slab should be placed prior
rock which is anchored to resist flotation should be to the construction of walls. Contract specifications should
designed to span between the anchorage points. Anchors define any restrictions on the backfill differentials
should be designed to provide a safety factor of 1.5 required to comply with the design assumptions.
against the design uplift pressures.

(c) Isolated or buttress action. Paving slabs used in

conjunction with retaining walls may be designed and

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Chapter 5 possible increased hydrostatic pressures resulting from

Special Design Considerations for some loss of the drainage system effectiveness during the
life of the project as discussed in paragraph 2-4e.
Rectangular Channels Lined with
U-frame Structures a. Drainage systems. Open and closed drainage
systems are discussed in paragraphs 2-4, 3-3, and 4-5.
Refer to Appendix B for a typical analysis of a drainage
5-1. General system for a U-frame structure.

The U-frame structure is basically a U-shaped, open-top b. Drainage of perched ground water. When
concrete section in which the walls and base slab of the ground water levels are below the channel invert and a
structure are monolithic. U-frame structures may some- drainage system is not provided, the designer should
times be more economical or functionally desirable than develop a pressure relief system for those areas where
individual retaining walls and separate channel invert perched water is encountered during construction of the
slabs. channel. This drainage system should be defined and
included as a requirement of the construction contract.
5-2. Foundation Considerations
5-5. Structural Design
U-frame channel structures may be designed for any type
of foundation, provided the material strength is sufficient a. Loading conditions. The primary loadings on
to provide adequate frictional and bearing resistance for the U-frame structure are weights of the structure and
structural stability. Pile foundations are sometimes used contained water and the geohydraulic pressures resulting
for localized sections founded on weak foundations. from the restraint provided by the structure. The exact
nature of the loadings or the physical parameters on
5-3. Joints in Concrete which the loadings are based are not precisely known;
therefore, the structure should be designed for conser-
a. Base slab section. The base slab of U-frame vative loadings. An analysis of the structural frame
channel structures are often designed and constructed as should be performed with the applied loading to deter-
continuously reinforced concrete paving. Expansion joints mine the reactive foundation pressures and internal loads
should be provided where the continuity of the structure is within the structure for each loading condition.
interrupted by other structures. Guidance on expansion
joints is discussed in paragraph 3-6. Waterstops should (1) Case 1, Construction condition (unusual con-
be provided in expansion joints and should extend con- dition). Structure complete with backfill in place; at-rest
tinuously across the base slab. When continuously rein- earth pressure; channel empty; compaction effects and
forced concrete paving is not used, vertical contraction construction surcharge loadings. See Figure 5-1a.
joints are provided at the location of wall joints.
(2) Case 2, Design flood loading (usual condition).
b. Wall section. Vertical contraction joints should Water in channel at the maximum design water level;
be provided in walls of U-frame structures. The contrac- at-rest earth pressure; backfill saturated to the normal
tion joint spacing should be approximately 5 to 10 m ground water level adjusted to reflect the design effec-
(20 to 30 ft). However, the joint spacing should be tiveness of the drainage system. See Figure 5-1b.
limited to two or three times the wall height. Horizontal
construction joints or vertical lift joints should be (3) Case 3, Drawdown loading (usual condition).
provided at the base of wall stems and in wall height at Channel empty; at-rest soil pressures on walls; hydrostatic
intervals of 2.5 to 3 m (8 to 10 ft). pressures reflecting the highest ground water level
adjusted to reflect the design effectiveness of the drainage
5-4. Drainage Provisions system. See Figure 5-1c.

A drainage system should be provided behind the channel (4) Case 4, Earthquake loading (unusual condition).
walls and beneath the channel bottom paving to relieve Construction complete; water in channel to normal level;
hydrostatic pressures whenever the permanent or fluctuat- active earth pressures; backfill saturated to normal ground
ing water table is above the invert of the channel. The water level adjusted to reflect the design effectiveness of
design of channel walls and bottom paving should reflect the drainage system; seismic loadings. See Figure 5-1d.

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EM 1110-2-2007
30 Apr 95

(5) Case 5, Other special load cases. Modify all of (2) Minimum reinforcement. Reinforcement for
the previous load cases to include other special loads continuously reinforced concrete slabs on soil foundations
applied to the U-frame structure. Examples are mainte- should comply with Tables 3-1 or 3-2.; except that the
nance vehicles and bridges or other permanent structures area of temperature reinforcement in thicker slabs need
which are supported by the U-frame. not exceed 2,200 mm2 per meter (1 in.2 per foot). Rein-
forcement should be placed in two layers, top and bottom
b. Stability. The basic stability requirements for the of slab, when the slab thickness is 300 mm (12 in.), or
U-frame structure require that the structure be safe against greater. For thicker slabs it is common to place 2/3 of
sliding, overturning, bearing failure (excessive differential the reinforcement in the top face. Minimum temperature
settlement), and flotation. The criteria for satisfying these and shrinkage reinforcement provisions are discussed in
stability requirements and the safety factors required for EM 1110-2-2104.
usual and unusual loading conditions are contained in
EM 1110-2-2502, Chapter 4, particularly Table 4-1. d. Computer programs. Computer programs suit-
Resisting loads or foundation pressures on the base of able for the design or analysis of U-frame structures are
structure are computed to satisfy vertical and rotational discussed in Appendix B.
equilibrium. The distribution and intensity of base pres-
sures should be determined by using a beam on elastic 5-6. Special Considerations During Construction
foundation model, or by use of a pressure pattern which
approximates that which would exist beneath a flexible Construction procedures should be given consideration
foundation. Excessive differential settlements are avoided during the design process. Construction difficulties and
by maintaining bearing pressures which are less than the complexities should be minimized or eliminated. For
allowable bearing pressure value furnished by the geo- example, concrete working slabs are sometimes used to
technical engineer. Flotation stability criteria for concrete protect drainage blankets or to prevent weathering of the
hydraulic structures is contained in ETL 1110-2-307. foundation materials before the main slab is constructed.
Anchors are sometimes necessary to satisfy the safety When necessary for stability, the contract should include
factor requirements. In rock foundations, anchors often the requirement for the level of backfill behind opposite
consist of reinforcing bars grouted into drilled holes. The walls to be limited to a specified differential.
stiffness, strengths, and locations of anchors should be
reflected in the structural analysis.

c. Reinforced concrete design.

(1) General. Reinforced concrete design should com-

ply with EM 1110-2-2104. For singularly reinforced
flexural members the ratio of tension reinforcement pro-
vided should be 0.375pb.

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Figure 5-1. Loading conditions - rectangular channels with U-frames

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Appendix A EM 1110-2-2102
References Waterstops and Other Joint Materials

EM 1110-2-2104
Strength Design for Reinforced-Concrete Hydraulic
A-1. Required Publications Structures

TM 5-809-12 EM 1110-2-2300
Concrete Floor Slabs on Grade Subjected to Heavy Loads Earth and Rock-Fill Dams General Design and Con-
struction Considerations
TM 5-818-5
Dewatering and Groundwater Control EM 1110-2-2400
Structural Design of Spillways and Outlet Works
TM 5-820-2
Drainage and Erosion Control, Subsurface Drainage Facil- EM 1110-2-2502
ities for Airfield Pavements Retaining and Flood Walls

TM 5-825-3 EM 1110-2-2504
Rigid Pavement for Airfields Design of Sheetpile Walls

ER 1110-2-1806 ETL 1110-2-307

Earthquake Design and Analysis for Corps of Engineers Flotation Stability Criteria for Concrete Hydraulic
Projects Structures

EM 1110-1-1804 ETL 1110-2-322

Geotechnical Investigations Retaining and Flood Walls

American Concrete Institute 1989.

EM 1110-2-38
American Concrete Institute. 1989. “Building Code
Environmental Quality in Design of Civil Works Projects
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete.” ACI 318,
Detroit, MI. Available from American Concrete Institute,
EM 1110-2-301 P. O. Box 19150, Redford Station, Detroit, MI 48219.
Guidelines for Landscape Planting at Floodwalls, Levees,
and Embankment Dams Biedenharn and Tracy 1987
Biedenharn, D. G., and Tracy, F. T. 1987 (May). “Finite
EM 1110-2-1601 Element Method Package for Solving Steady-State Seep-
Hydraulic Design of Flood Control Channels age Problems,” Technical Report ITL-87-6, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station (USAEWES).
EM 1110-2-1901 Available from USAEWES, 3909 Halls Ferry Road,
Seepage Analysis and Control for Dams Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199.

EM 1110-2-1907 Cedegren 1987

Soil sampling Cedegren, H. R. 1987. Drainage of Highway and Air-
field Pavements. Original published by Wiley, New York
EM 1110-2-1908 (1974); Updated printing by Robert E. Krieger Publishing
Instrumentation of Earth-Rock-Fill Dams (Ground-water Company Inc., Melbourne, FL, 289 pp. Available from
and Pore Pressure Observations) USAEWES, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS
39180-6199.
EM 1110-2-1911
Construction Control for Earth and Rock-Fill Dams

EM 1110-2-2000
Standard Practice for Concrete for Civil Works Structures

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Cedegren 1989 Department of the Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering

Cedegren, H. R. 1989. Seepage Drainage and Flow Command, 200 Stoval Street, Alexandria, VA 22332.
Nets. Wiley, New York, 465 pp. Available from
USAEWES, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS Hays 1990
39180-6199. Hays, C. O. 1990. “Investigation and Design of
U-Frame Structures Using CUFRBC, Volume A - Pro-
Knowles 1992 gram Criteria and Documentation,” Technical Report
Knowles, Virginia R. 1992 (Aug). “Application of the ITL-90-3, USAEWES, Vicksburg, MS. Available from
Finite Element Seepage Analysis Corps Program CSEEP USAEWES, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS
(X8202),” Available from USAEWES, 3909 Halls Ferry 39180-6199.
Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180.
Hays and Ford 1989
Tracy 1983 Hays, C. O., and Ford, C. 1989. “Investigation and
Tracy, F. T. 1983 (Sep). “User’s Guide for a Plane and Design of U-Frame Structures Using CUFRBC, Vol-
Axisymmetric Finite Element Program for Steady-State ume C- User’s Guide for Channels,” Technical Report,
Seepage Problems,” Instruction Report K-83-4, ITL-90-3, USAEWES. Available from USAEWES,
USAEWES. Available from USAEWES, 3909 Halls 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199.
Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199.
Hays and Wright 1989
A-2. Related Publications Hays, C. O., and Wright T. 1989. “Investigation and
Design of U-Frame Structures Using CUFRBC, Volume
ER 1110-2-100 B- User’s Guide for Basins,” Technical Report, ITL-90-3,
Periodic Inspection and Continuing Evaluation of Com- USAEWES. Available from USAEWES, 3909 Halls
pleted Civil Works Structures Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199.

ER 1110-2-1150 Johns 1973

Engineering and Design for Civil Works Projects Johns, H. 1973 (Jan). “Joint Sealing in Reclamation
Canals,” Journal, American Concrete Institute, pp 14-18.
ER 1130-2-339 Available from ACI Publications, P.O. Box 19150, Red-
Inspection of Local Flood Protection Projects (RCS ford Station, Detroit, MI 48219.
DAEN-CWO-40)
Lacy and Gould 1985
EM 1110-2-2200 Lacy, H. S., and Gould, J. P. 1985 (Oct). “Settlement
Gravity Dam Design From Pile Driving in Sands.” Vibration Problems in
Geotechnical Engineering. Proceedings, Geotechnical
EM 1120-2-109 Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engi-
Federal Participation in Major Drainage Improvements neers. Available from American Society of Civil Engi-
neers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017-2398.
Bowles 1982
Bowles, J. E. 1982. Foundation Analysis and Design, Pace and Noddin 1987
3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York. Pace, M. E., and Noddin, V. R. 1987 (Oct). “Sliding
Stability of Concrete Structures (CSLIDE),” Instruction
Dawkins 1991 Report ITL-87-5, USAEWES. Available from USAE-
Dawkins, W. P. “User’s Guide: Computer Program for WES, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS
Design and Analysis of Sheet-Pile Walls by Classical 39180-6199.
Methods (CWALSHT),” Instruction Report ITL-91-1,
USAEWES. Available from: USAEWES, 3909 Halls Price and Alling 1989
Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199. Price, W. A., and Alling, E. S. 1989. “CCHAN-Soil -
Conservation Service Program STRUCHAN for Structural
Department of the Navy 1982 Design of Rectangular Channels,” adapted to Corps of
Department of the Navy. 1982 (May). “Foundations and Engineers Structural Criteria, Technical Report ITL-89-5,
Earth Structures,” NAVFAC DM-7.2. Available from

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USAEWES. Available from USAEWES, 3909 Halls U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1974
Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 1974. “Design of Small
Canal Structures.” Available from U.S. Government
Los Angeles 1957 Printing Office, Washington, DC 20202.
U.S. Army Engineer District, Los Angeles. 1957 (Jul).
“Report on Manhole Subdrainage System: Los Angeles Woods and Jedele 1985
County Drainage Area, California.” Available from Woods, R. D. and Jedele, L. P. 1985 (Oct). “Energy -
U.S. Army Engineer District, Los Angeles. Attenuation Relationships from Construction Vibrations.”
Vibration Problems in Geotechnical Engineering. Pro-
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station ceedings, Geotechnical Engineering Division, American
1991 Society of Civil Engineers. Available from American
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station. Society of Civil Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New
1991 (Oct). “User’s Guide: Computer Program for York, NY 10017-2398.
Design and Analysis of Sheet Pile Walls by Classical
Methods (CSHTWAL),” ITL-91-1, USAEWES. Avail-
able from USAEWES, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg,
MS 39180-6199.

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Appendix B computes internal member loads, foundation bearing pres-

Computer Programs sures and factors of safety against sliding, foundation
bearing, and flotation.

B-1. Listing Table B-2

Values of Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for
Footings / Guide for Order of Magnitude
A listing and description of some of the current
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers computer programs which Soil Type Range of ks, kci*
are suitable for the structural design of elements of rectan- Loose Sand 30-100
gular channels are given in Table B-1. Medium Sand 60-500
Dense Sand 400-800
Clayey Sand (medium) 200-500
Table B-1 Silty Sand (medium) 150-300
Computer Programs Clayey Soil
qu < 4 ksf 75-150
X0022 EFFRAME Plane Frame on Elastic Foundation 4 ksf < qu < 8 ksf 150-300
(Design) 8 ksf < qu >300
X0030 CFRAME Interactive Graphics Plane Frame *Local values may be higher or lower than the values shown.
Analysis
X0031 CWALSHT Sheet Wall Analysis/Design
X0050 CBEAMC Analysis of Beam Column Structures with
Nonlinear Supports c. Computer Program CASTR. Program X0067 is
X0058 CUFRBC U-Frame Basins/Channels, Design/ suitable for use in the design for, or investigation of,
Analysis flexure in reinforced concrete beam-column sections. The
X0067 CASTR Design/Investigation of Reinforced Con- program satisfies the requirements of EM 1110-2-2104
crete Sections
and ACI 318.
X0075 CSLIDE Sliding Stability Analysis
X0097 CCHAN Structural Design of Rectangular
Channels d. Computer Program CCHAN. Program X0097 is
X0153 CTWALL Analysis of Retaining Walls and suitable for use in the design of rectangular channels.
Floodwalls The program is adapted to four channel types; (1) rein-
forced concrete U-frame structures, (2) reinforced con-
crete retaining walls with invert pavement slab (except for
a. Computer Program CWALSHT. Program X0031
thrust imposed on it by the retaining wall base), (3) rein-
is suitable for the design or analysis of cantilever and
forced concrete retaining walls with invert pavement slab
anchored sheetpile walls. The program uses the classical
and retaining wall bases designed to transmit shear forces
soil mechanics procedures to determine the required depth
between each other, and (4) rigid frame structure with
of penetration for a new wall or to assess the factor of
struts at the top of the walls. Each channel type is
safety for an existing wall. Seepage effects are consid-
designed for two loading conditions: (1) channel empty
ered. Earth pressures are determined by input lateral soil
with backfill submerged to selected elevation and
coefficients or by the wedge method.
(2) channel full with backfill submerged to selected eleva-
tion. Flotation requirements are evaluated and satisfied.
b. Computer Program CUFRBC. Program X0058
Earth pressures on walls are determined from the input
is suitable for design or analysis of U-frame structures.
soil coefficients.
Loadings may be simple or complex. Earth pressures on
walls are determined by using lateral soil coefficients,
e. Computer Program CTWALL. Program X0153
wedge solutions, or nonlinear lateral force deformation
is suitable for assessing the stability of T-type retaining
curves. The base of the structure is modeled as a beam
and flood walls in accordance with EM 1110-2-2502,
on elastic foundation. Table B-2 is given as a guide in
ETL 1110-2-307, and ETL 1110-2-322. CTWALL will
selecting the order of magnitude of variation in the modu-
assess the overturning, sliding, and flotation stability.
lus of subgrade reaction. Program CUFRBC

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Appendix C c. Design requirements. The drainage system

Drainage System Designs for U-frame should be designed for the ground water level/stream
stage which yields the critical differential head. This
and Trapezoidal Channels
requires an evaluation of the variations in ground water
levels coincident with variations in stream stage.
B-1. Information Required for Seepage Analysis
B-2. Design Example for U-Frame Channel
a. Investigation. The scope of an investigation of Drainage System
subsurface soil/rock and ground water conditions for a
channel project is normally influenced by the cost, com- a. General. Since drainage blankets are thin com-
plexity, and criticality of the project as well as require- pared to the overall dimensions of a channel and sur-
ments to protect adjacent development. Borings are rounding soils, it is difficult to produce an accurate flow
required to determine the extent, thickness, and stratifica- net within the boundaries of the drainage blankets. As
tion of subsurface soils or rock along the channel project. stated in EM 1110-2-1901 (page 8-11), the total quantity
Guidance on developing and conducting geotechnical of seepage from all sources that must discharge through
investigations is presented in EM 1110-1-1804,* and drains should be evaluated from a flow net analysis in
guidance on soil sampling is presented in EM 1110- which it is assumed that the drains have an infinite per-
2-1907. The ground water levels along the project should meability. To evaluate the quantity of seepage into
be determined along with the variations in levels with the drainage blankets for an assumed U-frame flood control
seasons of the year, rainfall, stream stage, etc. Ground channel with the foundation soil conditions shown in
water observations over an extended period of time are Figure C-1, the computer program SEEP2D (Knowles
required to establish variations in ground water levels. 1992, Tracy 1983, Biedenharn and Tracy 1987 (Seepage
General information regarding ground water levels is Package (x8202)) was used. The sequence of silty sand
often available from public agencies. Specific informa- and fine sand in Figure C-1 is for alluvial conditions
tion is best determined from long-term observations of where permeability increases with depth. To compute
piezometers. Piezometers to observe ground water fluc- seepage quantity, it was necessary to consider only the
tuations are not routinely installed for typical channel foundation soils beneath the assumed high ground water
projects but should always be installed where drainage level to obtain the quantities of seepage that would flow
considerations are critical to channel performance. The into an inclined drainage blanket behind the wall and into
use and installation of piezometers are described in a horizontal drainage blanket beneath the concrete lined
EM 1110-2-1908 and TM 5-818-5. channel.
b. Testing. The sizing of the drainage system is b. Distance to effective source. The distance to the
directly related to the amount of water entering the system source of steady state seepage from the U-frame wall was
which, in turn, is related to the permeabilities of the per- taken as the radius of influence R for the silty sands and
vious strata within which the channel is constructed. The was estimated from TM 5-818-5, Figure 4-23 as
permeabilities of the pervious subsurface soils can be
determined using laboratory and/or field permeability test
R C(H hw)(k)1/2 (C-1)
methods. The simplest approximation method consists of
visual examination and classification, and comparison
with materials of known permeability. Empirical correla- where
tions are also available between grain size and per-
meability. Field methods include pumping tests and C = 3 for artesian and gravity flows
constant or falling head tests made in piezometers or open
boreholes. EM 1110-2-1901 and TM 5-818-5 provide H = total head in feet
recommendations and procedures for determining
permeability. hw = tailwater head in feet

k = coefficient of permeability expressed in

* References in Appendices C and D are listed in 10-4 cm/sec
Appendix A.

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The distance of half the channel width was added to R to (3) Postprocessor program. The post processor pro-
obtain the x-coordinate. Using a value of H of 31 ft, hw gram (X8201) can be used to obtain plots with axes,
of 21.5 ft, and k of 20 (without the 10-4 cm/sec), R was bigger plots, selected windows, and other types of plots.
computed as 127 ft and the value of x (R + half the chan- Results of the analysis are shown by a flow net in Fig-
nel width) was equal to 152 which was rounded down to ure C-4, a vector diagram in Figure C-5, and an elevation
150 ft. The section used for the seepage analyses with head plot in Figure C-6. The vector plot indicates that
the CSEEP program package is shown in Figure C-2. most of the flow will go into the base drainage blanket
from the lower more permeable fine sand layer. As
c. Seepage computer program. The seepage pro- shown in Figure C-6, the elevation heads along the exit
gram package, SEEP2D, was used because it includes surface to the drainage blankets are at the tailwater ele-
(1) a preprocessor program for quick definition of the vation head of 121.5 ft except at the intersection of the
problem and automatic generation of the nodes and ele- phreatic surface with the inclined collector where the head
ments; (2) a solution program for steady-state, is at elevation 122.01 ft.
two-dimensional seepage that automatically converges and
produces a data file that includes a list of nodal points (4) Exit flows. An extracted listing of the seepage
and their coordinates, elements, flows, and heads at nodal data results from the solution program is shown in
points, total inflow and total outflow, and flows and velo- Table C-2. The first section of the table lists the node
cities for elements; and (3) a post processor program numbers and their coordinates along the exit drainage
with options to produce plots of flow nets, vector dia- boundary, and the next section lists the node numbers,
grams, number diagrams of head or percent head, con- heads, percent head, outflow quantities (negative num-
tours (equipotential lines), displaced outline, orthographic bers), and location of the node with respect to the phreatic
grid, or perspective grid. A graphical flow net can be surface with the total inflow and total outflow listed and
obtained for problems limited to two soil types, although compared at the end. A list of the elements, element flow
a listing of flows and heads can be obtained for up to 12 velocities, and vectors produced by the solution program
different soil types. was deleted from the data shown in Table C-2. The
flows at the nodes are those for the proportional width
(1) Preprocessor program. The preprocessor program along the boundary and correspond to the width of boun-
(X8200) requires two data files. One file is for input of dary elements. The flows are in the same kind of units
boundary point coordinates, fixed or moveable points, used for the entered permeabilities, i.e. flows are in cubic
number and spacing of intermediate node points, and feet per day in this example.
material type. The other is for definition of boundary
conditions with regard to head or flow, entrance or exit d. Design of drainage system. The drainage system
boundaries, and no flow boundaries. The data files for will consist of a drainage blanket, collector drains, collec-
the U-frame channel example are listed in Table C-1. tor manholes, and outlet drains. The drainage blanket will
The preprocessor program requests an input data file consist of either one or two layers depending on whether
name and a restart file name, then the boundary data file or not one gradation of material will satisfy both the filter
name and a name for the data file to be generated for use and drainage requirements. One collector drain will be
with the solution program. After module 4 is reached and placed behind the wall and three drains will be placed in
PLT is entered, followed by T for total, the grid is drawn the blanket beneath the channel bottom. One of the col-
on the screen. The screen image can be saved to a file lector drains will be placed in the center where uplift will
generated by the program to be printer plotted later using be most critical, and one drain will be placed along each
a program named EPRINT. The resulting grid for the side. Lateral drains will connect the collector drains to
example problem is shown in Figure C-3. Several trials manholes located behind the walls. Outlet drains will
may be needed to obtain a desirable grid. discharge from the manholes into the channel.

(2) Solution program. The solution program (X8202) (1) Drainage blanket. The flows into the drainage
operates by asking for the file name from the preprocessor blanket from the seepage analysis are shown in Fig-
program and then other questions, the last of which ure C-7. Total flow into the inclined drainage blanket is
requests names for the solution data file and file for plot- 6.0 cu ft/day and 43.6 cu ft/day into the base drainage
ting with the post processor program. In this example, a blanket. These are flow rates per running foot of channel.
normal solution with a smooth phreatic surface and the Flow into the base drainage blanket can be divided into
flow net option was obtained after six iterations. 16.3 cu ft/day into the center drain pipe and

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Table C-1
Data Files for U-frame Channel Seepage Analysis
File UCHLLSI File UCHLLB
100 1 150 100 100 P 1 1 1 131.0
110 2 150 114 110 P 2 1 1 131.0
120 3 150 131 120 P 3 0 1 131.0
130 4 43 131 130 A 1 1 0
140 5 39 127 140 P 4 1 2 121.5
150 6 33.5 121.5 150 P 5 1 2 121.5
160 7 32 120 160 P 6 0 2 121.5
170 8 32 118 170 P 7 1 1 121.5
180 9 32 117 180 P 8 1 1 121.5
220 10 0 117 190 P 9 1 1 121.5
230 11 0 100 200 P 10 0 1 121.5
240 12 32 100 210 P 17 1 0
250 13 43 100 220 P 11 1 0
255 14 142 100 230 P 12 1 0
260 15 43 114 240 P 13 1 0
265 16 32 114 250 P 15 1 0
270 17 0 114 260 P 16 1 0
275 -1 270 P 14 0 0
280 1 2 F L 4 2
285 2 3 F L 6 1
290 2 15 F L 8 2
295 3 4 F L 8 1
300 4 5 F L 1 1
310 5 6 F L 2 1
320 6 7 F L 0 1
330 7 8 F L 0 1
335 8 9 F L 0 1
340 11 17 F L 4 100
350 17 10 F L 0 100
360 10 9 F L 6 100
370 11 12 F L 6 2
375 12 16 F L 4 2
380 12 13 F L 4 2
390 13 15 F L 4 2
400 13 14 F L 7 2
410 14 1 F L 0 2
420 15 4 F L 6 1
450 15 16 F L 4 2
455 17 17 F L 6 2
460 9 9 F L 0 1

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Table C-2
Results of Seepage Analysis for U-Frame Channel (Continued)
Plane Flow Problem
U-Channel Underdrain with Inclined Wall Drain
0 Number of Nodal Points-----------289 0 Number of Diff. Materials---------2
0 Number of Elements----------------257 0 Elevation of Datum-----------------0.000
Material Properties

MAT K1 K2
1 0.576E+01 0.144E+01
2 0.576E+02 0.144E+02
Node Point Information

Node BC X Y Flow-Head
Sections of Listing Omitted
104 2 43.00 131.00 121.50
117 2 41.00 129.00 121.50
130 2 39.00 127.00 121.50
143 2 37.17 125.17 121.50
156 2 35.33 123.33 121.50
168 2 33.50 121.50 121.50
180 1 32.00 120.00 121.50
193 1 32.00 118.00 121.50
204 1 32.00 117.00 121.50
214 1 27.43 117.00 121.50
224 1 22.86 117.00 121.50
234 1 18.29 117.00 121.50
244 1 13.71 117.00 121.50
253 1 9.14 117.00 121.50
261 1 4.57 117.00 121.50
268 1 0.00 117.00 121.50

Nodal Flows and Heads

Node Head Percentage of Available Head Flow
Position of Phreatic Surface
Above On Below X Y
Parts of Listing Omitted
141 0.1237E+03 23.1%
* 41.03 123.69
142 0.1234E+03 20.4%
* 39.40 123.44
155 0.1230E+03 16.1%
* 37.52 123.03
156 0.1220E+03 5.4
* 34.01 122.01

C-10
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Table C-2 (Concluded)

Nodal Flows and Heads
(Continued)
Node Head Percentage of Available Head Flow
Position of Phreatic Surface
Above On Below X Y
168 0.1215E+03 0.0% -0.3816E+01
180 0.1215E+03 0.0% -0.2220E+01
193 0.1215E+03 0.0% -0.2731E+01
204 0.1215E+03 0.0% -0.8623E+01
214 0.1215E+03 0.0% -0.05624E+01
224 0.1215E+03 0.0% -0.5260E+01
234 0.1215E+03 0.0% -0.4996E+01
244 0.1215E+03 0.0% -0.04803E+01
253 0.1215E+03 0.0% -0.4669E+01
261 0.1215E+03 0.0% -0.4591E+01
268 0.1215E+03 0.0% -0.2282E+01

Flow(-) = 4.9615E+01 Flow (+) = 4.9619E+01

Flow (Ave) = 4.9617E+01

C-11
EM 1110-2-2007
30 Apr 95

C-12
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30 Apr 95

27.3 cu ft/day into the end drain pipes. Based on the (c) Blanket thickness. The thickness of the blanket
distribution of flow to the drain pipes, the inclined drain- can be determined from Equation C-2, for Darcy’s law,
age blanket should be designed to handle a minimum of assuming the excess head of 1.0 ft so that i = 1/L, where
6.0 cu ft/day over a length of 2.6 ft and the base drainage L is the path length and A, the area, is the thickness tb ×
blanket should be designed to handle a minimum of 1.0 for the unit length of the channel. Since
16.3 cu ft/day into the center drain over a length of
16.0 ft. The gradation of the drainage blanket must meet Q
the filter requirements for the natural silty sand foundation kb × 20 (C-3)
design
(1/L) × tb
soils and also the drainage requirements. The gradation
of the natural soils is represented by the grain size curve
presented in Figure C-8. For this example, the gradation then
required to satisfy the filter criteria will be determined,
and then computations will be performed to determine if Q × L × 20
the filter materials have adequate drainage capacity. If tb (C-4)
kb
not, a two-layer drainage blanket will be required. design

(a) Filter criteria. Filter criteria are presented in (d) Base drainage blanket. The first trial considers
EM 1110-2-1901 and EM 1110-2-2502. Applying the using the filter material to satisfy also the drainage
stability and relative permeability criteria to the grain size requirements. The filter materials are estimated to have a
curve for the natural foundation soils, the filter material permeability of 1.0 ft/min (TM 5-818-5, Table 3-4) or
gradations presented in Figure C-8 are obtained. 1,440 ft/day. The blanket thickness for a permeability of
1,440 ft/day, a Q of 16.3 cu ft/day and a drainage-path
(b) Design procedure. The drainage blanket must length of 16 ft is equal to
have sufficient capacity to remove the seepage quickly
without allowing high seepage pressures to develop. The
16.3 × 16 × 20 5,216
variables in the blanket analysis consist of the thickness tb 3.62 ft or 43.5 in.
and permeability of the layer, and the permeability is in 1,440 1,440
turn related to the gradations of the material. The analy-
sis is based on Darcy’s law: Obviously, this thickness is not feasible and a two-layer
drainage blanket will be required. A 3/8 in. to No. 4
Q (C-2) sieve gravel has an estimated permeability of 8,000 ft/day
k
iA (Cedegren 1989, Table 2.1). The thickness required for
this permeability is
where
5,216
tb 0.652 ft or 7.8 in.
k = permeability of drainage blanket 8,000

i = gradient (excess head divided by length of flow

path) which is rounded to 9 in. for a design thickness. For this
thickness the design permeability would be
A = area of blanket (thickness of blanket × 1.0 ft of
channel width) 16.3 × 16 × 20
kb 6,955 ft/day
design
9/12
For design, the estimated permeability of the trial drain
material is multiplied by a factor of 20 (EM 1110-2-2502)
to provide a reserve and account for errors in the esti- The permeability value of 6,955 ft/day is rounded to
mated versus the actual in-place permeabilities of sands 7,000 ft/day. To check for decrease in permeability
and gravels used in drainage blankets. Since the drainage caused by turbulence, the value of i (1/16 = 0.0625) and
blanket is horizontal, some excess differential head is the effective size (0.3 in.) are used with Figure 6-9 from
required in the blanket to cause flow to the collector EM 1110-2-2502 to obtain a reduction factor. In this
drain. For purposes of the analysis, it is considered that a case, the factor is equal to 0.8 and the reduced
maximum excess differential head of 1.0 ft would be allowed.

C-13
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C-14
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permeability is 0.88 × 8,000 or 7,040 ft/day which is through the wall should be provided with check valves to
greater than the design value of 7,000 ft/day. Therefore, prevent backflow into the drainage system.
a two-layer drainage blanket consisting of 6 in. of filter
sand and 9 in. of 3/8 in. to No. 4 sieve gravel should be 3. Design Example for Trapezoidal Channel
used. Drainage System

(e) Collector pipe. The center collector pipe will a. General. The trapezoidal channel example sec-
have a flow of 32.6 cu ft/day per linear foot of pipe tion is shown in Figure C-10. This example depicts deep
(2 × 16.3 cu ft/day). Assuming manholes located behind alluvial fine sands that could produce large drainage quan-
the walls at 250-ft intervals, the accumulated discharge of tities. A 100-ft-wide channel with a 2-ft-thick concrete
the pipe will be 8,150 cu ft/day (250 ft × 32.6 cu ft/ lining was assumed. The distance to the steady state
day/ft). The pipe size is estimated from the airfield drain- seepage source was estimated to be 625 ft from the center
age nomograph presented in Figure C-9 which requires of the channel using the radius of influence Equa-
flow in cubic feet per second and slope of the pipe. A tion, C-1, described earlier. The head at the source was
flow of 8,150 cu ft/day is equal to 0.09 cu ft/sec. Con- assumed to be at elevation 115 ft, and the head for drain-
sidering a small slope of s = 0.0008 or 0.08 ft/100 ft, a age of the collector pipes into manholes was assumed to
5-in.-diam pipe could be used. However, the minimum be at elevation 101.5 ft at the channel. The permeability
allowed is 6-in. diam. The opening sizes in the collector of the sand was assumed to be 20 × 10-4 or 57.6 ft/day
pipe should be determined using the following criteria. with a 4:1 ratio of horizontal to vertical permeability.

Circular openings: b. Seepage analyses. The SEEP2D program was

used to determine the flow exiting from the silty sand
D50 foundation into the drainage and/or filter layer(s). The
F
> 1.0 (C-5) analysis was performed in the same manner as described
Hole Diameter

Q L Q × L 20.8 × 29 × 20
Slotted Openings: tb
20.8 29 603 >>>> 576

D50 17 21 357 tb 20.9 ft

F
> 1.2 (C-6)
Hole Diameter 36.9 12 443

Place 6-in. minimum thickness gravel layer around collec-

tor pipes. Use gravel having a 50 percent size of 3/8 in. for the U-frame channel in the previous example. The
and use 3/8-in. circular openings in collector pipe. data files are listed in Table C-3 and an abbreviated list-
ing of the tabular results from the analysis is shown in
(3) Inclined drainage blanket. An excess head of Table C-4.
0.5 ft occurs at the inclined drain and the design k value
for a filter blanket thickness of 9.0 in. is: c. Design of drainage system. The flows out of the
foundation that would enter the drainage and/or filter
6.0 × 2.6 × 20 layer(s) are shown in Figure C-11. Collector pipes are
kb 832 ft/day assumed to be located at the center and on each side of
design
0.5 × 0.75
the channel in the drainage blanket. The flow is divided
into segments for each collector pipe as shown in Fig-
The filter material to be used below the base has an esti- ure C-11, and the design permeability is determined for
mated permeability of 1,440 ft/day and should satisfy both the largest Q × L combination using Equation C-3. The
the filter and drainage requirements for the inclined blan- calculations shown below indicate that an open graded
ket. For this low Q and k, the minimum required collec- gravel drainage layer and filter layer would be required.
tor pipe diameter size of 6 in. would be more than
adequate. (1) Drainage blanket. Using Q and L from the larg-
est Q × L value and an excess head of 1.0 ft, the drainage
(4) Manholes. Manholes behind the U-frame wall
would be needed at 250-ft intervals. Outlet drains

C-15
EM 1110-2-2007
30 Apr 95

Figure C-9. Airfield drainage nomograph for computing required size of circular
drain, flowing full

blanket thickness was determined for the coarse to 20.8 × 29 × 20

medium filter sand shown in Figure C-10. The per- kb 24,128 ft/day
design
0.5
meability of the filter sand is assumed to be 0.40 ft/min
(TM 5-818-5, Table 3-4) or 576 ft/day. Using
Equation C-4: Adequate drainage could be obtained using 3/8- to l/2-in.
open graded gravel with k = 30,000 ft/day (Cedegren
The thickness of 20.9 ft is unreasonable and a drainage 1989).
layer and filter layer are needed. The design permeability
from Equation C-3 is:

C-16
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C-17
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Table C-3
Data Files for Trapezoidal Channel Seepage Analysis
File TCHNUI File TCHNUB
100 1 625 30 100 P 1 1 1 115
110 2 625 97 110 P 2 1 1 115
120 3 625 115 113 P 3 0 1 115
130 4 87.5 115 115 A 1 1 1
140 5 75 110 120 P 4 1 2 115
150 6 76.1 107.2 130 P 5 1 2 110
155 7 61.8 101.5 135 P 6 1 2 107.2
160 8 50.6 97 140 P 7 0 2 101.5
170 9 0 97 145 A 1 1 1 101.5
180 10 0 30 150 P 8 1 1 101.5
190 11 50.6 30 160 P 9 0 1 101.5
200 12 87.5 30 170 A 1 1 0
210 13 87.5 97 190 P 10 1 0
220 14 608 30 210 P 11 1 0
230 -1 220 P 12 1 0
240 1 2 F L 7 1 230 P 13 1 0
250 2 3 F L 2 1 240 P 14 0 0
260 3 4 F L 30 1
265 9 8 F L 5 100
270 8 7 F L 1 100
280 7 6 F L 1 100
290 6 5 F L 0 100
300 5 4 F L 1 100
320 9 10 F L 7 1
330 10 11 F L 5 1
340 11 8 F L 7 1
350 11 12 F L 5 1
360 12 13 F L 7 1
370 12 14 F L 29 1
380 14 1 F L 0 1
390 13 4 F L 2 1
400 13 8 F L 5 1
410 13 2 F L 30 1

C-18
 EM 1110-2-2007
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Table C-4
Results of Trapezoidal Channel Seepage Analysis (Continued)
Plane Flow Problem
Trapezoidal Channel, Lined to Midheight of slope, 1V on 2.5H
0 Number of Nodal Points-----------499 0 Number of Diff. Materials--------- 1
0 Number of Elements----------------451 0 Elevation of Datum----------------- 0.000
Material Properties

MAT K1 K2
1 0.576E+02 0.144E+02
Node Point Information
Node BC X Y Flow-Head
Parts of Listing Omitted
375 2 61.80 101.50 101.50
387 1 56.20 99.25 101.50
397 1 50.60 97.00 101.50
408 1 42.17 97.00 101.50
419 1 33.73 97.00 101.50
430 1 25.30 97.00 101.50
441 1 16.87 97.00 101.50
451 1 8.43 97.00 101.50
461 1 .00 97.00 101.50
Nodal Flow and Heads

Node Head Percentage of Available Head Flow

Position of Phreatic Surface
Above On Below X Y
Parts of Listing Omitted
341 0.1028E+3 905%
* 80.62 102.84
353 0.1026E+03 8.2%
* 75.69 102.60
364 0.1019E+03 3.3%
* 62.91 101.94
375 0.1015E+03 0.0% -0.2410E+02
*
387 0.1015E+03 0.0% -0.1276E+02
*
397 0.1015E+03 0.0% -0.1756E+02
*
408 0.1015E+03 0.0% -0.9852E+01
*
419 0.1015E+03 0.0% -0.8252E+01
*
430 0.1015E+03 0.0% -0.7364E+01
*
441 0.1015E+03 0.0% -0.6850E+01
*

C-19
EM 1110-2-2007
30 Apr 95

Table C-4 (Concluded)

Nodal Flow and Heads(Continued)

Node Head Percentage of Available Head Flow

Position of Phreatic Surface
Above On Below X Y
451 * 0.1015E+03 .0% -0.6548E+01

461 * 0.1015E+03 .0% -0.3264E+01

Flow (-) = 9.6552E+01 Flows (+) = 9.6169E+01

Flow (Ave) = 9.6361E+01

(2) Collector pipe. The collector pipe along the edge (3) Filter layer. A filter layer is needed to protect
of the channel will have the maximum computed flow of against migration of the foundation sands into the gravel
53.9 cu ft/day/ft of length (17.0 cu ft/day + 36.9 cu drainage blanket. A medium to coarse sand will satisfy
ft/day). Locating manholes on 500- ft intervals yields an the filter requirements, as shown in Figure C-12.
accumulated discharge of 26,950 cu ft/day or 0.31 cu
ft/sec. Based on Figure C-11 and using a slope of (4) Manholes. Manholes to collect and dispose of
0.10 ft/100 ft, a 9-in. diam pipe would be required. The the upstream drainage would be spaced at about 500-ft
opening sizes in the pipe would need to be 3/8 in. con- intervals along the collector pipe at the toe of the channel
sidering equation B-5 and the 3/8- to 1/2-in. open graded slope. Laterals would be required between the collector
gravel to be used for the drain material. For this opening pipe down the center of the channel and the manholes.
size and drain material, a specified filter gravel would not
be required around the collector pipe as was required in
the previous example.

C-20
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C-21
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C-22
 EM 1110-2-2007
30 Apr 95

Appendix D F = friction factor of the supporting soil (1.5 is sug-

Equations for Continuously gested unless value is known
Reinforced Concrete Pavement
ft = the 7-day tensile strength of the concrete using the
splitting tensile strength; for concrete strengths of
25 MPa (3,000 psi) at 28 days, the value of ft may
The following equations for selecting the design reinforce- be taken as 2 MPa (230 psi)
ment for continuously reinforced highway and airfield
paving were taken from TM 5-825-3, Chapter 5.
ft 0.45(6.5)(1.5) 3,500 230 psi
100ft
P1 (1.3 0.2F ) (D-1)
fs fs = working stress of reinforcing steel, 75 percent of
the tensile yield strength of the steel. This
produces a safety factor of 1.33
100ft
P1 (D-2)
2( fs ∇T nc Es) ∇T = seasonal temperature variation

nc = thermal coefficient of expansion of the concrete

100ft
P1 (D-3)
fs Es = modulus of elasticity of steel

where

P1 = percent of reinforcing steel required in the longi-

tudinal direction

D-1