'.'.|.

fsyihotogical:Physical Knowledge Apirroach ',, SPEDI0''.' I : .,', ', -, Handout

#l

'.

',

''

,.,

The terms used:

Accommodaiions, Strategies, and Modifications are all common terms used in Special
Education today.

*l* Accommodationj

refer to the actual teaghing

suppo
i

that the student

Examples

Q taped books

math charts

I I

oral reports braille writer

I I

preferred seating' adapted keyboard

! additional time I study carrel I specialized software

Ll oraltest
--] amPlified sYstem

.,

'

Modifications refer to 'e ' Modifications

er to meet

are made when the expectations are beyond the of the student. students level of ability. Modifications may be minimal or very complex depending on the student performance. Modifications must be clearly acknowledged in the IEP'

l',

Examples

'second language exemptions

'u withdrawal for specific skills "n include student in same activity but individualizethe expectations and materials ;student is involved in same theme/unit but provide diff-erent task and expectations {:l
.

*L Stfategies

refer to skills or techniques used to assist in learning. Strategies 4re individualized to suit the studqrt learning style and developmental level.

Examples

';,.

t/:

I
,
'

highlighting

rehearsal

f'l U

color coding n memoryJoggers

fl

visual cues

fJ ,number ,:._ri , : -.':._

..il organization/transition "at i.t,

lines I, alghabet strips ,. , :

[
tr

flip chart
window paint

,.

I
''

stencils

".-fl binfjo

dapper .t , '

,., ,,, i,
:.'

jello powder, play doe, seed spelling

Detecting learning problems in your child By Priscilla L. Vail, M'A.T.

4.

sJr*iiiuu and Some childreh have trouble with the mechnnics ol'reading, lvririr*g,

arithmetic.
words. They may It takes them a long time to learn their letter sounds and to recognize sight many beginners' they may have trouble with pencil grip and handvwiting In the manner of today never receive direct reverse their letters Or numerals. Unfortunately, some children all children need this instruction in these eady level mechanical skills. But research shows for their peers need multiinformation. Those who still struggle after instruction that works and muscles' sensory instruction which brings together eyes, ears' fingers,

5.

some children have trouble organizing themselves ira time alld'sl?itfe.

last. These concepts They aren't sure where things belong, what to do first, and what comes "Nexterday" is a long time underlie smooth function in the adult world as well as in childhood. comtng.

iots of kids

have trouble

withthe vocaUutary of time and

space - later' until, whenever, in a

were terms in a foreign while, on time, at two o'clock. Teach these words to your child as if they into your family life langwge,For some children they are. Build the structure of time and space you might give yourself some help, as soon as possible. Since apples don't fall far from trees, too.

6.

Some chilclren mistrnderstand social cues'

turns Children who They don't know how to ask to join a game of to negotiate sharing or taking do well on group projects or in are isolated, or who isolate themselves by their behavior, don't
when r}thsr$ are et team sBart$, ars seldon ele*ted to sla*s offiee, and usually sit homc alOns m&y interfere with birthday perties. The sadness' anger, orfrustration born of being "out" not to mention fun' concentration, memory, and general availability for schoolworh

Are labels helPful or harmful?

to know what was what and who was ready for

lunch.

The same is true for children and schooling. If Martha or Sam has trouble learning letter sounds,: we need to prepare multisensory training. If Joe and Dawn have trouble with readlng comprehension because they have weak receptive lariguagg let's say so, and,target some specific' help. If Jamil goes through math like abuz.zsaw, but can't remember how to spell ,,friend,,, Iet,s

give him scope with numbers and help with spelling. We need to Stop! Look! and Listenl Then we need to use the information we gather to make a good plan.

l,*frels nre cl;u1.,*erflrri lq,hen rlr*y replace a person,s humanify and individuality, but thel, itt'e invRlttnblc rvh*rl {hel' pr"ovidc the precise terminology to decide whs needs,rhft, wher, wh;'. *rrti ho*'. After all, what's to be gained by giving watery broth to a sAtd* read for hearty stew, or clam chowder to someone allergic to fish?
ru,'hcre,

, r f I

Handout on Learning disability SPED 10 Prelims

t..

,i

: valuable today. We need to Stop and give ourselves time and space to understand what's going
on around us.

We need to Look for danger or caution flags to avoid colliding with onrushing trains. We also
need to Listen.

As children grow and vbnture beyond the safety of home, it is as if they are approaching a railroad crossing, and an intersection with school, community and the world. To understand warning signals, yo-u, as a parent, need to Stop! Look! Listen! Many academic difficulties are language based; so the first place to look for red flags is in the
language qystem.,

',

'

,.

,',

'r

'

Eere are six areas:

l.

The age at which a child starts to speak can indicate

thtt child':

r:$nt{iic { st'ith

language'

;'t' '

'

Children who understand and use words easily have figured out that the sounds people make in
conversation represent different things and people in the world: "Ma-Ma, " "cookie, " or "baby, "

First, chilfren begin to understand the language they hear, then they mimic language in return. Most adults take:this for granted, but we must Stop! and appreciate what a complex task the child
is performing.

Some children catch on to words early: For others, language is a hard game or a

difficult system.

Thep children are sending a warning signal.'If spoken language is difficult or unappealing, uzually written language (reading and writing, letters and numbers) will be too.
' . :: r
,

: l.

,Reqepliv-e lpnguage

is

what the child takes in, first thraugh listcrui*g nn{{ lilter
;

,
\.2^ii

lhrough li$tening'unf
+^

;eaAin&
i;L^+L^-,,^,,l^-^,,^^^

Does your ehild abeorb those pieces of family news theyrre not meant to hear: Uncle Ernie's on a binge, or why does Aunt Sophie wear those eyelashes at her age?

rChildrenwhoabsorbsuchinformationcomfortablyaredemonstrat.inggoodreceptive
language skills.

Children who are uninterested in stories, do not follow and remember a story line, or don,t pick up news from conversation are flying a danger flag. They will miss news, explanations,
questions, and concepts now. Later on, the process of reading may either not make sense to them

or may be too difficult. At all ages, we need to Stopl Lookl and Listen! to a child's receptive
language.

3.

j::pft:,ttry::-!.*lr"lr:gg*r: is the vehicle for giving out ideas, questions, emotions, or facts.

In normal development, children practice expressively yhat they have taken in receptively. l []ai"ents lreeci l* t,istcir!
Does your child use pronouns. plurals, and verb tenses correctly? Most children are reasonably accurate by first grade.

The elementary school child who says, "Here are the thingies I branged furTom ani Ij' is telling,' .' ' '" us a lot. Can your child retrieve needed words smoothly? The qhild wtro strains when trying tol ".'
use suchwords as "tnarker," "basketball,"
tt-or"ible findini-r the u,ords I need."

or "peanutbutterl'is, ineffect, saying, l;L.isten!

hiv!,r;

-t'

Does your child keep sounds in conect sequence or do individual sounds or syllables slide

around?
Is it an "elephant" or an "ephelanl"?

''

A "hamburger" or a "hanga-burger"?
A "birthday party" or a "birthparty
day"?

Children who tangle their sound sequences in spontaneo,rs ip."ct, are warning u, th.y will probably have trouble stringing sounds together when trying'to read words, or breaking sounds
apart when trying to spell.
i'

l,ittcr and clttt.ter are r,r'arning signals. Most children can

say what they mean so that others can

understand them. Children who have trouble getting to the point, who litter and clutter their

with distracting, unnecessary information, are telling us their thought processes dont go straight to the target. This diffrcuity will hamper their reading, classroom discussion and.

Psychological and Physical Knowledge Approaches SPED 1O 2nd Handout

'

Not A WaY Out: A WaY ln

Satiafied parents, studento, and teachers know that with tlre Tq]nm Jl,Xrproach Mastery, inclusion isn't a dream or a fad, This system has w*arly 2# years research and development behind it.

t*
<>t

For nearly 20 years now, the Christina School District of Newark, Delaware, has "ieam /dpproach to been. building and evaluating an inclusive classroom model, Mastery OAM). Before the advent of TAM in 1975, students with disabitities were periodically taken from their regular classroom and placed in a resource room-where' along with other children with disabilities, they received individualized instruction for a part of the school daY.
their nondisabled peers throughout the entire school day, there is an average ratio of two nondisabled children to each child with a disability. Back when labeling children was a common practice, our department of special services stressed twa r:l's-l*i.*! gl*ints.

ln TAM classrooms, students with disabilities are educated alongside

administrative purpo.ses oufside of the classroom; and

nondisabted studenfs are to be randomly assrgned in order to prevent the development of non heterogeneous classes."
lnitially, this bold departure from traditional special education classroom models parents of disabled students worried about acceptance. Some laced skepticism. The parents of high-achieving students doubted that their children would receive adequate instruction. TAM now has the support of parents of both disabled and nondisabled students, 'fl feel this program is responsible for my child's improvement in self-esteem and her attitude toward her studies," as one parent of a disabted student put it. A parent of a nondisabled student said that "the individual attention given my son by the teachers in the TAM program has allowed'him to better understand the subjects he is being taught." Today, our district, with more than 20,000 students, has no resource rooms at all. More than 100 TAM classrooms serve students ages 3-21. TAM's integration of children with disabilities into the regular classroom offers-them not a way pr"rt *l-.Seng#[ educatir:n, but a wav in.

2.

A Method for Mainstreaming

Throughout

the past two decades, we have refined the TAM model and

:{Prt}irl"t'H;E

frH.,

fiaa'Ageffi

'

il

F$i *e i

Ei

3e* EFE$;eiE g$E B

giil E*Ei1 T* F' iEllgiiggFtliigggg3l?i$ii

*E

it

V
/

These core practices-plus

combination

of

research and supervision-have

generated a continuing spirit of grovuth and renewal within our district.

.:

Team teaching. Many experts have observed that in successful schools and programs, teachers work collaboratively (Little 1987, Fullan and Miles 1992). ln TAM classrooms, two teachers-one certified in special education, the other in general education-jointly instruct both nondisabled childreri and children with disabilities. A paraprofessional is assigned to gach classroom on a part-time basis. ln addition, related services staff (for example, speiech and langriige pathologists) provide instruction within the classroom.

Learning centers. From the beginning, we knew a one-size-fits-all approach would not work with'TAM: a.teaching method that is effective for some may be ineffective with others (Dunn and Griggs- 1988). For disabled students to succeed in a general

].r small groups to develop skills in writing; thinking, attention to task, and eye-hand
coordination.
,..'..' ,. ,t
't

education setting, their individual learning needs and styles must be addressed. Thus tearning centers play a crucial role in TAM classrooms. Each day, a block of time is set

:' ',. Ego groups. As social-comparison theory (Festinger 1954) and subsequent research
with disabilities in the regular classroom does not, in itself, enhance their self-concepts. ln TAM, a session at the be$inningrof gach school day-called Ego Group-focuses on issues related to self-esteem.

.';
'

One Ego Gro.up activity is "Star of.the Day." Students are given the opportunity to be:the star on a rotqting basis. Teachers encourage students to express positive feelings and perceptions about their classmates. Teachers write on the Star Card all of the comments made about the star, who takes it home for his or her parents to see. This helps reinforce positive traits.

Direct instruction. lt didn't take long for us to ask the extraordinarily complex question: How do we provide quality reading instruction within a general educatron classroom setting to low-achieving students?
.

'

" TAM teachers found, as research

suggests, that whole language and/or conventional basal reading programs are not always effective for low-achieving students (Meyer 1983, Gerste-n anJKeating 1987). The majority of low-achieving students need review, practice, clarity, and systematic feedback (Gersten and Carnine 1986).

Research pointed to direct instruction as an effectlv*r !nstructl*rlai ,,;lrategiy fi::' this group. The expanded use of direct instruction in the basic skills-along with whole

P3iqt cards. One way we create a positive environment in TAM is through the poiirr. Card' First developed by four teachers in our district in 1975, the point Card system gives students the opportunity to earn credits during each period tor behavior and completion of assignments (crow et al. 1g7s). "ppropiirtu
Reward activities are provided based on points earned during the day. Used properly, the Point Card establishes expectations for behavior, givincl pg$ri:,.:i. ti:-,i,-1,6si11ent o,r consistent basis throughout il-re day.
Teachetr cadree. Studies.have demonstrated the value of co!iahcrr;:tivri: r*laticn*!rip:; among teaching professionals (Glickman 1990, Shulman 19S6) The TAM model . includes the development of teacher cadres: a group of trained, experienced TAM teachers who are released from their classroom responsibilities twice a month to work with other teachers in their classrooms.

Teacher cadres seek to provide other TAM teachers with peer assistance aimed at two goals: (1) feedback about instructional skills, and (2) peer dialogue to develop greaterawareness and more reflective decision making (Schon 1g87, Garman 1gg0).

Learning as We Teach
Continuous program evaluation and a powerful staff development program have provided the necessary tools for TAM's acceptance, growth, and renewal.

Fr*greny} evsfrx;;$v***. An innovative program rfteans xittle ufif,::r.,i$ the district can
determine its effects on students,

Hence, research and evaluation became critical to the TAM model. over the past 18 years, we have monitored the achievement gains of disabled and nondisabled students in TAM. And we have regularly conducted attitUde surveys among teachers, parents, and administrators. Repeatedly, we have found the achievement of nondisabled students in TAM to be as good as-and in some grades, significantly higher than-nondisabled students in other general education classes.

The most recent study (Bear and Proctor 1990) reported that on the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills, 3rd grade nondisabled students in TAM classes performed
significantly better than nondisabled students in other general education settings. On the total battery of tests-including math, reading, and language-they averaged 7 normal curye equivalent units more than their peers in regular classes What do teachers like about working in a TAM classroom? "Having been in the district for 21years, I feel that we finally have a program that best serves both the disabled and nondisabled students," said Pat Martin. n t gbg district survey of TAM teachers, attitudes showed that the most frequenilv cited comment was. ,,1., Tau rhoro ic araatar

workshops throughout the school year and during the summer. There, teachers, district staff, and consultants pafticipate as valued partners.

The Proof of Experience

i:ltit iilirjl iliir;:;r,:t){itli r, i}i'llrri;r:rll ri 'ltf,.tt.trt-lir'* r";.ir',\g' ill

;,_:r"Ji;tiliii.l

,, , ,r:r

The TAM model resulted from a sustained effort over a number of years and the
thoughtful integration of proven educational methods.
Its positive effects are measurable in the academic and social success of students both with and without. disabilities, as well as in the attitudes of parents, teachers and administrators.

ln the words of one principal, "l wish all classrooms were TAM classrooms." TAM not only embodies the spirit of inclusion-it also supplies the structure necessary for it tcr
happen.

Psychological and Physical Knowledge Approaches SPED IO 3'd Handout

LNDERSTANDING THE SOCIAL/CULTURAL ASPECT OF THE DISAI}II,IT'\'.

ola'\.

The uniqueness of Vygotsky's approach lies in his understanding of the disability nor as a 'biological impairment having psychological consequences", bui as a socio-cultural developmental phenomenon. Based onthe comprehinsive review of many anthropological and historical studies (including reports authored by inOiviauals with impaired orgur,rj Vygotsky argued that a disability is perceived as an "abnormality" only when and if it lJ'brought into ihe social context. The human brain, eye, ear, or limb are not just physical organs: impairment r:f an1, iii' rhese organs "leads to a restructuring of social relationships and io a clispiacement of ali th., systems pf behavior" (Vygotsky, 1983, p. 63).

Moreover, a defect varies psychologieally in different cultural and social envir*nm*nts: "The blindness of an American farmer's daughter, of a flkrainian landoruler's sgi-1, oia Gsrman duchess, of a Russian peasant, of a Swedish proletarian - these are all psvchoiogicalll, e'tircly different facts" (Vygotsky, 1983, p. 70). Another argument: from the survival point of view, blindness, in the worlcj of irature. is a mr,re severe impairment than deaftress. In the social world, however, deafness is a more severe disability because it prevents mastering of speech, blocks verbal communication, and bars entry to the world of culture. Therefore, being deaf "....disrupts a person's social connections in a more substantial way than blindness" (Vygotsky, 1983, p.7\. Vygotsky poiated out that from the social perspective, the primary problem of a disability is n.t the sensory or neurological impairment itself but its social implications: "Any physical handicap. ... not only alters the child's relationship with the world, but above all affects his interaction wlth people. . .
. . . Any organic defect is revealed as a social abnormality in behavior. trt goes wirhr;r.rt questio' that blindness and deafiress per se are biological factors. Ho*rurr, the teacher must deal not so much with these biological factors by themselves, but rather with their social consequences. When we have before us a blind boy as the object of education, then it is necess ary todeal not sc much with blindness by itself, as with those conflicts which arise for a blinci child upon entering

life" (Vygotsky, 1983, p. 102).

A "primary" disability is an organic impairment due to biological factors.

Within the context o{h! paradigm of the social nature of the disability, Vygotsky introduced t}re core concepts of the "primary disability, "secondary disability" and tnlir interactions.

rlicfar+i^-o

"secondary" disability refers to distortions of higher psychological functions due to social factors. An organic impairment prevents a child frJm rn.asiering some or most social skills and fquring knowledge at a proper rate and in an acceptable form. It is the child's social milieu, however, that modifieJ his/h"r course of developrnent and leads to
J^l^.,-

tt I '' '.t i:' 'r'

gf social qilizu.and.cgnditi-o1s created !r tle society influence the with disabihty child to socio-cultural knowledge, experiences, and opporttrnity to a acquire the "psychological toolsn. Changing negative societal attitudes towards the individuals wift disabilities should be one ofthe goals of special educators (Vygotsky, 1995).
Expgctatiory.11d
&eeess of

$Tf:

Tbe search for positive capacities and qualitative characteristics inltre upbringing (nurturing) of childre'n with disabilities is the "trademark" of Vygotsky's approach. .Hp called for the identification of a disability in a child from a point of strength, not weakness npositivc diffcrpntiation". hc labold this

;..it"-t''l'r;'

With his slashing sarcasm he nicknamed the traditional approach to the individuals with disability an "arithmetical concept of handicap" because of its view of a child with disability the sum of his/her negative characteristics"

as

He suggeste4 for example, the identification of levels of overall independence and needs for support rather than levels of feeblemindedness in children with mental retardation ( see: uMethods of Study a Child with Mental Retardation", Vygotsky, 1995, p. 114).

Sixty years later this approach was employed by the American Association on Mental Retardation in their newest manual (AAMD, 1992).
I

I.INDERSTANIDING DISABILITY AS A DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS. Vygotsky tirelessly pointed to the dynamic nature of disability: he argued that constant changes in the stnrcture and content of a disability take place during development and under the influence of education/remediation. Vygotsky formulated the following basic assertions of child developrnent fully applicable to the child with a disability.

lr /t

Human development is a socio-genetic process carried out in social activities.

Education "leads" development which is the result of social learning through the intemalization of culture and social relationships. Development is not a straight path of quantitative gains and accumulations, but a series qualitative, diatectic tansformations, a complex process of integration and disintegration. The essence and uniqueness of human development resides in its mediation by material insfirments and social signs/language.

]e +.
.E

of

Culture is acquired throughintemalization of social signs starting with language.

Wittlin the context of development, Vygotsky stated, there are two

of psychological

l.

"lower" (natural)

The first class comprises:

elementaryperception,'