TEXTILE WET PROCESSING

THE BASIC OPERATIONS

We can consider the wet processing

sector to have three distinct types of process
included within it. These are represented
along with their aims.

1- PREPARATION PROCESS:
Exists to ensure that the textile has the right
physical and chemical properties to enable it to be
coloured or finished.
EXAMPLE:
Desizing, Singeing, Scouring, Bleaching
etc.

2- COLOURATION PROCESSES:
Exists to provide the textile with colour
either for aesthetic reasons or for some
functional purpose determined by the end-use
of the product.
EXAMPLE:
Dyeing, Printing.

3- FINISHING PROCESSES:
Exists to provide the textile with the
properties that the end-use demands and
which have not already been provided by any
earlier processes.
EXAMPLE:
Water Repellency, Flame Repellency, Anti-
soiling finish etc.

1
 DEFINITION:
Pretreatment means any treatment, which is done before actual (dyeing and
printing) process. Textile pretreatment is the series of cleaning operations.
All impurities which causes adverse effect during dyeing and printing is
removed in pretreatment process.

AIM OF PRE-TREATMENT:
• Conversion of fabric from hydrophobic to hydrophilic state.
• To remove dust, dirt etc from the fabric.
• To achieve the degree of desire whiteness.

CONSTITUENTS OF COTTON:
As discussed earlier pretreatment is the series of cleaning operations. In
pretreatment all the impurities present in cotton are removed. Cotton fiber by
nature contains:
Cellulose 86.8%
Natural Impurities:
Oil and Waxes 0.7%
Pectin’s 1.0%
Carbohydrates 0.5%
Proteins 1.2%
Salt 1.0%
Water 8.5%
Colour Pigments:
Others 2.0%

Except cellulose and water all the impurities are removed in pretreatment.

 IMPURITIES REMOVED DURING PRE-TREATMENT:

Short Fibres ⇒ Singeing
Applied Impurities ⇒ (Size Material) Desizing
Artificial Impurities ⇒ (Oil, Strains, Dust, Dirt) Scouring
Natural Impurities ⇒ (Oil, Wax, Pectin’s, Proteins) Scouring
Colour Pigments ⇒ (Naturally present in cotton) Bleaching

2
PRETREATMENT PROCESS OF COTTON FABRIC:
1- Inspection of grey fabric.
2- Marking of grey fabric.
3- Stitching.
4- Shearing / Cropping.
5- Singeing.
6- Desizing (only for woven fabric)
7- Scouring.
8- Bleaching.
All process discuss in detailed one by one.

1- INSPECTION OF GREY FABRIC:

After receiving the cloth from grey godown, it should be thoroughly
checked and inspected before subjecting it to wet processing. The cloth is
examined for the following:
FABRIC DEFECTS:
Oil, rust, stains, holes, damage selvedge and weaving faults like
floats and read marks etc.
FABRIC SPECIFICATIONS:
Width, length, yarn count, ends and picks per inch and fabric
composition.

2- MARKING OF GREY FABRIC:

Before carrying out any process, marks are made on the material for
identification. For marking special inks are used capable of resisting all
subsequent treatment which the material may have to go undergo.

3- STITCHING:
Small pieces of fabric are stitched together so as to form a
continuous length, which is workable in the subsequent processes. The
stitching must be very secure so that the fabric may run smoothly on
various machines.

4- SHEARING / CROPPING:
Removal of fibres, tufts and loose threads from the surface of
material by cutting them with blades on shearing or cropping machines. This
process is carried out in open width. In this process tufts are not removed
as closed as by singeing.

5- SINGEING:
Singeing is the process in which protruding fibres present on the
surface of the fabric are removed. In order to achieve the smooth surface
which facilitate printing.

6- DESIZING:
Desizing is the process in which size material is removed.

7- SCOURING:
Scouring is the process in which natural as well as artificial
impurities are removed.

3
 8- BLEACHING:
Bleaching is the process in which we remove the colour pigments in
order to achieve the degree of whiteness.

9- MERCERIZATION:
Mercerization is the optional process or in on the customer
requirement. Mercerization is done to achieve the luster, strength, more
absorbent etc.

PRETREATMENT OF WOOL FIBRES:

Sequence of pretreatment of wool fibres a given below:
(i) Scouring.
(ii) Carbonizing (remove the vegetable impurities)
(iii) Bleaching.

PRETREATMENT OF MAN-MADE FIBRES:

(i) Desizing (if size material is applied)
(ii) Scouring.
(iii) Heating Setting. (dimensional stability)

4
 SINGEING

INTRODUCTION:

This is usually the first stage in pre-treatment; consist of destroying

by burning all the tufts, fibers and hairs protruding form the surface of the
material (yarn and fabric). There by giving it smooth and cleaning face.
Singeing is generally done o grey goods before any other treatment. The
fabric is singed on one or both sides by passing either over plates or heated
cylinder or by gas flame.

OBJECTIVES OF SINGEING:
 Surface hairs trape air in the fabric when it is immerged in water. This means
that it takes longer time for water to enter the fabric, singeing therefore
indirectly helps to increase the fabric wet ability.
5
  To prominent the woven structure of the fabric.
 To create smooth surface for printing.
 To prevent firstly or cloudy after dyeing.
 To prevent or minimize the tending of landed fabrics composed of cellulose
and synthetic fiber (mainly polyester) the form pills after abrasion during
usage.

METHODS OF SINEING:
Usually three types of singeing can be carried out:
1) Plate Singeing Machine.
2) Rotary Singing Machine.
3) Gas Singeing Machine.

1) PLATE SINGEING MACHINE:

Plate singeing essentially consist of two covered copper plates thick and
slightly barreled which way be set in the fire clay and heated to bright redness
by a furnace below or by a suitable heating arrangement.
The cloth in open with passes and it contact with the hot plates at a speed
varying between 135 to 225 meter/minute.
The protruding fibers are burnt
during the passage of the cloth through the
machine. However, the fiber ends present in
the interstices of warp and weft are not
signed. Since they are not made assessable
to the action of intense heat. Secondly since
there is actual contact between the cloth
and a hard and hot surface of the metal a
certain amount of luster is produced in the
cloth due to friction.
The main objective to plate singeing is that it may not be possible to
maintain the plates at a uniform temperature and this cause unnerve singeing.

2) ROLLER SINGEING MACHINE:

Some of the defects of plate singeing
machine are over come in roller singeing machine
which way be considered as a modification of the PRE-REQUISITE
formers.
In this machine, the singeing surface is a Fabric should be
rotating cylinder instead of stationary curved completely dry,
plate. It may be made of either copper or cast-iron otherwise yellowish
and provided with the internal fairing system. A colour with heating
fresh not surface of the cylinder is presented into take place on the
the coming fabric by the slow rotating of the fabric.
cylinder.
POST-CARE
In this case, the surface temperature of
Used water to
the cylinder is more uniform at all places. Than in
extinguish the
the case of hot plates. The reaction of the
sparks.
cylinder is in the opposite direction to fabric
6
 movement which rises the naps-ensuring efficient
singeing.
As in plate singeing the fabric end in the interstices are not removed from
the fabric and luster is imported to the fabric to some extent due to the contact
with the hard and not-metal surface in roller singeing.

3) GAS SINGEING MACHINE:

Gas Singeing is intended for single and double face singeing of fabric with
passes through the guide roller. Then in brushing zone which rotate in the sense
opposite to fabric to be singed. The brushes are placed in a special chamber from
which dust and fluf removed form the fabric are exhausted by a fan.

Then the fabric passes over gas burner with ceramics nozzles where
singing is covered out. Coming out of the gas singeing machine a box containing
water. This bath may also contain desizing agent. In this way after singeing we
can desize and batched the fabric.

7
 DESIZING

INTRODUCTION:
The major portion of the size consists of
starch, wax and tallow. All these remain on the
warp yarn even after weaving the cloth. It is
necessary to remove the size from the cloth,
otherwise the hydrophobic of the wax and
tallow constraint the subsequent dyeing and
printing process.
Thus desizing is the term usually restricted to the process of removal of
starch size can be performed efficiently and completely if are taken to degrade
the starch in some way and to convert it to the product with a higher degree of
water solubility. DESIZING
Size has to be solubility and the very steps in the process are as given below:
1) Impregnation the fabric with desizing agent.
2) Allow the time for the agent to the absorbed into the size and degrade or
solubilized it.
3) Wash out the degrade size material.

OBJECTIVES OF DESIZING:
 To prepare the fabric for dyeing and printing by removing the coating of size
from the surface of the fabric.
 The chemical required for desizing depends upon the nature of the size
applied.

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1) OXIDATIVE DESIZING:
Some oxidizing agents, particularly hydrogen peroxide and some per-
sulphate will degrade. Starch will out serious attack of the cellulose as long as
reasonable care is taken with the process.
The fabric is impregnated with hot solution of oxidizer and batched up for
several hours or steamed for 20min at 100-105oC.
Since hydrogen peroxide is used as bleach for cellulosic substrate as a
bleaching process would normally follow desizing but H2O2 is used for desizing
with size of PVA at 9PH. It is reasonable to suppose that the two processes might
be combined into one. This is some time done, particularly where the amount of
size to be removed is hot large. However, a more common practice is to economic
on enzyme desizing process by using condition which are milder the removal of
size is then completed action of the hydrogen per oxide bleach.

2- HYDROLYTIC DESIZING:
Starch are the mixture of two carbohydrates.
(a) Amylose ⇒ a long straight chain.
(b) Amylopectin ⇒ a complex branch.
The thickening power of starch is largely due to the amylopectin. These
compound are in soluble in water but can be solubilized by hydrolysis of these
polymers.
Hydrolysis is generally brought about by using one of the following processes.
(a) Rot or Bacteria Desizing.
(b) Acid Desizing.
(c) Enzymatic Desizing.

C H 2OH
O

C C O H H C
C
C

C C C C
C O C C O C
C
C

Starch contain
CH 2
1:4 Amylose 19% amylose and
C C O C
C C C C 81% amylopectin
C O C C O C 9
 1:4 & 1:6 Amylopectin

(a) ROT DESIZING:

In this process, the grey cloth is dipped in a tank full of water for 24 hours
and a give temperature range of 25-40oC. The bacteria present in water produce
enzyme, which react with starch and converted them into glucose unit, which are
soluble in water and on washing the fabric can easily be removed. This is slow but
economic process.

(b) ACID DESIZING:

The process of acid steeping is also called as grey scouring. In this process
grey cloth is placed in a weak solution(0.5-1%) of H2SO4 for 4-6hours at a
maximum temperature of 40oC starch become soluble in water.

(c) ENZYMATIC DESIZING:

Enzymes are biochemicals which a specific action on only one type of
compound and which bring about a chemical change in it. They are contained with
in all living system and carry out many functions. For Example: Their role in
digestion, the modern agencies used for desizing into three groups.

ENZYMES ORIGIN
(i) Melt Preparation ⇒ Vegetable or cellulose enzyme
(ii) Pancreatic Amylose ⇒ Waste of slaughter house.
(iii) Bacterial Amylose ⇒ Obtain from micro-organism.

The only amylose family of enzyme

Starch (Insoluble)
have an action on starch (Amylose and
Amylopectin) and nothing else these amylose ⇓
converted the starch mixture very rapidly Dextrin (Insoluble)
to soluble dextrin and then more slowly
⇓
convert this to reducing substances and
sugar such as maltose. Soluble Dextrin
These water soluble product could be ⇓
easily washed out in actual practice the grey
Maltose (soluble)
cloth may first be passed through hot water
and then through desizing solution, whose ⇓

Alpha glucose (soluble)

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 concentration, PH and temperature may be
vary according to the type of enzyme.

ENZYMES CONCENTRATION TEMPERATURE PH

Melt Extract 3-20gm/litre 50-60oC 6-7.5
Pancreatic 1-3gm/litre 50-60oC 6.5-7.5
Bacterial 0.5-1gm/litre 60-70oC 5.5-7.5

Enzymes suffer from one disadvantage, that if the condition of

temperature and PH not favorable their desizing activity is destroyed. After
passing fabric from desizing solution fabric is batched for 8-12hours. During this
time starch is converted from insoluble starch to soluble α -glucose and than
simple washing is done.

SCOURING
INTRODUCTION:
Cotton is based on 90% of cellulose and the remaining portion consists of
impurities such as fats, waxes & organic compounds. The main impurities which
must be removed are fats and waxes which are insoluble in water thus decreasing
the water absorbency of fabric raw cotton contains:
Cellulose 86.8%
Natural Impurities:
Oil and Waxes 0.7%
Pectin’s 1.0%
Carbohydrates 0.5%
Proteins 1.2%
Salt 1.0%

Water 8.5%
Colour Pigments:
Others 2.0%
These are three major processes in scouring to remove impurities.
(i) Soaponofication.
(ii) Emulsification.
(iii) Solvent Extraction (Detergency).
These processes are discussed in detail.

(i) SOAPONOFICATION:
Soaponofication is the process in which fats are treated with caustic and
lead the formation of hydrophilic soaps (sodium salts of fatty acids).

CH 2 − OOCH 35 C17 CH 2 OH
| |
CH − OOCH 35 C17 + NaOH → CH − OH + 3 (C17 H 35 COONa )
| |
CH 2 − OOCH 35 C17 CH 2 OH

11
(ii) EMULSIFICATION OR SOAP APPLICATION IN
SCOURING:
Waxes present in the fabric cannot be removed in saponification. These
are esters of higher fatty alcohol & fatty acids similarly mineral oils, lubricants
oil etc cannot be converted into water soluble product by boiling with NaOH
solution. The process of emulsification is used in the scouring of cotton material
containing non-saponifated oil such product can be removed by emulsifier.

Thus the scouring solution should also contain an emulsifying agent in

addition to Sodium hydroxide and wetting agent ordinary soap (washing) is good
emulsifying agent.

(iii) DETERGENCY OR APPLICATION OF DETERGENT IN

SCOURING:
After removing the starch (by desizing) vegetable oil (by saponification)
mineral oil and waxes (by emulsification), the remaining constituents of the size
and other solid particles including dust and dirt particle have to be remove from
the fabric.

When the binding material such a starch, oil and waxes are removed by
process described before the solid particle are loosened from the fabric and try
to leave the fabric under proper condition where once they leave cloth and enter
the scouring solution by dispersing in it. It is likely that get to prevent this
redeposition. Detergent is added to scouring solution. The detergent keep the
solid particles removed from the fabric dispersed or suspend in the solution and
does allow them to settle on other parts of fabric. Soap is a good detergent. A
good detergent is also good wetting agent.

PROCESS OF SCOURING:
For this purpose, a variety of equipment is available to process the
materials in different forms and by batch, semi-continuous and continuous
processes. The ultimate aim of the scouring is to make the material uniformly and
highly absorbent in a cost-effective manner so that there are no difficulties in
the later processes of dyeing, printing and finishing. Some of the more common
batch and continuous scouring machines are described below:

HIGH PRESSURE KIER:

A kier is a cylindrical steel autoclave
that is capable of withstanding high steam
pressures and has a capacity varying
between 1 to 3tons. To eliminate formation
of rust marks kier is coated with a mixture
of lime and sodium silicate that is
periodically renewed.

Composition of the scouring liquor, its

temperature and duration of the treatment
depend upon density of the fabric to be
processed and ultimate degree of absorption
required. A typical recipe, based on the dry

12
weight of the fabric and a liquor ratio of 4:1
is as under:
Sodium Hydroxide 3.0%
Sodium Silicate 0.5%
Wetting Agent 0.1%

At elevated temperatures sodium hydroxide completely breaks down

proteins and pectates that are mainly present in the cuticle layer and converts
these into water-soluble products. The oils and fats are converted into soap and
this in turn emulsifies waxes that are removed by hot washing later.

However, the degraded substances are destroyed in the subsequent

hypochlorite or peroxide bleach. Sodium silicate by virtue of its colloidal nature
serves to keep the reacted impurities suspended and reduces their tendency to
settle on the scoured fabric. The wetting agent that may be a mixture of anionic
and non-ionic surfactants for having synergistic effect reduces surface tension
of the scouring liquor and so helps in its quick penetration into the fibres.
The liquor is rapidly raised to a temperature of 130oC and is kept
circulating for 6 to 8 hours. When scouring is complete the brown colored liquor is
discharged, preferably in stages with addition of hot water into the kier so that
the impurities do not settle and stick to the fibres and are removed more
completely. After washing fabric in the kier, the remaining impurities are
removed in a rope machine.

CONTINUOUS SCOURING:
Kier scouring being a batch process is giving way to the continuous
processes in spite of its producing the most absorbent goods. Continuous scouring
of fabric is carried out both in rope and open-width forms but in form, the fabric
especially the heavier weight and the wider-width types tend to develop erases or
rope marks.

ROPE SCOURING:
The most well known continuous rope scouring and bleaching machine is “J”
box because its storage/steaming chamber has shape of the letter J. For
scouring cloth is impregnated with caustic soda solution in a padder in
concentrations of 30 to 60 g/l with 6 to 10g/l of a wetting agent at 120%pick up.
The padded fabric is heated in a steaming tube to raise its temperature to about
95oC and then plaited into stainless steel heat-insulated J box. The fabrics pile
moves downward under gravity and cloth is removed continuously after a dwell
period of about one hour.

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OPEN WIDTH SCOURING:
Rope scouring in the J box is highly productive and economical as cloth runs
at a speed of 80 to 150 meters/min. However, it is not free from troubles and
warp-wise rope marks are often encountered that cause unsatisfactory dyeing
later. The heavy weight cotton and polyester/cotton blends are especially
susceptible to formation of the rope marks. A J box was developed in which the
fabric is fed, piled, stored and withdrawn in open width.

PAD-ROLL SYSTEM:
The wet desized cloth with 70% pick-
up is padded in open width for a final pick up
of 100% in the scouring liquor containing 40-
60g/l caustic soda and 10-15g/l of a wetting
agent. Sometimes part of caustic soda is
replaced with sodium silicate to obtain a
comparatively better whiteness.
The roll is gradually rotated for about
3 to 4 hours in the enclosed chamber at a
temperature of 95-98oC before washing off
the impurities in a washing range.

14
 BLEACHING

INTRODUCTION:
Cotton wax natural fats and added fatty
matter and other impurities from the fabric are
removed in desizing, and scouring process. But the
natural colouring matter present in cotton is still
present in the cloth. In order to obtain the white
cloth, the normal practice is to decolorize the
natural colouring material present in the fabric.
Thus the final bleaching process is essential for
obtaining a good white and this is done by
bleaching in different ways.
FOR EXAMPLE:
 By using dilute Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution (Bleaching powder) at
Room Temperature.
By using Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)solution at 80-85oC.
By using Sodium Chlorite (NaClO2)solution at boil.
By using some peroxy compounds like perac acid (CH3COOOH)
Each of these characterized by certain advantages and
disadvantages.
An efficient bleaching process must ensure
(i) A pure and permanent white. (ii) Level dyeing properties.
Bleaching agents are mainly classified as follows:
(i) Oxidative Bleaching Agent.
(ii) Reducing Bleaching Agent.

SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE BLEACHING (NaOCl):

Sodium hypochlorite the salt of hypochlorous (HOCl) does not exist in the
solid form but an aqueous solution. The stability of this solution depends on the
temperature, PH, concentration, presence of impurities, storage condition i.e.
whither expose to light or not.
The conditions of the bleaching agent varies according to the result
required, the concentration depends upon the fabric quality, degree of whiteness

15
 required, types of machine and next operation. General PH range is 10-11 or 10.5-
11.5 during bleaching if PH reaches 9 then it is a danger level and at 7 PH the
bleaching is worse and causes extreme damage to the cloth. The PH value is
maintained by adding sod ash or by buffering agent. The suggested temperature
for hypochlorite bleaching is 37-40oC. Generally reaction is accelerated with
increases of temperature water for bleaching should be soft and even hard water
can be used but should be free from Cu++ and Fe++. The time factor depends upon
the following consideration.
(a) Concentration. (b) PH value. (c) Degree of Whiteness.
(d) The type of machine used in bleaching.

Roughly for normal machine the time is 4-12hours. For liquor circulation it
is 2-2.5 hours. If the concentration is increased the time is 1-2hours.

ADVANTAGES:
1- Low chemical cost.
2- Low energy input (heating cost)

DISADVANTAGES:
1- There is no rapid bleaching process possible.
2- The danger of yellowing of the bleached fabric on storage.
3- The danger of chemical damage to the cellulose (temperature & PH).
4- The fibre must be prescoured before bleaching.
5- Degrade most dyes and fluorescent Brighteners.

HYDROGEN PEROXIDE BLEACHING (H2O2):

Hydrogen peroxide has achieved its dominant position as a bleaching agent
because of two factors.
1- It is environmental friendly. (potentially it can decompose into oxygen &
water).
2- It is versatile (it can used hot or cold batch wise and continuous)
Hydrogen peroxide as supplied by the manufacturer is extremely
stable typically, only a 3% loss of activity would result from storage at
40oC for 1 year.
Hydrogen peroxide has a low dissociation constant and a weak acid in
a alkaline solution. The peroxide anion is produced that is the active
bleaching agent.

H2O2 ⇒ H+ + OOH- (Desirable)

H2O2 ⇒ H2O + [O] (Non-Desirable)

A high concentration of hydroxyl ions has an accelerating effect on

the rate of reaction it is necessary to add a stabilizer. The common
stabilizer is Sodium Silicate and it also gives protection against metal
containments.

PROCESSES OF BLEACHING:
Hydrogen peroxide bleaching can be done by Batchwise, Continuous & Semi-
continuous method.

BATCHWISE PROCESS:
16
 The bleaching chemicals are made up in a side tank. This about half filled
with cold water then the surfactant or wetting agent, stabilizer and caustic soda
are added with stirring. Stirring is therefore an absolute necessity any solid
should be predissolved. Finally peroxide is added and if required the
concentration of alkali and peroxide are determined by titration. The transfer
pump is started and the contents of the tank transferred to the machine, before
the temperature is raised to 85-95oC and hold at that temperature for 1-2hours.
For jigger bleaching the chemicals would be added directly to the jig in the order
given.

For Kier bleaching, the transfer pump supplies the water piler and when the
kier is about half full, the steam to the kier heatest is opened to give a
temperature of 40-50oC and loading is completed. The temperature is raised to
65-70oC over 30min and the kier is rested for 30min at this temperature to expel
air. After raising to 80oC and resting again the is closed and the temperature
raised and hold for 1-2hours at 95oC.
NaOH is used in case of H2O2 bleaching. This is used to bring the PH upto
9-10 because H2O2 become active at this PH or oxidation is start at this PH.
Stabilizers are used in bleaching for control the rate of oxidation of H2O2.

CONTINUOUS PROCESS:
Most woven and increasingly, fabrics are bleached with hydrogen peroxide
by continuous method either in rope open width form. Most knitted fabrics
scoured and bleached in a single stage spiral rope processing machines such as
Kusters, Jemco but most woven fabrics are pad steam processed continuously in
three stages desizing, scouring and bleaching. As the weaving stages of such a
rate consume 75% of energy, much attention has been given combining process
stages to reduce energy demand and minimize capital investment in the scope for
combining stages depends upon the grey fabric quality.
Grey cloth is first impregnated with a chemical solution and squeezed for
white fabric 3-4% sodium hydroxide is used. The saturater has a set of squeeze
on the saturation of the cloth. The cloth from saturated passes and into the
steamer. After the cloth is uniformly heated then it goes into washer where it is
thoroughly washed. This process is done at 100oC for 20-25min is steamer.

17
SEMI-CONTINUOUS PROCESS:
The pad batch process consists of padding the grey fabric with a strong
solution of alkali and hydrogen peroxide and storing in batch form for 2-24hours
depending on the storage temperature. In recent years interest in cold bleaching
has increased as it provides a low energy preparation route with low capital
investment, applicable to both woven and knitted fabrics. Cloth can be
impregnated with the bleach solution on standard stainless steel pad mangles (or
even jigs) but for regular production by this method an efficient open width
saturated is recommended, simply because high pick is difficult to achieve on grey
fabric. Cold pad batch bleaching requires:
(i) Control of pad batch concentration and temperature preferably 25-35oC.
(ii) Greater than 80% liquor pick up.
(iii) Fabric storage without uneven drainage or surface drying.
(iv) Washing off at a minimum temperature of 95oC.

MERITS OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE BLEACHING:

1- Environmentally acceptable.
2- Decomposition products are oxygen and water.
3- Excellent storage stability.
4- Compatible with most dyes and FBAs.
5- Give versatile processing (continuous, semi-continuous and batchwise)
6- Produces a stable white fibre with and absorbency.
7- Allows route shortening by combining stage (desize with scour, scour with
bleach and desize with scour and bleach).
8- No need for severe precleaning processes.

STABILIZERS & USES OF STABILIZERS:

High PH and temperature lead to the decomposition of peroxide bleaching
liquor and degradation of cellulose.
The role of the stabilizer is simply to control or regulate these effects the
act as buffers, sequestrates and in special cases, enhancing performance of the
surfactant used in the bleach bath. The sequestering and inactivates metallic
impurities which causes catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide or
precipitation of hydroxides or carbonates. These impurities the most common
being calcium and iron are brought into the bleaching system by the fabric water
supply or the other chemical used.
The most common stabilizing agent have been used are Sodium Silicate. The
stabilize were the sodium polysilicate (effective at lower), The sodium
metasilicate (washed out readily) than the polysilicate also used sodium
orthosilicate and potassium silicate.
Substrates bleached with a silicate stabilizer must be washed off in soft
neutral boiling water in order to prevent problem caused by insoluble silicates or
silic acid. Although sodium silicate is both effective and economical, the problems
associated with silicate deposits on fabric and machinery have made alternative
non-silicate or organic stabilizers.

ADVANTAGES OF SODIUM SILICATE:

1- Good degree of whiteness.
2- Better bleaching of veg. matter and removal of husks.
3- Masking of heavy metal ions.

DISADVANTAGES OF SODIUM SILICATE:

18
 1- Sensitive to water hardness.
2- Handle impairment.
3- Reduction in absorbency.
4- Blocking of pipes.

In order to avoid these disadvantages organic stabilizers together with

magnesium salt 0.2g/litre.

MERCERIZATION

INTRODUCTION:
Mercerization, the treatment
off cotton with a strong caustic
alkaline solution in order to improve
the luster, hard and other properties,
was names after its discoverer, John
Mercer, and has been in use for
sometime. It has been seeing an
increase in application recently.

MERCERIZTION PROCESSING:
If cotton is dipped into a strong alkaline solution such as lithium hydroxide,
the fibres will swell and shrink. If the fibres are placed under tension while in
this swollen state and then rinsed with water, the alkali will be removed and a
permanent silk like luster will result.

EFFECT OF MERCERIZATION:
 Improve Luster.
 Increase ability to absorb dye.
 Improve reaction with a verity of chemicals.
 Improve stability of form.
 Improve strength/elongation.
 Improve smoothness.
 It has been shown that the increase in the luster occurs because of an
effect.
 The cotton fiber do convoluted.
 The cross-sectional shape changes.

In mercerizing 4Ts are important.

1- Twaddle. 2- Temperature.

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 3- Tension. 4- Time.

(1) TWADDLE (Concentration of NaOH):

If the concentration of NaOH is increased above 56oTw improvement in
luster will be attained but if it is decrease below 48o Tw. The quality of luster will
begin to be adversely affected.

(2) TEMPERATURE:
High degree of luster is attained at temperature 18-20oC. As the
temperature is increased the quality of luster is adversely affected but on
lowering the temperature no improvement in the luster is obtained.

(3) TENSION:
For acquiring better luster the material must be stretch to its original
dimension (both in warp and weft direction during mercerization). If the material
is allowed to shrink during mercerizing then quality of luster will be impaired on
the other hand if the material is stretched more no improvement in luster is
achieved.

(4) TIME:
The optimum time for mercerizing is 30-60 seconds by increasing the
duration of time no applicable improvement in the quality of mercerization can be
achieved but if the time limit is less than 30 seconds in the quality of
mercerization will be improved.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL & HOT

MERCERIZATION:

CONVENTIONAL HOT
MERCERIZATION MERCERIZATION
1- SWELLING
Higher Fibre Swelling.
Less Fibre Swelling.
Slow Swelling.
Fast Swelling.

2- RELAXATION

Slow relaxation. Fast relaxation.

3- SHRINKAGE

Higher residual shrinkage. Less residual shrinkage.

4- SURFACE

Surface swelling regularity.

Surface swelling irregularity.

5- FIBER PACKING
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Tight Fibre packing harder handle NaOH
Loose Fibre packing softer handle NaOH
diffusion into yarn obstructed.
diffusion into yarn upholder.

6- LUSTER
A few strongly swollen (round) fibres in Significantly less strongly swollen fibre
the surface of the yarn – interior less throughout the yarn cross-section interior
lustrous. equally lustrous.

METHODS OF MERCERIZING:
There are THREE main methods.
1- Chain Mercerizing.
2- Chain less Mercerizing.
3- Slack Mercerizing.

1- CHAIN MERCERIZING:
In order to make up for the shortenings of the roller mercerizing machine,
a clip stenter is used for post-mercerization treatment, in which a widthwise
tension is applied then most alkali is showered off the fabric kept by through
alkali removal and neutralization using an openwidth washing machine.

2- CHAINLESS MERCERIZATION:
This method of mercerization running fabric through a number of rollers
without the use of a clip stenter is also called roller mercerization. The machine
has a number of stainless rollers, or stainless and rubber rollers of a relatively
large diameter tiered zigzag in close content to each other inside a long trough
with the lower tier designed to submerge in alkaline solution for mercerization.

3- SLACK MERCERIZING:
Slack mercerizing is done by exhaust. The fabric is slacked and treated
with NaOH solution by this process of luster is obtained but absorption is
increased.
Slack mercerizing = Loose mercerizing or mercerizing without tension

EFFECT OF MERCERIZING ON DEAD COTTON:

Immature fibres are finer than mature. They are more convoluted and
contain less internal cellulose. It is their lack of internal structure that causes
than to dye polar some dyes stuffs with exaggerate (more important really is)
this specked appearance other minimize.
The dead cotton problem can only be minimized by mercerizing the fabric
by swelling (become bigger and rounder) the immature fibres and giving tem a
rounder shape and a greater reflectivity. The swelling action opens up the internal
structure of the fiber and makes it easier for dye to gain access and the
increased reflectivity enables. The pale fibre to reflect their surrounding more
mature darker & neighbours.
The overall effect is that we no longer see than or at least not as.

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 OPTICAL BRIGHTENING AGENT
(OBAs)

DEFINITION:
The treatment of textile with fluorescent brightening agent is carried out
to improve the quality of whiteness.

APPLICATION OF OBA:
OBAs are available for application on to all types of substrate.
There are anionic FBAs for application to cellulose in the presence of
added salt. Anionic types for application to nylon or wool in the presence of acid
disperse types for application to polyester and so on.

Most fluorescent brightening agent are applied to cellulosic fibre at

temperature between 10-50oC in quantities varying from 0.05%-0.5% better
exhaustion is obtained 5gm/l common salt are added these brightness applied to
cotton in the manner of direct dyes.
In case of animal fibres quantities of FBAs ranging from 0.25%-2.5% are
applied at 40-50oC with 5% of formic acid(85%) or acetic acid (80%) and similar
instruction would be appropriate for polyamide fibres.
Polyester is brightened by exhaustion either by high temperature method
at 125-130oC or at boil in the presence of carrier. Most of FBAs can also be
applied by pad thermosole method at temperature upto 90oC. At temperature
greater than this some brightness sublime.
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PROPERTIES OF FBA:
In most of the cases, the light fastness of fluorescent brightening agent in
not good on protein and cellulosic fibre it is usually between 1 & 2 and reaches 3 in
a few cases.
Fastness to washing is also only moderate only polyamide fibre there are
selected product with light fastness of 4, on polyester 7 and for acrylontrile 4-5.
When Fluorescent Brightener on wool fade as a result of exposure to light
a pronounced discolouration is frequently developed. It has been suggested that
this is caused by decomposition product of the fluorescent compound.
FBA are no substitute for bleaching but they improve the white and also
allow reduction in the amount of bleaching agent required. Thus diminishing the
risk of degradation of protein. They are frequently applied after bleaching.

FIBRE WHICH FLOURESCENT BRIGHTING APPLIED:

FIBRE FOR FBAs CHEMICAL NATURE OF FBA

(i) Cotton ⇒ Diaminostibene diasalphonic acid.
(ii) Acetate & Tri-acetate ⇒ Diphexyl pyrazoline
(iii) Nylon ⇒ Diphexyl pyrazoline
(iv) Polyester ⇒ Pyrene derivatives & Nephthalimide
(v) Acrylic ⇒ Pyrazoline and Nephthalimide

MODE OF ACTION OF FBAs:

All dye absorb light. Fluorescent dyes re-emit the absorbed energy as light
of longer wave length. An FBAs is a fluorescent chemical that absorb in the ultra-
violet region of the spectrum and emit blue violet light. Typical FBAs absorb light
with a maximum absorption as a wave length between 340 and 380 mm and emit
light with a maximum emission between 425 and 450mm.

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