CE-363

Lecture 6: Runway Length

Dr. Ankit Gupta, Assistant Professor Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Hamirpur

Lecture Outline

Basic Runway Length Corrections to basic runway length

Basic Runway length

Length calculated under the following conditions

No wind is blowing on runway. Aircraft is loaded with full loading capacity. Airport is at sea-level. No wind is blowing on the way to destination. Runway is leveled, i..e zero effective gradient. Standard temperature of 15oC at the airport. Standard temperature exists along the way.

Basic Runway length

Factors affecting the basic runway length

Aircraft characteristics Safety requirements Airport Environment

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Aircraft Characteristics

Power and propulsion system Type of an aircraft

The critical aircraft is defined as being the aircraft type which the airport is intended to serve and which requires the greatest runway length. To identify the critical aircraft, flight manual performance data of a variety of aircraft are examined. Having determined the critical aircraft, the longest distance determined from analyzing both takeoff and landing performance is used

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Aircraft Characteristics

Gross Take-off and landing weights of the aircraft Aerodynamic and Mechanical characteristics

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Safety Requirements

Normal Landing Normal Take-off Stopping in Emergency

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Landing

The aircraft should come to a stop within 60 percent of landing distance assuming that the pilot makes an approach at the proper speed and crosses the threshold of the runway at a height of 15 m. The runway of full strength is to be provided for the entire landing distance

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Landing
Touchdown Point Stop

15m
Runway Threshold

Runway (Full strength) 60% of landing distance

Landing Distance

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Landing: Calculations

Field length (FL) = Landing distance (LD) LD = Stopping distance (SD) / 0.60 Length of full strength runway (FS) = LD

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Take-off

The take-off distance must be, for a specific weight of aircraft, 115 percent of the actual distance the aircraft uses to reach a height of 10.5 m. the distance to reach a height of 10.5 m should be equal to 115 percent of the lift-off distance It requires a clearway at the end of the runway in the direction of take-off. This should not be less than 150 m wide. The upward slope of clearway from the end of the runway shall not exceed 1.25 percent.

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Take-off
10.5m Runway (Full strength) Clearway Clearway >Half this distance

Lift off distance

(115% of distance to 10.5 m height)

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Take-off

Runway (Full+ Strength)

Clearway

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Normal Take-off: Calculations

Field length (FL) = Full strength runway (FS) + Clearway (CW) Take-off distance (TOD) = 1.15 D10.5m Clearway (CW) = 0.5[TOD - 1.15(Lift-off distance, LOD)] Take-off Run (TOR) = TOD - CW Length of full strength runway (FS) = Take-off run (TOR)

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Stopping in Emergency

For the engine failure case, the take-off distance is the before coming actual distance required to reach a height of 10.5 m with no percentage applied. The aircraft accelerates to a speed V1 before finding that the engine has failed and then it starts decelerating to stop at the end. Therefore, it requires a stopway along with a clearway.

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Stopping in Emergency

Stopway is defined as a rectangular paved area at the end of runway in the direction of take-off in which an aircraft can be stopped after an interrupted take-off due to engine failure. Its width is at least equal to the width of runway.

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Stopping in Emergency
Engine Failure
Lift-off Point 10.5 m Stop way

Accelerate to V1 Runway (Full strength) Decelerate - Stop Distance Clearway > Half this Lift off distance Accelerate - Stop Distance Take-off Distance
distance

(distance to 10.5 m)

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Stopping in Emergency

Runway (Full Strength)

Stopway

Clearway
min 150 m

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Stopping in Emergency: calculations

Engine failure, Take-off proceeded case

Field length (FL) = Full strength runway (FS) + Clearway (CW) Take-off distance (TOD) = D10.5m

Clearway (CW) = 0.5[TOD - LOD]

Basic Runway Length: Factors Affecting

Stopping in Emergency: calculations

Engine Failure, take-off aborted case

Field length (FL) = Full strength runway (FS) + Stopway (SW) FL = Accelerate stop distance (DAS)

Basic Runway length

Required runway length

In case of Jet engine

All the three conditions are considered Only first and third cases are considered

In case of Piston engine

The case giving the longest runway length is finally recommended

Basic Runway length

Required runway length

Field distance = max {TOD2, TOD3, DAS, LD} Full strength runway = max {TOR2, TOR3, LD} Stopway = DAS - max {TOR2, TOR3, LD} Clearway = min{(FL - DAS), CL2, CL3} Stopwaymin = 0 Clearwaymin = 0 Clearwaymax = 300 m

Basic Runway length

ICAO Specifications for Field Runway Length

Specify four Declared Distances as

Takeoff run available (TORA) Takeoff Distance available (TODA) {=TORA + Clearway} Accelerate Stop distance available (ASDA) {=TORA + stopway} Landing distance Available (LDA)

Basic Runway length

ICAO Specifications for Field Runway Length

Specify five cases as

I: with no CL and SW and with no displaced threshold the four declared distances are normally equal to the length of runway II: When runway is provided with a CL, TODA will include the CL III: When runway is provided with SW, ASDA will include the length of SW

Basic Runway length

ICAO Specifications for Field Runway Length

Specify five cases as

IV: When runway has a displaced threshold, LDA will be reduced by the distance the threshold is displaced. The displaced threshold at one end affects LDA for approaches made to the threshold. V: When a CL, SW and a displaced threshold is provided

Basic Runway length

ICAO declared distances

Basic Runway length

ICAO declared distances

Basic Runway length

ICAO declared distances

Basic Runway length

Balanced field Concept

In case of piston engine aircraft, the designated engine failure speed is so chosen (by the manufacturer) that the distance required to stop from the point, where Vf was reached, was equal to the distance from the same point to reach specified height of 10.5 m above the runway. This results in the shortest distance of runway

Basic Runway length

Balanced field Concept: In case of turbine powered

aircraft

Basic Runway length

Balanced field Concept

In case of turbine powered aircraft

Case I: V = Vf (V is selected from balanced field concept) SW = CW = Ld - Lb FS = Lb FL = Ld

Basic Runway length

Balanced field Concept

Case II: V < Vf

FS = Lc FL = Le CW = Le - Lc SW = 0

Basic Runway length

Balanced field Concept

In case of turbine powered aircraft

Case III: V > Vf FS = La FL = Lf SW = Lf - La

Basic Runway length

Airport Environment

Atmosphere

Temperature Surface Wind

Location and Condition of Runway

Altitude Runway Gradient

Basic Runway length

Atmosphere

Standard Atmosphere

Temperature at MSL 15oC Pressure at MSL 760mm of Hg Air density 1.225 kg/cu.m

Basic Runway length

Atmosphere

Temperature

Temperature at Mean Sea Level Airport Reference Temperature Standard Temperature at an elevation Monthly mean of average daily temperature for the hottest month of the year Monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature for the same month

Basic Runway length

Temperature

Airport Reference Temperature

AFT = T1 + 1/3 (T2 - T1) T1 = Monthly mean of average daily temperature for the hottest month of the year T2 = Monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature for the same month

Basic Runway length

Temperature

Standard Temperature at an Elevation(in oC)

STE = {Temp at MSL +/ rate of change of temp. x elevation} If h is height above MSL in meters; r is rate of change of temperature with height or depth above / below MSL, in oC / m; and Standard temperature at MSL is 15oC, then

Basic Runway length

Temperature

Standard Temperature at an Elevation(in oC)

STE = (15 +/- h x r) + is taken if temperature is increasing with height or depth and - is taken if temperature is decreasing with height or depth with respect to MSL

Basic Runway length

Temperature

Effect of Temperature

Reduces air density if airport is located within stratosphere I.e. up to 11 km height above MSL for which the temperature decreases with height. Thus reduces drag on aircraft while landing or requires longer distance for producing necessary lift for the aircraft to fly Increases basic runway length, the increase being 1% for every 1oC rise in airport reference temperature above the standard temperature at that elevation

Runway length

Surface Wind

Influence of Wind
V sin W, speed V

TW

HW

Runway length

Surface Wind

Head Wind

Provides breaking during landing, Greater lift during take-off, Reduces runway Length

Runway length

Surface Wind

Tail Wind

Pushes the aircraft if forward direction generation of lift is difficult Increases runway length by a large value

Runway length

Surface Wind

Cross Wind

It has two components, one along the aircraft and other transverse to the aircraft The component along the aircraft may act as head wind or as tail wind The component transverse to the aircraft produces sway in the movement of the aircraft. If it is very high then it may cause eccentric landing or take-off (away from air path)

Basic Runway length contd.

Location and Condition of Runway

Altitude

Affects air density, atmospheric pressure and temperature

The reduction in air density or atmospheric pressure with height above MSL affects the drag and lift forces and subsequent requirement of length of runway

Rate of change of temperature with height

Basic Runway length

Location and Condition of Runway

Altitude

Requires longer runway length, increase being 7% per 300m altitude above MSL

Basic Runway length

Location and Condition of Runway

Runway Gradient

Runway gradients are of two types:

Longitudinal gradient Transverse gradient Quick disposal of water from the pavement surface

Transverse gradient

Basic Runway length

Location and Condition of Runway

Runway Gradient

Longitudinal gradient

If the gradient is steep it may cause pre-mature lift-off or may induce structural defects. It will cause more consumption of energy, therefore, will require longer length of runway to attain the desired ground speed

Basic Runway length

Location and Condition of Runway

Runway Gradient

Effective longitudinal gradient

Average gradient, computed based on difference in maximum and minimum elevation along the runway and divided by the total length of runway.

Runway length to be increased at a rate of 20% for every 1% of the effective gradient. (FAA)

Basic Runway length

Corrections to basic runway length

Elevation correction Temperature correction and Gradient correction These corrections have to be applied in the same sequence as listed above

Basic Runway length

Corrections to basic runway length

Elevation Correction rate

le = 7% per 300m rise above MSL

Temperature Correction rate

lt = 1% for every 1o rise in ART above std. Atmospheric temp at that elevation

Gradient Correction rate

lg = 20% for every 1% of effective gradient

Basic Runway Length

Procedure for calculating corrected length

Elevation correction

Find the required basic field runway length under standard conditions LB Calculate elevation correction rate le and apply it to LB. Add this value to LB. Lets denote it as LE.

Basic Runway length contd.

Procedure for calculating corrected length

Temperature Correction

Calculate airport reference temperature (ART) Calculate standard temperature at the given elevation (ST). Calculate temperature correction rate lt and apply it to LE. Add this value to LE. Lets denote this corrected length as LT.

Basic Runway length contd.

Procedure for calculating corrected length

Check on combined correction for temperature and elevation

Calculate percentage increase in length after the two corrections with respect to LB i.e. (lt + le). It is OK if less than and equal to 35%. If it is more than 35% then model testing has to be carried out

Basic Runway length contd.

Procedure for calculating corrected length

Gradient correction

Calculate effective gradient, if not given. Calculate gradient correction rate lg and apply it to LT. Add this value to LT. This is the final corrected length of runway.