1

Chapter 6 (Integration Techniques)

The integration techniques are developed for using the basic integration formulas (in the table) to obtain
the anti-derivative of more complicated functions.

6-1 Review of integration using basic formulas and substitution:

The basic formulas with algebraic manipulation and substitution technique, which already covered
before, can be used effectively to find the anti-derivatives for many integration problems.

Example: Evaluate dx x
x
5
) ln 1 (
1
+

Solution: Let x u ln = , dx
x
du
1
= , then
C
x
C
u
du u dx x
x
+
+
= +
+
= + = +

6
) ln 1 (
6
) 1 (
) 1 ( ) ln 1 (
1
6 6
5 5


Or,

+
+
= + = + C
x
x d x dx x
x 6
) ln 1 (
ln ) ln 1 ( ) ln 1 (
1
6
5 5


Example: Evaluate dx
x
x

+
4
1


Solution: Let
2
x u = , dx x du 2 = , then

C x C u du
u
dx
x
x
+ = + =
+
=
+


) ( tan
2
1
tan
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2 1 1
2 4


Or, C x
x
x d
dx
x
x
+ =
+
=
+

) ( tan
2
1
) ( 1
) (
2
1
1
2 1
2 2
2
4


Example: Evaluate dx
e
x

1
1
2


Solution: Let
x
e u = , dx e du
x
= , then

C e C u du
u u
dx
e
x
x
+ = + =

) ( sec sec
1
1
1
1
1 1
2 2

2
u + 1
3
u
1
2
+ u u
2 3
u u +
2
u
u u
2
subtract
)
`

u
1 + u
subtract
)
`

1
subtract
)
`

Remainder
Example: Evaluate dx
x x

+
2 / 1 3 / 1
1


Solution: Let
6 / 1
x u = (where 6 is the smallest integer divisible by the denominator 2 and3). Then

dx x du
6 / 5
6
1

=
du u dx
5
6 =

du
u
u
u u
du u
u u
du u
dx
x x

+
=
+
=
+
=
+
1
6
) 1 (
6
) ( ) (
6
1
3
2
5
2 / 1 6 3 / 1 6
5
2 / 1 3 / 1


When the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, long
division is often helpful, i.e.


u
u u
u
u
+
+ =
+ 1
1
1
1
2
3
, then
dx
u
u u du
u
u
]
1
1
1 [ 6
1
6
2
3

+
+ =
+

C u u
u u
+
(

+ + = 1 ln
2 3
6
2 3

[ ] C x x x x + + + =
6 / 1 6 / 1 3 / 1 2 / 1
1 ln 6 6 3 2
















3
Evaluating integrals having quadratic form in the form

+ + ) (
2
c bx ax
dx
and

+ + ) (
2
c bx ax
dx

using completing the square.

Example: Evaluate

+
2
6 5 x x
dx


Solution: Completing the square of ) 6 5 (
2
x x +

] 4 ) 3 [( ] 5 9 ) 3 [( ) 5 6 ( ) 6 5 (
2 2 2 2
= + = + = + x x x x x x


|

\
|

=

=
+
2 2 2
2
3
1
2
1
) 3 ( 4 6 5
x
dx
x
dx
x x
dx

Let
2
) 3 (
=
x
u , dx du
2
1
= , then
C
x
C u
u
du
x x
dx
+

= + =

=
+


)
2
3
( sin sin
1 6 5
1 1
2 2


Example: Evaluate

+ + 5 6 9
2
x x
dx


Solution: Completing the square of ) 5 6 9 (
2
+ + x x

]
9
4
)
3
1
[( 9 ]
9
5
9
1
)
3
1
[( 9 )
9
5
3
2
( 9 ) 5 6 9 (
2 2 2 2
+ + = + + = + + = + + x x x x x x


(

+
+
=
+ +
=
+ +
1
) 9 / 4 (
) 3 / 1 (
4
9
9
1
9
4
)
3
1
(
9
1
5 6 9
2
2
2
x
dx
x
dx
x x
dx

Let
) 3 / 2 (
) 3 / 1 ( +
=
x
u , dx du
2
3
= , then
C
x
C
x
C u
u
du
x x
dx
+
|

\
| +
= +
|

\
| +
= + =
+
=
+ +


2
1 3
tan
6
1
3 / 2
3 / 1
tan
6
1
tan
6
1
1
3
2
4
1
5 6 9
1 1 1
2 2




4
Evaluating integrals in the form dx
c bx ax
e dx

+ +
+
) (
) (
2
and dx
c bx ax
e dx

+ +
+
) (
) (
2
by letting the
numerator is the derivative of the function in the denominator or the function under the
square root. Then use completing the square as before.

Example: Evaluate dx
x x
x

+ +
+
5 6 9
3 2
2


Solution: Since 6 18 ) 5 6 9 (
2
+ = + + x x x
dx
d
, then, let the numerator becomes the derivative of the
denominator, i.e.


9
21
) 6 18 (
9
1
) 27 6 6 18 (
9
1
) 27 18 (
9
1
) 3 2 (
9
9
3 2 + + = + + = + = + = + x x x x x , then



+ +
+
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
5 6 9
9
21
5 6 9
6 18
9
1
5 6 9
3 2
2 2 2
x x
dx
dx
x x
x
dx
x x
x


The fist integration in the right hand side is in the form ) ( ln
) (
) (
x f dx
x f
x f
=

, then
5 6 9 ln
9
1
5 6 9
6 18
9
1
2
2
+ + =
+ +
+

x x dx
x x
x


The second integration in the right hand side can be obtained by completing the square as the
previous example, i.e.

)
2
1 3
( tan )
6
1
)(
9
21
(
5 6 9
9
21
1
2
+
=
+ +

x
x x
dx
.

Then

C
x
x x dx
x x
x
+
+
+ + + =
+ +
+

)
2
1 3
( tan )
6
1
)(
9
21
( 5 6 9 ln
9
1
5 6 9
3 2
1 2
2









5
Example: Evaluate dx
x x
x

+ +
+
5 6 9
3 2
2

Solution:

+ +
+
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
5 6 9
9
21
5 6 9
6 18
9
1
5 6 9
3 2
2 2
2
x x
dx
dx
x x
x
dx
x x
x


The fist integration in the right hand side is in the form ) ( 2
) (
) (
x f dx
x f
x f
=

, then

5 6 9 ) 2 )(
9
1
(
5 6 9
6 18
9
1
2
2
+ + =
+ +
+

x x dx
x x
x


The second integration can be obtained by completing the square as before



+
|

\
| +
=
+ +
=
+ +
1
3 / 2
3 / 1
2
3
9
4
)
3
1
(
5 6 9
2
2
2
x
dx
x
dx
x x
dx

Let
) 3 / 2 (
) 3 / 1 ( +
=
x
u , dx du
2
3
= , then



+
=
+ + 1 5 6 9
2 2
u
du
x x
dx
in which we can use trigonometric substitution (Later)

)
) 3 / 2 (
) 3 / 1 (
) 3 / 2 (
) 3 / 1 (
1 ln( ) 1 ln(
1 5 6 9
2
2
2 2
+
+
|
|

\
| +
+ = + + =
+
=
+ +

x x
u u
u
du
x x
dx


C
x x
x x dx
x x
x
+
+
+
|
|

\
| +
+ + + + =
+ +
+

)
) 3 / 2 (
) 3 / 1 (
) 3 / 2 (
) 3 / 1 (
1 ln(
9
21
5 6 9 ) 2 )(
9
1
(
5 6 9
3 2
2
2
2












6
6-2 Integration by Parts:

We have observed that every differentiation rule gives rise to corresponding integration rule.

So, let ) (x u and ) (x v are differentiable functions, then the product rule is:

dx
x du
x v
dx
x dv
x u x v x u
dx
d ) (
) (
) (
) ( )] ( ) ( [ + =

Integration both sides with respect to x of this equation gives us

dx
dx
x du
x v dx
dx
x dv
x u dx x v x u
dx
d ) (
) (
) (
) ( )] ( ) ( [

+ =

Since dx
dx
du
du = and dx
dx
dv
dv = then, after rearranging, we will have

) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( x du x v x v x u x dv x u

= == =

Which is called Integration by parts formula.


Then integration by parts formula is given by




This formula expresses one integral

dv u in terms of a second integral

du v which should be easier
than the first one.

Example: Evaluate

dx x ln

Solution: Let x u ln = and dx dv = , then

Differentiate Integrate
dx
x
du
1
= x v = , then

C x x x dx
x
x x x dx x + = =

ln
1
ln ln



= == = du v uv dv u

3 2 1
given
43 42 1
simpler
7
Example: Evaluate

dx x
1
sin
Solution: Let x u
1
sin

= and dx dv = , then

Differentiate Integrate
dx
x
du
2
1
1

= x v = , then
C x x x dx
x
x
x x dx
x
x
x x dx x + + =

+ =

=


2 1
2
1
2
1 1
1 sin
1
2
2
1
sin
1
sin sin

Example: Evaluate

dx x x sin

Solution: Let x u = and dx x dv sin = , then


Differentiate Integrate
dx du = x v cos = , then

C x x x dx x x x dx x x + + = =

sin cos cos cos sin

If we let x u sin = == = and dx x dv = == = , then

Differentiate Integrate
dx x du cos = == =
2
2
x
v = == = , then


== == == == dx x x x x dx x x cos
2
1
sin
2
1
sin
2 2


The new integration is worse than the integral we started with. So if the new integral is much more
complicated than the original one, go back and set u and dv equal to something else so that you end up
with an easier integral to solve.









8
Example: Evaluate

dx x x sin
2

Solution: Let
2
x u = and dx x dv sin =

Differentiate Integrate

dx x du 2 = x v cos = , then

+ = = xdx x x x dx x x x x dx x x cos 2 cos ) cos 2 ( ) cos ( sin
2 2 2

The integration in the right hand side

dx x xcos can be evaluated using again integration by parts by

letting:
x u = and dx x dv cos =

Differentiate Integrate
dx du = x v sin =

x x x dx x x x dx x x cos sin sin sin cos + = =

, then
C x x x x x dx x x + + + =

cos 2 sin 2 cos sin

2 2

Again, if we let x u sin = and dx x dv
2
= , the second integral becomes worse.

Example: Evaluate

dx e x
x 2

Solution: Let
2
x u = and dx e dv
x
= , then

Differentiate Integrate
xdx du 2 =
x
e v = , then


= dx xe e x dx e x
x x x
2
2 2

The integration in the right hand side

dx xe
x
can be evaluated using again integration by parts by
letting:
x u = and dx e dv
x
= , then

Differentiate Integrate
dx du =
x
e v = , then


= =
x x x x x
e xe dx e xe dx xe , then
C e xe e x dx e x
x x x x
+ + =

2 2
2 2


Q. Prove the reduction formula


= dx e x n e x dx e x
x n x n x n 1
, for any positive n
9
Example: Evaluate

dx x e
x
3 sin
2


Solution: Let
x
e u
2
= and dx x dv 3 sin = , then

Differentiate Integrate
dx e du
x 2
2 = x v 3 cos
3
1
= , then

= dx x e x e dx x e
x x x
3 cos )
3
2
( 3 cos
3
1
3 sin
2 2 2


Integration by parts again for the integration in the right hand side of the last equation, we have

Let
x
e u
2
= and dx x dv 3 cos = , then

Differentiate Integrate
dx e du
x 2
2 = x v 3 sin
3
1
= , then


+

= ] 3 sin
3
2
3 sin
3
1
[
3
2
3 cos
3
1
3 sin
2 2 2 2
xdx e x e x e dx x e
x x x x


Observe that the last integral is the integral that we started with. If the original integral is I then

I x e x e I
x x
9
4
3 sin
9
2
3 cos
3
1
2 2
+

=
C x e x e I
x x
+ +

= + 3 sin
9
2
3 cos
3
1
)
9
4
1 (
2 2


Then

C x e x e C x e x e I
x x x x
+ + = + +

= 3 sin
13
2
3 cos
13
3
] 3 sin
9
2
3 cos
3
1
[
13
9
2 2 2 2









10
Note that: The integration by parts can be applied for definite integrals as









Example: Evaluate

2
1
3
ln dx x x
Solution: let x u ln = and dx x dv
3
=

Differentiate Integrate
dx
x
du
1
=
4
4
1
x v = , then

[ ] [ ]
2
1
4 4 4
2
1
4
2
1
4
2
1
3
16
1
1 ln ) 1 ( 2 ln ) 2 (
4
1 1
)
4
1
( ln
4
1
ln x dx
x
x x x dx x x =
(

=


[ ] [ ]
16
15
2 ln
4
16
) 1 ( ) 2 (
16
1
0 2 ln ) 2 (
4
1
4 4 4
= =

16
15
2 ln 2 =



















[ ]

=
b
a
b
a
b
a
du v uv dv u

11
6-3 Trigonometric Techniques of Integration:

Integration of trigonometric function

C x dx x + =

cos sin
C x dx x + =

sin cos
C x C x dx
x
x
dx x + = + = =

sec ln cos ln
cos
sin
tan
C x dx
x
x
dx x + = =

sin ln
sin
cos
cot
C x x dx
x x
x x x
dx
x x
x x
x dx x + + =
+
+
=
+
+
=

tan sec ln
tan sec
tan sec sec
tan sec
tan sec
sec sec
2

C x x dx
x x
x x x
dx
x x
x x
x dx x + + =
+
+
=
+
+
=

cot csc ln
cot csc
cot csc csc
cot csc
cot csc
csc csc
2


Integration of squaring the trigonometric functions:

To evaluate these integrals, we need identities

1 cos sin
2 2
= + x x , x x
2 2
sec 1 tan = + , x x
2 2
csc cot 1 = +
2
2 cos 1
sin
2
x
x

= ,
2
2 cos 1
cos
2
x
x
+
=

C
x
x dx x dx x + = =

]
2
2 sin
[
2
1
) 2 cos 1 (
2
1
sin
2

C
x
x dx x dx x + + = + =

]
2
2 sin
[
2
1
) 2 cos 1 (
2
1
cos
2

C x x dx x dx x + = =

tan ) 1 (sec tan
2 2

C x x dx x dx x + = =

cot ) 1 (csc cot
2 2

C x dx x + =

tan sec
2

C x dx x + =

cot csc
2








12
Integration in the form

dx x x
n m
cos sin
a- If m or n is an odd positive integer
Isolate one factor of the odd number and then use the identity 1 cos sin
2 2
= + x x

Example: Evaluate

dx x x
4 3
cos sin
Solution: ) (cos cos ) cos 1 ( sin cos sin cos sin
4 2 4 2 4 3

= = x d x x dx x x x dx x x
C
x x
x d x x + = =

)
7
cos
5
cos
( ) (cos ) cos (cos
7 5
6 4


Example: Evaluate

dx x x
5
cos sin
Solution: ) (sin ) sin 1 ( sin cos cos sin cos sin
2 2 4 5
x d x x dx x x x dx x x

= =

+ = + = ) (sin ) sin sin 2 (sin ) (sin ) sin sin 2 1 ( sin
2 / 9 2 / 5 2 / 1 4 2
x d x x x x d x x x
C x x x + + =
2 / 11 2 / 7 2 / 3
sin
11
2
sin
7
4
sin
3
2


b- If m and n are both even positive integer
Use the half-angle formula
2
2 cos 1
sin
2
x
x

= ,
2
2 cos 1
cos
2
x
x
+
= to reduce the powers
in the integrand.

Example: Evaluate

dx x
4
cos
Solution:

+ + =
|

\
|
+
= = dx x x dx
x
dx x dx x ) 2 cos 2 cos 2 1 (
4
1
2
2 cos 1
) (cos cos
2
2
2 2 4

C
x
x
x
x dx x x + + + + = + + + =

)]
4
4 sin
(
2
1
2
2 sin
2 [
4
1
)] 4 cos 1 (
2
1
2 cos 2 1 [
4
1
C x x x + + + = 4 sin
32
1
2 sin
4
1
8
3


Example: Evaluate

dx x x
2 2
sin cos
Solution: dx x dx
x x
dx x x ) 2 cos 1 (
4
1
2
2 cos 1
2
2 cos 1
sin cos
2 2 2

=
|

\
|
|

\
| +
=
C
x
x C
x
x x dx x +
(

= +
(

+ = + =

4
4 sin
8
1
)
4
4 sin
(
2
1
4
1
] ) 4 cos 1 (
2
1
1 [
4
1

13
Integration in the form

dx x x
n m
sec tan
a- If m is an odd positive integer
Isolate one factor of ( x x tan sec ) and then replace any ( x
2
tan ) by the identity
1 sec tan
2 2
= x x
Example: Evaluate

dx x x
3 3
sec tan
Solution:

= = ) (sec sec tan ) tan (sec sec tan sec tan
2 2 2 2 3 3
x d x x dx x x x x dx x x
C
x x
x d x x x d x x + = = =

3
sec
5
sec
) (sec ) sec (sec ) (sec sec ) 1 (sec
3 5
2 4 2 2

b- If n is an even positive integer
Isolate one factor of ( x
2
sec ) and then replace any ( x
2
sec ) by the identity
1 tan sec
2 2
+ = x x

Example: Evaluate

dx x x
4 2
sec tan
Solution:

+ = = ) (tan ) 1 (tan tan ) (sec sec tan sec tan
2 2 2 2 2 4 2
x d x x dx x x x dx x x
C
x x
x d x x + + = + =

3
tan
5
tan
) (tan ) tan tan
3 5
2 4


c- If m is an even positive integer and n is an odd integer
Replace any factors of ( x
2
tan ) with ( 1 sec
2
x ) and then use the reduction formula for

= xdx
n
n
x
n
dx x
n n n 2 2
sec
1
2
tan sec
1
1
sec

Example: Evaluate

dx x x
3 2
sec tan
Solution: dx x x dx x x dx x x

= = ) sec (sec sec ) 1 (sec sec tan
3 5 3 2 3 2

= xdx x x dx x
3 3 5
sec
1 5
2 5
tan sec
1 5
1
sec Q

= + = xdx x x dx x xdx x x dx x x
3 3 3 3 3 3 2
sec
4
1
tan sec
4
1
sec sec
4
3
tan sec
4
1
sec tan
(

xdx x x x x sec
2
1
tan sec
1 3
1
4
1
tan sec
4
1
3

[ ] C x x x x x x + + + = tan sec ln tan sec
8
1
tan sec
4
1
3

14

x
2
2
4 x
The proof of the previous reduction formula suing integration by parts:
Let
2
sec

=
n
u and xdx dv
2
sec =

Differentiate Integrate
xdx x x n du
n
tan sec sec ) 2 (
3
= x v tan = , then
dx x x n x x dx x
n
n n
2
2 2
sec tan ) 2 ( tan sec sec

=
dx x x n x x
n
n
2
2 2
sec ) 1 (sec ) 2 ( tan sec

=
dx x x n x x
n n n

= ) sec (sec ) 2 ( tan sec
2 2

dx x n x x dx x n
n n n


+ =
2 2
sec ) 2 ( tan sec sec ) 1 (
dx x
n
n
x x
n
dx x
n n n

=
2 2
sec
1
) 2 (
tan sec
1
1
sec

Trigonometric substitution
This method is effective if the integrands contain a term in the form

2 2
x a ,
2 2
x a + ,
2 2
a x , for 0 > a
a) The integrand contains a term in the form
2 2
x a
We can eliminate the square root by
Let sin a x = , for
2 2

cos sin 1 sin
2 2 2 2 2 2
a a a a x a = = =
Since 0 cos , for
2 2

Example: Evaluate dx
x x

2 2
4
1

Solution: Let sin 2 = x for
2 2

, then d dx cos 2 =

d d dx
x x
) cos 2 (
cos 2
1
sin 4
1
) cos 2 (
sin 4 4 sin 4
1
4
1
2
2 2 2 2

=

C
x
x
C d d +

= + = = =

2
2
2
4
4
1
cot
4
1
csc
4
1
sin 4
1

Q. Prove that C x a
a
x
a
x a
dx x a +
(

+ =

2 2
2
1
2
2 2
sin
2

15

x
2
9 x +
3
b) The integrand contains a term in the form
2 2
x a +

We can eliminate the square root by
Let tan a x = , for
2 2

< <
sec tan 1 tan
2 2 2 2 2 2
a a a a x a = + = + = +
Since 0 sec , for
2 2

< <
Example: Evaluate dx
x

+
2
9
1

Solution: Let tan 3 = x , for
2 2

< < , then d dx

2
sec 3 =

d d dx
x
) sec 3 (
sec 3
1
) sec 3 (
tan 9 9
1
9
1
2 2
2 2

=
+
=
+

C
x x
C d + +
+
= + + = =

3 3
9
ln tan sec ln sec
2


Q. Prove that C
a
x
a
x a a
x a
x
dx x a +
(
(

+
+
+ + = +

2 2 2
2 2 2 2
ln
2 2


c) The integrand contains a term in the form
2 2
a x

We can eliminate the square root by
Let sec a x = , for )]
2
( or )
2
0 [

< <
tan tan sec
2 2 2 2 2 2
a a a a a x = = =
Since tan is positive and negative, for ]
2
( or )
2
0 [

< <







16

x
25
2
x
5
Example: Evaluate dx
x
x

25
2

Solution : Let sec 5 = x , for )
2
0 [

< , where we chose the first half of the domain, then
d dx tan sec 5 =

d dx
x
x
) tan sec 5 (
sec 5
25 sec 25 25
2 2


=

+ = = = C d d ] [tan 5 ) 1 (sec 5 tan 5
2 2

C
x x
+
(
(

=

5
sec
5
25
5
1
2


Q. Prove that C
a
x
a
a x a
a x
x
dx a x +
(
(

2 2 2
2 2 2 2
ln
2 2



Problems using trigonometric substitution:

Example: Find

+
2 2
) 1 (x
dx

Solution: Let tan = x , then d dx
2
sec =
Then C d
d d
x
dx
+ + = = =
+
=
+

]
2
2 sin
[
2
1
cos
sec
sec
) 1 (tan
sec
) 1 (
2
4
2
2 2
2
2 2

17
6-4 Integration of Rational Functions Using Partial Fractions:

The rational function
) (
) (
) (
x g
x h
x f = , where ) (x h , ) (x g are polynomials, can be decomposed into a sum
of simpler terms by the method called Partial Fractions as follows:

If ) (x f is proper, that is the deg( ) (x h ) < deg( ) (x g ), then ) (x f can be expressed as a sum
of simpler fractions.

If ) (x f is improper, that is the deg( ) (x h ) > deg( ) (x g ), then we must apply first long
division until the remainder ) (x R is obtained such that deg( ) (x R ) < deg( ) (x g ), i.e. ) (x f
will be in the form

) (
) (
) ( ) (
x g
x R
x p x f + =

Factors the denominator ) (x g as a product of linear factors ) ( b ax + and irreducible
quadratic factors (quadratic factors that have no real factorization) ) (
2
c bx ax + + .

Express the proper rational function
) (
) (
x g
x R
as sums of partial fractions.

Case I: Linear factors

If ) (x g has linear factors in the form ) ( b ax + , then

) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) )( (
) (
) (
2 2
2
1 1
1
2 2 1 1 n n
n
n n
b x a
c
b x a
c
b x a
c
b x a b x a b x a
x R
x f
+
+ +
+
+
+
=
+ + +
= L
L


Example: Evaluate dx
x x
x x

3
2
2 7 3

Solution: Rewrite the integrand using partial fractions


) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 (
2 7 3 2 7 3
2
3
2
+
+

+ =
+

=

x
C
x
B
x
A
x x x
x x
x x
x x


Multiply both sides by the denominator ) 1 )( 1 ( + x x x , we get

) 1 )( ( ) 1 )( ( ) 1 )( 1 ( 2 7 3
2
+ + + + = x x C x x B x x A x x
18
subtract
x x x
x x x
16 4 2
5 15 4 2
2 3
2 3

+
)
`

8 2
2
x x
x 2
5 + + x ) (x R
8 2
5
2
8 2
5 15 4 2
2 2
2 3

+
+ =

+
x x
x
x
x x
x x x
Since the two sides are identical for all x , then by taking 0 = x , 1 = x , and 1 = x which will
make two terms of the right side zero ,we get

Taking 0 = x ) 1 )( 1 ( 2 = A 2 = A
Taking 1 = x ) 2 )( 1 ( 6 B = 3 = B
Taking 1 = x ) 2 )( 1 ( 8 = C 4 = C

Then c x x x dx
x x x
dx
x x
x x
+ + + =
(

+
+

1 ln 4 1 ln 3 ln 2
) 1 (
4
) 1 (
3 2 2 7 3
3
2


Example: Evaluate dx
x x
x x x

+
8 2
5 15 4 2
2
2 3

Solution: Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, then
we need long division





) 2 )( 4 (
5
2
+
+
+ =
x x
x
x
Then the proper function can be expressed as

2 4 ) 2 )( 4 (
5
+
+

=
+
+
x
B
x
A
x x
x


Multiply both sides by the denominator ) 2 )( 4 ( + x x , we get

) 4 ( ) 2 ( 5 + + = + x B x A x

The two sides are identical for all x , then

Taking 2 = x ) 6 ( 3 = B
2
1
= B
Taking 4 = x ) 6 ( 9 A =
2
3
= A

dx
x x
x dx
x x
x x x
(

\
|
+

\
|

+ =

+
2
1
2
1
4
1
2
3
2
8 2
5 15 4 2
2
2 3

c x x x + + + = 2 ln
2
1
4 ln
2
3
2

19
Example: Evaluate dx
e
x
+ 1
1

Solution: By letting
x
e u + =1 , then dx e du
x
=
Then dx
u u
dx
u u
dx
e
x
]
1
1
1
[
) 1 (
1
1
1

=
+



C
e
e
C
u
u
C u u dx
e
x
x
x
+
+
= +

= + =
+

)
1
ln( )
1
ln( ) ln( ) 1 ln(
1
1


Case II: Repeated linear factors

If ) (x g has repeated linear factors in the form
n
b ax ) ( + , then

L L L
L L
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+ =
+
=
n
n
n
b ax
c
b ax
c
b ax
c
b ax
x R
x f
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
2
2 1

Example: Evaluate dx
x x x
x x

+ +
+ +
2 3
2
2
6 20 5

Solution: Rewrite the integrand using partial fractions

2 2
2
2 3
2
) 1 (
) 1 (
) 1 (
6 20 5
2
6 20 5
+
+
+
+ =
+
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
x
C
x
B
x
A
x x
x x
x x x
x x

Multiply both sides by the denominator
2
) 1 ( + x x , we get

) ( ) 1 )( ( ) 1 ( 6 20 5
2 2
x C x x B x A x x + + + + = + +

The two sides are identical for all x , then

Taking 0 = x
2
) 1 ( 6 A = 6 = A
Taking 1 = x ) 1 ( 6 20 5 = + C 9 = C

To find B, Substitute any convenient value for x , as 1 = x

) 1 ( 9 ) 2 )( 1 ( ) 2 ( 6 6 20 5
2
+ + = + + B 1 = B

Then dx
x
x x
dx
x x x
x x

(

+
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
2 2 3
2
) 1 (
9
) 1 (
1 6
2
6 20 5

c x x x + + + =
1
) 1 ( 9 1 ln ln 6

20
Case III: Irreducible quadratic form:

If ) (x g has irreducible quadratic factors in the form ) (
2
c bx ax + + , then

L L
L L
+
+ +
+
+ =
+ +
=
) ( ) (
) (
) (
2 2
c bx ax
B Ax
c bx ax
x R
x f

Example: Evaluate dx
x x x
x x

+ + +
+ +
) 5 2 )( 2 (
2 6 5
2
2

Solution: Rewrite the integrand using partial fractions
) 5 2 (
) 2 (
) 5 2 )( 2 (
2 6 5
2 2
2
+ +
+
+
+
=
+ + +
+ +
x x
C Bx
x
A
x x x
x x


Multiply both sides by the denominator ) 5 2 )( 2 (
2
+ + + x x x , we get

) 2 )( ( ) 5 2 ( 2 6 5
2 2
+ + + + + = + + x C Bx x x A x x
Taking 2 = x ) 5 4 4 ( 2 12 20 + = + A 2 = A

Matching up the coefficients of like powers of x , w get
Coefficient of
1
x C B A + + = 2 2 6 C B + = 2 2 (1)
Coefficient of
0
x C A 2 5 2 + = (2)

Solving (1) and (2) we get 3 = B , 4 = C , then

dx
x x
x
x
dx
x x x
x x
(

+ +

+
+
=
+ + +
+ +
5 2
4 3
2
2
) 5 2 )( 2 (
2 6 5
2 2
2

dx
x x
x
x dx
x x x
x x
(

+ +

+ + =
+ + +
+ +
5 2
4 3
2 ln 2
) 5 2 )( 2 (
2 6 5
2 2
2


Let dx
x x
x
I
(

+ +

=
5 2
4 3
2
, making the nominator is the derivative of the denominator
) 2 2 ( + x , i.e.
7 ) 2 2 (
2
3
)
3
14
2 2 (
2
3
)
3
8
2 2 2 (
2
3
)
3
8
2 (
2
3
)
3
4
( 3 4 3 + = + = + = = = x x x x x x

Then dx
x x
x x dx
x x
dx
x x
x
I

+ +
+ + =
+ +

+
+ +
+
=
5 2
7
5 2 ln
2
3
5 2
7
5 2
2 2
2
3
2
2
2 2


21
The last integral can be obtained using completing the square, i.e

|

\
| +
=
+ +
=
+ +

2
1
tan
2
7
4 ) 1 (
7
5 2
7
1
2 2
x
dx
x
dx
x x

Then c
x
x x x dx
x x x
x x
+
|

\
| +
+ + + + + =
+ + +
+ +

2
1
tan
2
7
) 5 2 ( ln
2
3
2 ln 2
) 5 2 )( 2 (
2 6 5
1 2
2
2


Case IV: Repeated irreducible quadratic form:

If ) (x g has repeated irreducible quadratic factors in the form
n
c bx ax ) (
2
+ + , then

L L L
L L
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
+ =
+ +
=
n
n n
n
c bx ax
B x A
c bx ax
B x A
c bx ax
B x A
c bx ax
x R
x f
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) (
) (
2 2 2
2 2
2
1 1
2


Example: Evaluate dx
x x
x x x

+

2 2
3 2
) 1 (
2 1

Solution: Rewrite the integrand using partial fractions

2 2
2 2
2
1 1
2 2
3 2
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 (
2 1
+
+
+
+
+
+ =
+

x
C x B
x
C x B
x
A
x x
x x x

Multiply both sides by the denominator
2 2
) 1 ( + x x , we get

) )( ( ) 1 )( )( ( ) 1 ( 2 1
2 2
2
1 1
2 2 3 2
x C x B x x C x B x A x x x + + + + + + =

Matching up the coefficients of like powers of x , w get

1 = A , 1
1
= B , 1
1
= C , 1
2
= B , 0
2
= C , then

dx
x
x
x
x
x
dx
x x
x x x

(

+
+
+
+
=
+

2 2 2 2 2
3 2
) 1 ( ) 1 (
1 1
) 1 (
2 1



+
+
+

+
=
2 2
2
2 2
) 1 (
2
1
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
2
2
1 1
x
dx
dx
x
dx
x
x
dx
x

c x x x x + + + =
1 2 1 2
) 1 (
2
1
tan 1 ln
2
1
ln



22
Example: dx
x x
x

+ +

2 2
) 2 2 (
2

Solution: Make the denominator to be the derivative of the numerator, since 2 2 ) 2 2 (
2
+ = + + x x x
dx
d

Then dx
x x
x
dx
x x
x

+ +
+
=
+ +

2 2 2 2
) 2 2 (
2 2 4 2
2
1
) 2 2 (
2

]
) 2 2 (
6
) 2 2 (
2 2
[
2
1
2 2 2 2
dx
x x
dx
x x
x

+ +

+
+ +
+
=
In the first integral let 2 2
2
+ + = x x u , then dx x du ) 2 2 ( + = , then

) 2 2 (
1 1
) 2 2 (
2 2
2 2 2 2
+ +

= =
+ +
+
=

x x
u
u
du
dx
x x
x

In the second integral completing the square of ) 2 2 (
2
+ + x x , i.e.

1 ) 1 ( 2 1 ) 1 ( ) 2 2 (
2 2 2
+ + = + + = + + x x x x , then let tan ) 1 ( = + x , d dx
2
sec =
]
2
2 sin
[
2
6
cos 6 sec
sec
6
) 2 2 (
6
2 2
4 2 2

+

= =

=
+ +

d d dx
x x

]
} 1 ) 1 {(
1
) 1 ( [tan 3
) 2 2 (
6
2 2
1
2 2
+ +
+
+ + =
+ +

x
x
x dx
x x


Then

]
} 1 ) 1 {(
) 1 ( 3
) 1 ( tan 3
) 2 2 (
1
[
2
1
) 2 2 (
2
2 2
1
2 2 2
+ +
+
+
+ +

=
+ +

x
x
x
x x
dx
x x
x

















23
y
0
y
0
6-6 Improper Integrals:
So far in the study of the definite integral

b
a
dx x f ) ( we have dealt with a function f that was
always defined on a finite interval ] , [ b a and does not have infinite discontinuity. In this section we
introduce the concepts of the definite integral to the following cases:

1- where ) (x f has an infinite discontinuity in ] , [ b a .
2- where the interval of integration is infinite.

In either case the integral is called improper integral.

Case I: Improper Integrals with Discontinuous Integrands:

Definition:
Consider the improper integral

b
a
dx x f ) (
1) If ) (x f is continuous function on the interval ) , [ b a and discontinuous at b such that
=

) ( lim x f
b x
, then

=
t
a
b t
b
a
dx x f dx x f ) ( lim ) (





2) If ) (x f is continuous function on the interval ] , ( b a and discontinuous at a such that
=
+

) ( lim x f
a x
, then




+

=
b
t
a t
b
a
dx x f dx x f ) ( lim ) (



24
y
0
3) If ) (x f is continuous function on the interval ] , [ b a except it has discontinuity at a point
] , [ b a c such that =

) ( lim x f
c x
, then





+

+ =
b
s
c s
t
a
c t
b
a
dx x f dx x f dx x f ) ( lim ) ( lim ) (





The improper integral

b
a
dx x f ) ( is called convergent if the corresponding limit exists and
divergent if the limit does not exist.

Example: Determine whether the improper integral

1
0
1
dx
x
converges or diverges.
Solution: Note that =
+

x
x
1
lim
0
, then

[ ] [ ] 2 2 2 lim 2 lim
1
lim
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
= = = =
+ + +


t x dx
x
dx
x
t
t
t
t
t
, converges.

Example: Determine whether the improper integral

2
1
2
) 2 (
1
dx
x
converges or diverges.
Solution: Note that =

2
2
) 2 (
1
lim
x
x
, then

[ ] =
(

= =

2 1
1
2
1
lim ) 2 ( lim
) 2 (
1
lim
) 2 (
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
t
x dx
x
dx
x
t
t
t
t
t
, diverges.




25
Example: Determine whether the improper integral

3
0
3
1
1
dx
x
converges or diverges
Solution: Not that at 1 = x which is in the interval ] 3 , 0 [ , =

3
1 1
1
lim
x x
and + =

3
1 1
1
lim
x x
,
then
dx
x
dx
x
dx
x
s
s
t
t


+

+

3
3
1
0
3
1
3
0
3
1
1
lim
1
1
lim
1
1


[ ] [ ]
2
3
1 0
2
3
) 1 ( ) 1 (
2
3
lim ) 1 (
2
3
lim
1
1
lim
3 / 2 3 / 2
1
0
3 / 2
1
0
3
1
= = =
(

t x dx
x
t
t
t
t
t

[ ] [ ]
3 3 / 2 3 / 2 3 / 2
1
3
3 / 2
1
3
3
1
4
2
3
0 ) 2 (
2
3
) 1 ( ) 1 3 (
2
3
lim ) 1 (
2
3
lim
1
1
lim = = =
(

+ + +


s x dx
x
s
s
s
s
s

Then [ ] 1 4
2
3
4
2
3
2
3
1
1
3 3
3
0
3
= + =

dx
x
, converges.
Example: Determine whether the improper integral

1
0
ln dx x x converges or diverges.
Solution: ( )
(
(

= = =

+ + +

1
2
1
2
0
1
2
0
1
0
1
0
1
ln lim
2
1
ln lim
2
1
ln lim ln
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
dx
x
x x x dx x dx x x dx x x
( ) ( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
=
(
(

|
|

\
|
=
+ +
2 2
1
ln 0 lim
2
1
2
ln lim
2
1
2
2
0
1
2
1
2
0
t
t t
x
x x
t
t
t
t

4
1
2
1
0
2
1
2 2
1
) / 1 (
ln
0 lim
2
1
2
2
0
=
(

=
(
(

|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
=
+

t
t
t
t
, converges, using L'Hopital's Rule












26
Case II: Improper integrals with an infinite limit of integration:

Definition:
Consider the improper integral

b
a
dx x f ) (
1) If ) (x f is continuous function on the interval ) , [ a , then

=
t
a
t
a
dx x f dx x f ) ( lim ) (

2) If ) (x f is continuous function on the interval ] , ( b , then




=
b
t
t
b
dx x f dx x f ) ( lim ) (

3) If ) (x f is continuous function on the interval ) , ( , then

+ =
s
a
s
a
t
t
dx x f dx x f dx x f ) ( lim ) ( lim ) ( for any convenient choice of a .

The improper integral

b
a
dx x f ) ( is called convergent if the corresponding limit exists and divergent if
the limit does not exist.
Example: Determine whether the improper integral

1
1
dx
x
converges or diverges.
Solution:
[ ] [ ] = = = =

t x dx
x
dx
x
t
t
t
t
t
ln 1 ln lim ln lim
1
lim
1 1
1 1
, diverges.

Example: Determine whether the improper integral

1
2
1
dx
x
converges or diverges.
Solution:
1 1
1
lim
1
lim
1
lim
1
1 1
2
1
2
=
(

=
(

= =

t x
dx
x
dx
x
t
t
t
t
t
, converges.
27
Example: Determine whether the improper integral

0
1
1
dx
x
converges or diverges.
Solution:
[ ] [ ] = = =

t x dx
x
dx
x
t
t
t
t
t
1 2 2 lim 1 2 lim
1
1
lim
1
1 0
0 0
, diverges.
Example: Determine whether the improper integral

dx xe
x
2
converges or diverges.
Solution: The choice 0 = a , then

+ =
0
0
2 2 2
dx xe dx xe dx xe
x x x

+ =
s
x
s
t
x
t
x
dx xe dx xe dx xe
0
0
2 2 2
lim lim
[ ] [ ]
s
x
s
t
x
t
s
x
s
t
x
t
x
e e dx e dx e dx xe
0
0
0
2
0
2
2 2 2 2 2
lim
2
1
lim
2
1
2
1
lim
2
1
lim

+ = + =


[ ] [ ] 0
2
1
2
1
1 lim
2
1
1 lim
2
1
2 2
= + = =

s
s
t
t
e e , converges