Application Report

SBFA001A November 2001

1
FilterPro
! !! !
MFB and Sallen-Key
Low-Pass Filter Design Program
John Bishop, Bruce Trump, R. Mark Stitt Op-Amp Applications, High Performance Linear Products
ABSTRACT
Although low-pass filters are vital in modern electronics, their design and verification can
be tedious and time consuming. The FilterPro program is designed to aid in the design of
low-pass filters implemented with the multiple feedback (MFB) and Sallen-Key topology.
This note serves as an operator's manual for FilterPro. Among other issues, it describes
the information the designer must enter into the program and what the program delivers.
Contents
FilterPro Low-Pass Filter Design Program.........................................................................................2
Butterworth (maximally flat magnitude). ..........................................................................................3
Chebyshev (equal ripple magnitude)...............................................................................................3
Bessel (maximally flat time delay). ..................................................................................................3
Summary ........................................................................................................................................5
Butterworth Response.............................................................................................................5
Chebyshev Response.............................................................................................................5
Bessel Response....................................................................................................................5
Circuit Implementation.........................................................................................................................6
MFB Topology.........................................................................................................................6
Sallen-Key Topology...............................................................................................................7
Using the FilterPro Program................................................................................................................7
Computer Requirements.................................................................................................................7
Installation ......................................................................................................................................7
Getting Started................................................................................................................................7
Program Features...........................................................................................................................9
To Print Results ......................................................................................................................9
Sensitivity................................................................................................................................9
fn Sensitivity for Both MFB and Sallen-Key .............................................................................9
Q Sensitivity............................................................................................................................9
Using the Sensitivity Display Feature ....................................................................................10
Using the Speed Resistor Setting..........................................................................................10
Capacitor Values...................................................................................................................11
Compensate for Op Amp Input CapacitanceSallen-Key Only....................................................11
Capacitor Selection.......................................................................................................................11
Using the fn and Q Display ...........................................................................................................12
Op Amp Selection...............................................................................................................................12
Op Amp Bandwidth.......................................................................................................................12
Op Amp Slew Rate .......................................................................................................................12
The UAF42 Universal Active Filter ....................................................................................................13
FilterPro is a trademark of Texas Instruments
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program
Current Feedback Amplifiers............................................................................................................. 13
Fully Differential Amplifiers............................................................................................................... 13
Examples of MFB Filter Response.................................................................................................... 14
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................... 15
Figures
Figure 1. Response vs Frequency of Even-Order (4-pole), 3dB Ripple Chebychev Filter
Showing Cutoff at 0 dB....................................................................................................4
Figure 2. Response vs. Frequency of Even-Order (5-pole), 3dB Ripple Chebychev Filter
Showing Cutoff at -3 dB...................................................................................................4
Figure 3. Real Pole Section (Unity-Gain, First-Order Butterworth; f
-3dB
= 1/2 R1C1) ...............4
Figure 4. Second-Order Low-Pass Filter. .......................................................................................4
Figure 5. Third-Order Low-Pass Filter. ...........................................................................................4
Figure 6. Even-Order Low-Pass Filter Using Cascaded Complex Pole-Pair Sections. ...............5
Figure 7. Odd-Order Low-Pass Filter Using Cascaded Complex Pole-Pair Sections Plus One
Real-Pole Section.............................................................................................................5
Figure 8. MFB Complex Pole-Pair Section. (Gain = R
2
/R
1
) ........................................................6
Figure 9. Sallen-Key Complex Pole-Pair Section. (Gain = 1) Unity Gain......................................6
Figure 10. Sallen-Key Complex Pole-Pair Section. (Gain = 1+ R
4
/R
3
) .............................................6
Figure 11. Screen Display of FilterPro Showing a 9 Pole MFB Filter With a Gain of 40 dB. .........8
Figure 12. Third-Order Low-Pass Filter Driving an ADC............................................................... 13
Figure 13. Gain vs Frequency for Fifth-Order 20kHz Butterworth, Chebyshev, and Bessel
Unity-Gain MFB Low-Pass Filters, Showing Overall Filter Response. ....................... 14
Figure 14. Gain vs Frequency for Fifth-Order 20kHz Butterworth, Chebyshev, and Bessel
Unity-Gain MFB Low-Pass Filters, Showing Transition-Band Detail.......................... 14
Figure 15. Step Response of Fifth-Order 20 kHz Butterworth Low-Pass MFB Filter................... 14
Figure 16. Step Response of Fifth-Order 20 kHz Chebyshev Low-Pass MFB Filter. ................... 14
Figure 17. Step Response of Fifth-Order 20 kHz Bessel Low-Pass MFB Filter. .......................... 15
Figure 18. Measured Distortion for the Three 20 kHz MFB Low-Pass Filters. ............................. 15
Tables
Table 1. Filter Circuit vs. Filter Order............................................................................................6
FilterPro Low-Pass Filter Design Program
The Texas Instruments FilterPro program makes it easy to design low-pass active filters. The
program aids in the design of low-pass filters implemented with the Multiple Feedback (MFB)
topology. Because there are instances where the Sallen-Key filter topology is a better choice,
the program also supports Sallen-Key low-pass filter design.
An ideal low-pass filter would completely eliminate signals above the cutoff frequency, and
perfectly pass signals below cutoff (in the pass-band). In real filters, various tradeoffs are made
attempting to approximate the ideal. Some filter types are optimized for gain flatness in the pass-
band, some trade off gain variation (ripple) in the pass-band for steeper roll-off, still others trade
off both flatness and rate of rolloff in favor of pulse-response fidelity. FilterPro supports the three
most commonly-used all-pole filter types: Butterworth, Chebyshev, and Bessel.
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program 3
Butterworth (maximally flat magnitude)
This filter has the flattest possible pass-band magnitude response. Attenuation is 3 dB at the
design cutoff frequency. Attenuation above the cutoff frequency is a moderately steep 20-dB per
decade per pole. The pulse response of the Butterworth filter has moderate overshoot and
ringing.
Chebyshev (equal ripple magnitude)
Note: Mr. Chebyshev's name is also transliterated Tschebychev, Tschebyscheff or Tchevysheff.
This filter type has steeper attenuation above the cutoff frequency than Butterworth. This
advantage comes at the penalty of amplitude variation (ripple) in the passband. Unlike
Butterworth and Bessel responses, which have 3-dB attenuation at the cutoff frequency,
Chebyshev cutoff frequency is defined as the frequency at which the response falls below the
ripple band. For even-order filters, all ripple is above the 0-dB-gain dc response, so cutoff is at
0-dB (see Figure 1.) For odd-order filters, all ripple is below the 0-dB-gain dc response, so cutoff
is at (ripple) dB (see Figure 2.) For a given number of poles, a steeper cutoff can be achieved
by allowing more pass-band ripple. The Chebyshev has even more ringing in its pulse response
than the Butterworth.
Bessel (maximally flat time delay)
(Also called Thomson.) Due to its linear phase response, this filter has excellent pulse response
(minimal overshoot and ringing). For a given number of poles, its magnitude response is not as
flat, nor is its attenuation beyond the 3-dB cutoff frequency as steep as the Butterworth.
Although it takes a higher-order Bessel filter to give a magnitude response which approaches
that of a given Butterworth filter, the pulse response fidelity of the Bessel filter may make the
added complexity (because of additional filter sections) worthwhile.
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program
Figure 1. Response vs Frequency of
Even-Order (4-pole), 3 dB Ripple
Chebychev Filter Showing Cutoff at 0 dB.
Figure 2. Response vs. Frequency of
Even-Order (5-pole), 3 dB Ripple
Chebychev Filter Showing Cutoff at -3 dB
Figure 3. Real Pole Section (Unity-Gain,
First-Order Butterworth; f
-3dB
=
1/2 R1C1)
Figure 4. Second-Order Low-Pass Filter.
Figure 5. Third-Order Low-Pass Filter.
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program 5
Figure 6. Even-Order Low-Pass Filter Using Cascaded Complex Pole-Pair Sections.
Figure 7. Odd-Order Low-Pass Filter Using Cascaded Complex Pole-Pair Sections
Plus One Real-Pole Section.
Summary
Butterworth Response
Advantages: It provides maximally flat magnitude response in the pass-band. It has good all-
around performance. Its pulse response is better than Chebyshev. Its rate of attenuation is
better than that of Bessel.
Disadvantages: Some overshoot and ringing is exhibited in step response.
Chebyshev Response
Advantages: It provides better attenuation beyond the pass-band than Butterworth.
Disadvantages: Ripple in pass-band may be objectionable. There is considerable ringing in step
response.
Bessel Response
Advantages: It provides best step response: very little overshoot or ringing.
Disadvantages: It exhibits slower rate of attenuation beyond the pass-band than Butterworth.
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program
Circuit Implementation
Even-order filters designed with this program consist of cascaded sections of complex pole-
pairs. Odd-order filters contain an additional real-pole section. Figures 3 through 7 show the
recommended cascading arrangement. The figures show the additional real-pole section ahead
of the other sections, but some configurations are better with the real-pole section following (see
Figure 12). The program automatically places lower Q stages ahead of higher Q stages to
prevent op amp output saturation due to gain peaking. The program can be used to design filters
up to 10th order.
FILTER ORDER FIGURE
1 pole Figure 3
2 poles Figure 4
3 poles Figure 5
4 or more poles (even order) Figure 6
5 or more poles (odd poles Figure 7
Table 1. Filter Circuit vs Filter Order
Complex Pole-Pair Circuit
The choice of a complex pole-pair circuit depends on performance requirements. FilterPro
supports the two most commonly used active pole-pair circuit topologies:
Multiple Feedback (MFB)shown in Figure 8.
Sallen-Keyshown in Figures 9 and 10.
Figure 8. MFB Complex
Pole-Pair Section. (Gain
= R
2
/R
1
)
Figure 9. Sallen-Key
Complex Pole-Pair
Section. (Gain = 1) Unity
Gain
Figure 10. Sallen-Key
Complex Pole-Pair Section.
(Gain = 1+ R
4
/R
3
)
MFB Topology
The MFB topology (sometimes called Infinite Gain or Rauch) is often preferred due to assured
low sensitivity to component variationssee sensitivity section.
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program 7
Sallen-Key Topology
There are instances where the Sallen-Key topology is a better choice. As a rule of thumb, the
Sallen-Key topology is better if:
1) Gain accuracy is important, and
2) A unity-gain filter is used, and
3) Pole-pair Q is low (e.g., Q < 3)
At unity-gain, the Sallen-Key topology inherently has excellent gain accuracy. This is because
the op amp is used as a unity-gain buffer. With the MFB topology, gain is determined by the R2
/R1 resistor ratio. The unity-gain Sallen-Key topology also requires fewer componentstwo
resistors vs three for MFB.
The Sallen-Key topology may also be preferable for high-Q high frequency filter sections. In
these sections, the value required for C1 in an MFB design can be quite low for reasonable
resistor values. Low capacitor values can result in significant errors due to parasitic capacitance.
The best filter design may be a combination of MFB and Sallen-Key sections. To do this, use
FilterPro to define the component values of the same design using both circuit types and then
use some of the sections from one design with some from the other design to build your filter
design.
Using the FilterPro Program
With each data entry, the program automatically calculates filter performance and values for all
filter components. This allows you to use a what if spreadsheet-type design approach. For
example, you can quickly determine, by trial and error, how many poles are needed for a given
rolloff.
Computer Requirements
The operating system required for FilterPro for windows should be Windows 95 or NT 3.5 or
newer. The display should be configured for at least 800 by 600. It is helpful, but not required, to
have a printer (capable of printing a screen dump) available, either locally or on a network.
Installation
To install FilterPro on your computer, run the setup.exe program from the hard disk or CD.
Getting Started
The first time you use the program, you may want to double click on the FilterPro icon on the
desktop. Another way is to select Start, Programs, and FilterPro. At this point, you have already
designed a 3-pole, 1-kHz Butterworth filter. Component values are shown on the schematic. For
a different filter design, click on the radio buttons for one of the following options. On-screen
prompts, to the left of the response graph, will guide your program use. Refer to this bulletin for
more detail, if needed. All settings required are inside the Settings frame.
1) In the Circuit Type frame, choose pole-pair circuit: MFB or Sallen-Key
2) In the Filter Type frame, select Filter type: Butterworth, Chebyshev or Bessel.
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program
3) For the Chebyshev filter type, enter ripple amount: 0.0001 dB to 10 dB
4) Enter the desired number of poles: 1 to 10 (2 min. for Bessel or Chebychev)
5) Enter the filter cutoff frequency: 1 mHz to 100 MHz
6) If you want to view the gain/phase response of the current filter design at a particular
frequency (the default value is 10 times the cutoff frequency), enter the frequency of interest
on the response entry box. The gain/phase values are displayed on the f
n
, Q, Response
display fields.
7) If you want to change the resistor scaling, enter a value on the R1 Seed entry. This will also
change the capacitor values accordingly.
8) If you want to change the gain of a section, enter the desired value into the appropriate gain
entry box. Default value for gain is 1.0-V/V in each section.
9) If you want to enter your own capacitor values, enter them into the appropriate C1 or C2
entry boxes. This will cause the seed resistor entry to be ignored.
10) If you want to design with standard 1% resistors instead of exact resistors, click the 1%
Resistors check box.
Figure 11. Screen Display of FilterPro Showing a 9 Pole MFB Filter With a Gain of 40 dB.
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program 9
Program Features
To Print Results
To print results select the Print menu item. It displays a dialog box that can be used to print the
screen. When printing is started, the normal screen size increases to include a table containing
information not shown on the schematic (sensitivity data or component values). The larger
screen is then captured and sent to the printer. If the screen is not fully visible, due to position
or size, only what is visible is printed.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the measure of the vulnerability of a filters performance to changes in component
values. The important filter parameters to consider are natural frequency (fn ) and Q.
fn Sensitivity for Both MFB and Sallen-Key
Sensitivity of fn to resistor, capacitor, and amplifier gain variations is always low for both the
Sallen-Key and MFB filter topologies.
% / % 5 . 0 = =
f
C
f
R
S S
where:
=
f
C
f
C
f
R
S S S , , Sensitivity of f
n
to resistor, capacitor, and gain variations
Q Sensitivity
For the MFB topology, sensitivities to Q are also always low, but sensitivities for the Sallen-Key
topology can be quite highexceeding 2 K Q
2
. K is the variable used here for gain. At unity
gain, the Sallen-Key Q sensitivity to resistor and capacitor variations is always low.
Unfortunately, however, the sensitivity of the unity-gain Sallen-Key pole-pair to op amp gain can
be high.
Q Sensitivity for MFB Pole-Pair
% / % 5 . 0 =
Q
C
S
) ( 2
3 3 2
3 3 2
R K R R
R K R R
S
Q
R
+ +

= (MFB complex pole-pair)
3 3 2
3
R K R R
R K
S
Q
K
+ +

= (MFB complex pole-pair)

Notice, by inspection:
Q
R
S is always less than 0.5%/%, and
Q
K
S is always less than 1.0%/%.
0 =
f
K
S
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program
Q Sensitivity for Gain = 1 Sallen-Key Pole-Pair
% / % 5 . 0 =
Q
C
S
) ( 2
2 1
2 1
R R
R R
S
Q
R
+

= (Sallen-Key complex pole-pair)

So,
Q
R
S is always less than 0.5%/%.
2 2
2 Q S S
Q
K
< < S (Sallen-Key complex pole-pair)
where:
=
Q
K
Q
C
Q
R
S S S , , Sensitivity of f
n
and Q to resistor, capacitor and gain variations (%/%)
K = Op amp gain (V/V)
Figure 8 circuit, K=R
2
/R
1
Figure 9 circuit, K=1.0
Figure 10 circuit K=1+R
4
/R
3
NOTE: FilterPro always selects component values so unity-gain Sallen-Key
Q
K
S will be closer to
Q
2
than to 2 Q
2
. However, it will allow you to design Sallen-Key pole-pairs with high sensitivities
(high Qs and GAIN >> 1). You must make sure that sensitivities to component variations do not
make these designs impractical. A feature in the display allows you to view the f n and Q
sensitivity of filter sections to resistor and capacitor variations.
Using the Sensitivity Display Feature
To use the Sensitivity display option, click on the sensitivity radio button in the Settings area of
the screen. The schematic shows sensitivity of f
n
and Q to each component for each filter
section. The format is S
f
; S
Q
.
Rather than displaying the derivative with respect to component variations, the program
calculates f
n
and Q change for a 1% change in component values. This gives a more realistic
sensitivity value for real-world variations.
Using the Seed Resistor Setting
The Seed Resistor setting allows you to scale the computer-selected resistor values to match
the application. Move the cursor to the Seed Resistor field and enter your seed resistor value.
The default value of 10 k is suggested for most applications.
When the circuit is in a power sensitive environment (battery power, solar power, etc.) the value
can be increased to decrease power consumption. Some high speed op amps require lower
feedback resistance, so their seed resistor value should be decreased.
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program 11
Higher resistor values, e.g., 100 k , can be used with FET- input op amps. At temperatures
below about 70C, dc errors and excess noise due to op amp input bias current are small.
Remember, however, that noise due to the resistors is increased by n where n is the resistor
increase multiplier.
Lower resistor values, e.g., 50 , are a better match for high frequency filters using a wide range
of high-speed amplifiers from Texas Instruments.
The seed resistor value is ignored when a capacitor value is entered, as described in the
following paragraphs.
Capacitor Values
Compared to resistors, capacitors with tight tolerances are more difficult to obtain and can be
much more expensive. The Capacitor fields allow you to enter actual measured capacitor
values. In this way, an accurate filter response can be achieved with relatively inexpensive
components.
Unless capacitor entries are made, FilterPro selects capacitors from standard E6 (6 values per
decade) values. When values other than E6 are used (E12, measured, etc.), then the
appropriate values should be entered.
Using the Capacitor Option
To use the Capacitor option, move the cursor to any capacitor field and enter your value.
Prompts on the left of the screen advise min/max capacitor entry limits. With each capacitor
entry, the program selects exact or closest standard 1% resistor values as before.
Entering capacitor values manually causes the program to ignore the seed resistor value.
Compensate for Op Amp Input CapacitanceSallen-Key Only
If the common-mode input capacitance of the op amp used in a Sallen-Key filter section is more
than approximately C1/400 (0.25% of C1), it must be considered for accurate filter response.
You can use the capacitor entry fields to compensate for op amp input capacitance by simply
adding the value of the op amp common-mode input capacitance to the actual value of C1. The
program then automatically recalculates the exact or closest 1% resistor values for accurate
filter response. No compensation for op amp input capacitance is required with MFB designs.
Capacitor Selection
Capacitor selection is very important for a high-performance filter. Capacitor behavior can vary
significantly from ideal, introducing series resistance and inductance, which limit Q. Also,
nonlinearity of capacitance vs voltage causes distortion.
Common ceramic capacitors with high dielectric constants, such as high-K types, can cause
errors in filter circuits. Recommended capacitor types are: NPO ceramic, silver mica, metallized
polycarbonate; and, for temperatures up to 85C, polypropylene or polystyrene.
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program
Using the f
n
and Q Display
To aid in selection of the op amp, a feature in FilterPro allows you to view pole-pair section fn
and Q. The fn and Q information is also useful when trouble-shooting filters by comparing the
expected to the actual response of individual filter sections.
Op Amp Selection
It is important to choose an op amp that can provide the necessary dc precision, noise,
distortion, and speed. Texas Instruments offers an excellent selection of op amps that can be
used for high performance active filters. The following internet web page provides guides to
select an appropriate op amp for your application:
http://focus.ti.com/docs/analog/analoghomepage.jhtml
This same page also contains a link to the download page for FilterPro.
The following paragraphs define parameters that should be evaluated when selecting op amps
for filter circuits.
Op Amp Gain Bandwidth Product (GBP)
In a low-pass filter section, maximum gain peaking is very nearly equal to Q at fn (the sections
natural frequency). So, as a rule of thumb:
For an MFB section: Op amp GBP should be at least 100 GAIN fn .
High-Q Sallen-Key sections require higher op amp GBP.
For a Sallen-Key section: For Q > 1, op amp GBP should be at least 100 GAIN Q
3
fn . For Q
1, op amp GBP should be at least 100 GAIN fn .
For a real-pole section: Op amp GBP should be at least 50 fn .
Although Q is formally defined only for complex poles, it is convenient to use a Q of 0.5 for
calculating the op amp gain required in a real-pole section.
For example, a unity-gain 20-kHz 5-pole, 3-dB ripple Chebyshev MFB filter with a 2nd pole-pair
fn of 19.35 kHz and a Q of 8.82 needs an op amp with unity gain bandwidth of at least 17 MHz.
On the other hand, a 5-pole Butterworth MFB filter, with a worst case Q of 1.62 needs only a
3.2-MHz op amp. The same 5-pole Butterworth filter implemented with a Sallen-Key topology
would require a 8.5-MHz op amp in the high-Q section.
Op Amp Slew Rate
For adequate full-power response, the slew rate of the op amp must be greater than V
o p-p

FILTER BANDWIDTH. For example, a 100-kHz filter with 20-Vp-p output requires an op amp slew rate of
at least 6.3 V/ms.
Full Power Bandwidth
The full power bandwidth of the op amp should be at least the maximum signal to be passed.
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program 13
The UAF42 Universal Active Filter
For other filter designs, consider the Texas Instruments UAF42 universal active filter. It can
easily be configured for a wide variety of low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, or band-reject (notch)
filters. It uses the classical state-variable architecture with an inverting amplifier and two
integrators to form a pole-pair. The integrators include on-chip 1000-pF, 0.5% capacitors. This
solves one of the most difficult problems in active filter implementationobtaining tight
tolerance, low-loss capacitors at reasonable cost.
Simple design procedures for the UAF42 allow implementation of Butterworth, Chebyshev,
Bessel, and other types of filters. An extra FET-input op amp in the UAF42 can be used to form
additional stages or special filter types such as inverse Chebyshev. The UAF42 is available in a
standard 14-pin DIP. For more information, request the TI/Burr-Brown product data sheet for the
UAF42 and application bulletin AB-035.
Current Feedback Amplifiers
Although it is possible to configure current feedback amplifiers as filters, neither the MFB nor the
Sallen-Key topologies should be used for a low-pass filter using values defined by FilterPro.
Fully Differential Amplifiers
It is possible to produce good fully balanced filters using the fully differential amplifier in the MFB
topology. Both feedback paths of the amplifier should be configured with a matching set of
resistors and capacitors. Figure 12 shows an application containing a fully differential amplifier
using this method.
Figure 12. Third-Order Low-Pass Filter Driving an ADC
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program
Examples of MFB Filter Response
Figures 13 and 14 show actual measured magnitude response plots for 5th-order 20-kHz
Butterworth, 3-dB Chebyshev and Bessel filters designed with the program. The op amp used in
all filters was the OPA627. As can be seen in Figure 13, the initial rolloff of the Chebyshev filter
is fastest and the rolloff of the Bessel filter is the slowest. However, each of the 5th-order filters
ultimately rolls off at N 20dB/decade, where N is the filter order (100 dB/ decade for a 5-pole
filter).
The oscilloscope photographs (Figures 15-17) show the step response for each filter. As
expected, the Chebyshev filter has the most ringing, while the Bessel has the least. Figure 18
shows distortion plots vs frequency for the three filters. See application bulletin AB-017 for
measured Sallen-Key filter performance of the same three designs.
Figure 13. Gain vs Frequency for
Fifth-Order 20kHz Butterworth,
Chebyshev, and Bessel Unity-Gain MFB
Low-Pass Filters, Showing Overall
Filter Response.
Figure 14. Gain vs Frequency for Fifth-
Order 20kHz Butterworth, Chebyshev,
and Bessel Unity-Gain MFB Low-Pass
Filters, Showing Transition-Band
Detail.
Figure 15. Step Response of
Fifth-Order 20 kHz Butterworth Low-
Pass MFB Filter.
Figure 16. Step Response of Fifth-
Order 20 kHz Chebyshev Low-Pass
MFB Filter.
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MFB and Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter Design Program 15
Figure 17. Step Response of Fifth-
Order 20 kHz Bessel Low-Pass MFB Filter.
Figure 18. Measured Distortion for
the Three 20 kHz MFB Low-Pass
Filters.
Conclusion
Using FilterPro, the designer can develop low-pass filters for many different applications without
the need for complex calculations.
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