The Steam and Condensate Loop 6.7.

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Controllers and Sensors Module 6.7 Block 6 Control Hardware: Electric /Pneumatic Actuation
Module 6.7
Controllers and Sensors
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The Steam and Condensate Loop
Controllers and Sensors Module 6.7
6.7.2
Block 6 Control Hardware: Electric/ Pneumatic Actuation
Controllers
It is important to state at the outset that not all control applications need a sophisticated controller.
An on/ off valve and actuator, for example, can be operated directly from a thermostat. Another
example is the operation of high limit safety controls, which have a snap action to close valves
or to switch off fuel supplies.
However, when the control requirements become more sophisticated, a controller is needed to
match these requirements.
The controller receives a signal, decides what action is needed and then sends a signal to the
actuator to make it move.
In the age of the microchip, integrated circuits and computers, the functions performed by the
controller can be very complex indeed.
However, since an analogy between the human brain and controllers / computers has been made
in previous Modules, the renowned IBM motto can be paraphrased:
Computer - Fast, accurate and stupid
Human being - Slow, slovenly and brilliant
To summarise, the controller will not solve all problems. It must be properly selected and
commissioned, subjects which will be dealt with later.
Although most controllers are now electronic digital /microprocessor based, a range of pneumatic
controllers is commercially available. These might be used in hazardous areas where the risk of
explosion precludes the use of electrics / electronics. It is possible to make electrical equipment
intrinsically safe or explosion-proof or flameproof, however, there is usually a substantial cost
implication.
As previously mentioned, the functions carried out by the controller can be very complex and it
is beyond the scope of this publication to list them in detail, or to explain how they operate.
The major variations that require consideration are as follows:
Single loop controller
Operates one valve/ actuator from a single sensor.
Multi-loop controller
May operate more than one valve/ actuator from more than one sensor.
Single input /output
Can accept only one signal from the sensor and send only one to the actuator.
Multi-input /output (multi-channel)
Can accept several signals and send out several signals.
Real time
May include a time clock to switch at pre-determined, pre-set times.
Elapsed time
May switch at some predetermined, pre-set length of time before or after other items of plant
have been switched on or off.
Ramp and dwell
Using temperature as an example, the capability to raise the temperature of a controlled medium
over a specified time period and then to hold it at a pre-set value. Such controllers frequently
incorporate a series of ramps and dwells.
Figure 6.7.1, shows a typical electronic, single loop controller. This has P + I + D action (discussed
in Modules 5.2 and 5.4), suitable for 110 or 230 volt supply.
Figure 6.7.2 shows a pneumatic single loop controller with P action.
Different models can be selected to control either temperature or pressure.
The Steam and Condensate Loop 6.7.3
Controllers and Sensors Module 6.7 Block 6 Control Hardware: Electric /Pneumatic Actuation
A single loop controller, which has the ability to perform ramp and dwell functions, may have a
typical sequence pattern like the one shown in Figure 6.7.3. This shows a series of ramps
(temperature change) and dwell (maintaining temperature) functions, carried out over a period
of time.
150C
50C
20C
1 hr 1 hr, 30 min 30 min 2 hr, 11 min 1 hr
Dwell
Dwell
R
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+
R
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Fig. 6.7.3 Typical multi-sequence ramp and dwell pattern

One term frequently found in control literature is Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). In a
batch process, the controller must trigger a sequence of actions, for example, turning valves or
pumps on or off. In some cases the whole sequence is on a timed basis, but often the various
steps may be triggered by a specific condition being reached and maintained for a certain time
period; for example a certain temperature being reached or a vessel filled. These sequences can
be controlled by a PLC, a microcomputer-based device that utilises standard interfaces for sensors
and actuators to control the process.
Another type of complex controller is the plant room controller, which might be used to control
the boiler, pump, heating control valve, HWS valve, as well as providing a number of other
features.
Fig. 6.7.1 Electronic single loop controller Fig. 6.7.2 Pneumatic single loop temperature controller
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The Steam and Condensate Loop
Controllers and Sensors Module 6.7
6.7.4
Block 6 Control Hardware: Electric/ Pneumatic Actuation
Sensors
In this Section the subject of temperature measurement will be covered more broadly. There are
a wide variety of sensors and transducers available for measuring pressure, level, humidity, and
other physical properties. The sensor is the part of the control system, which experiences the
change in the controlled variable.
The sensor may be of a type where a change in temperature results in a change of voltage or
perhaps a change in resistance.
The signal from the sensor may be very small, creating the need for local signal conditioning and
amplification to read it effectively. A small change in resistance signalled by a sensor in response
to a change in temperature, may, for example, be converted to an electrical voltage or current
for onward transmission to the controller.
The transmission system itself is a potential source of error.
Wiring incurs electrical resistance (measured in ohms), as well as being subject to electrical
interference (noise). In a comparable pneumatic system, there may also be minute leaks in the
piping system.
The term thermostat is generally used to describe a temperature sensor with on/ off switching.
Transducer is another common term, and refers to a device that converts one physical
characteristic into another; for example, temperature into voltage (millivolts).
An example of a transducer is a device that converts a change in temperature to a change in
electrical resistance.
With pneumatic devices, the word transmitter is frequently encountered. It is simply another
description of transducer or sensor, but usually with some additional signal conditioning.
However, the actual measuring device is usually termed as the sensor, and the more common
types will be outlined in the following Section.
Filled system sensors
With pneumatic controllers, filled system sensors are employed. Figure 6.7.4 illustrates the
principles of such a system.
Fig. 6.7.4 Liquid filled system sensor and gas filled or vapour pressure system
When the temperature changes, the fluid expands or contracts, causing the Bourdon tube to
tend to straighten out. Sometimes a bellows is used instead of a Bourdon tube.
In the past, the filling has often been mercury. When heated, it expands, causing the Bourdon
tube to uncoil; cooling causes contraction and forces the Bourdon tube to coil more tightly. This
coil movement is used to operate levers within the pneumatic controller enabling it to perform
its task. A pressure sensing version will simply utilise a pressure pipe connected to the Bourdon
tube. Note: for health and safety reasons, mercury is now used less often. Instead, an inert gas
such as nitrogen is often employed.
Cross section
A - A
A
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Pointer
Bourdon-tube
spring
Pinion
Sector
Link
Pivot
Socket
Motion
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The Steam and Condensate Loop 6.7.5
Controllers and Sensors Module 6.7 Block 6 Control Hardware: Electric /Pneumatic Actuation
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
RTDs (Figure 6.7.5) employ the fact that the electrical resistance of certain metals change as the
temperature alters. They act as electrical transducers, converting temperature changes to changes
in electrical resistance. Platinum, copper, and nickel are three metals that meet RTD requirements
and Figure 6.7.6 shows the relationship between resistance and temperature.
A resistance temperature detector is specified in terms of its resistance at 0C and the change in
resistance from 0C to 100C. The most widely used RTD for the typical applications covered in
these Modules are platinum RTDs. These are constructed with a resistance of 100 ohms at 0C
and are often referred to as Pt100 sensors. They can be used over a temperature range of -200C
to +800C with high accuracy (0.5%) between 0C and 100C.
Fig. 6.7.5 Typical resistance temperature sensors
Fig. 6.7.6 RTD element typical resistance/temperature graphs
0
0
600 100 200 300 400 500
500
400
300
200
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Temperature C
As can be seen from Figure 6.7.6, the increase of resistance with temperature is virtually linear.
RTDs have a relatively small change in resistance, which requires careful measurement. Resistance
in the connecting cables needs to be properly compensated for.
Outside air sensor
Enclosure
Probe
Immersion sensor
Inside air sensor
Pocket
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Controllers and Sensors Module 6.7
6.7.6
Block 6 Control Hardware: Electric/ Pneumatic Actuation
Fig. 6.7.7 Negative coefficient thermistor
0 50 100
6 000
3 000
1 000
0
Positive coefficient thermistors can be manufactured where the resistance increases with rising
temperature (Figure 6.7.8) but their response curve makes them generally unsuitable for
temperature sensing.
Thermistors are less complex and less expensive than RTDs but do not have the same high
accuracy and repeatability. Their high resistance means that the resistance of the connecting
cable is less important.
Fig. 6.7.8 Positive coefficient thermistor
0 50 100
10 000
1 000
100
0
Thermistors
Thermistors use semi-conductor materials, which have a large change in resistance with increasing
temperature, but are non-linear. The resistance decreases in response to rising temperatures
(negative coefficient thermistor), as shown in Figure 6.7.7.
R
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Temperature C
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Suitability range
of linearity
The Steam and Condensate Loop 6.7.7
Controllers and Sensors Module 6.7 Block 6 Control Hardware: Electric /Pneumatic Actuation
The cold reference junction temperature must be accurately known if the thermocouple itself is
to provide accurate sensing.
Traditionally, the cold junction was immersed in melting ice (0C), but the temperature of the
cold junction is now measured by a thermistor or an RTD and, from this, the indicated temperature,
generally at the measuring junction, is corrected. This is known as cold junction compensation.
Any pair of dissimilar metals could be used to make a thermocouple. But over the years, a
number of standard types have evolved which have a documented voltage and temperature
relationship. The standard types are referred to by the use of letters, that is, Type J, K, T and others.
Table 6.7.1 Standard range of thermocouples and their range (C)
Thermocouple ISA
J K T R S N B L
Type designation
Temperature Range -200 to 0 to -200 to 0 to 0 to 0 to 0 to 0 to
(C) +1000 1260 +400 1760 1760 1760 1 760 500
The most widely used general-purpose thermocouple is Type K.
The dissimilar metals used in this type are Chrome (90% nickel, 10% chromium) and Alumel
(94% nickel, 3% manganese, 2% aluminium and 1% silicon) and can be used between the range
0C to 1 260C. Figure 6.7.10 illustrates the sensitivity of Type K thermocouples, and it can be
seen that the output voltage is linear across the complete range.
Thermocouples
If two dissimilar metals are joined at two points and heat is applied to one junction (as shown in
Figure 6.7.9), an electric current will flow around the circuit. Thermocouples produce a voltage
corresponding to the temperature difference between the measuring junction (hot) and the
reference junction (cold).
Fig. 6.7.9 Thermocouple connection
Fig. 6.7.10 Sensitivity of Type K thermocouple
0
0
500 1 000
50
25
(Cold)
reference
junction
Dissimilar
metal wires
Voltmeter (Hot)
measuring junction
m
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Temperature C
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Controllers and Sensors Module 6.7
6.7.8
Block 6 Control Hardware: Electric/ Pneumatic Actuation
Extension tail wires are used to connect the measuring junction to the reference junction in the
instrument case. These extension tails may be of the same material as the wires in the thermocouple
itself, or may be a compensating cable made of copper and copper-nickel alloy. Both extension
tails must be of the same material.
Thermocouples are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. They are inexpensive and
rugged and reasonably accurate, with wide temperature ranges. However, the reference junction
temperature must be held at a constant value otherwise deviations must be compensated for.
The low junction voltages mean that special screened cable and careful installation must be used
to prevent electrical interference or noise from distorting signals.
Electrical communication signals
The output signals from most control systems are low power analogue signals but there is a
growing use of digital systems such as Fieldbus

or PROFIBUS

.
An analogue system provides a continuous but modulating signal whereas a digital system provides
a stream of binary numeric values represented by a change between two specific voltage levels
or frequencies.
A comparison between digital and analogue systems can be made using Example 6.7.1 and
Example 6.7.2:
Example 6.7.1
Imagine two people, person A and person B, each on opposite hilltops and each with a flag and
a flag-pole. The aim is for person A to communicate to person B by raising his flag to a certain
height. Person A raises his flag half way up his pole. Person B sees this and also raises his flag
halfway. As person A moves his flag up or down so does person B to match. This would be similar
to an analogue system.
Example 6.7.2
Now assume that person A does not have a pole but instead has two boards, one with the figure
0 and the other with the figure 1, and again wants person B to raise his flag half way, that is to
a height of 50% of his flag-pole. The binary number for 50 is 110010, so he displays his boards,
two at a time, in the corresponding order. Person B reads these boards, translates them to mean
50 and raises his flag exactly half way. This would be similar to a digital system.
It can be seen that the digital system is more precise as the information is either a 1 or a 0
and the position can be accurately defined. The analogue example is not so precise because
person B cannot determine if person As flag is at exactly 50%. It could be at 49% or 51%. It is
for this reason, together with higher integration of microprocessor circuitry that digital signals
are becoming more widely used.
Digital addressing
Digital addressing allows a controller to send information over a set of wires onto which several
receivers are connected and yet be able to communicate with only one of those receivers if
required. This is done by allocating an address to each receiver, which the controller must broadcast
first.
To explain this, consider the digital example above but now assume that there is another person,
person C on a third hill. Person B and person C can both see person A, so person A must first
indicate to whom he is communicating.
This is done with the first board. If the first board is a 0 then all subsequent data is intended for
person B who adjusts his flag accordingly. Conversely, if the first board is a 1 then all subsequent
data is intended for person C. Hence person B has a digital address of 0 and person C has a
digital address of 1; each person knows that the first number to be seen by them refers to the
address not the message.
The Steam and Condensate Loop 6.7.9
Controllers and Sensors Module 6.7 Block 6 Control Hardware: Electric /Pneumatic Actuation
HART

, PROFIBUS

and Foundation Fieldbus.

What is HART

?
HART

stands for Highway Addressable Remote Transducer and is a standard originally developed
as a communications protocol for control field devices operating on a 4-20 mA control signal.
The HART

protocol uses 1200 baud Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) based on the Bell 202
standard to superimpose digital information on the conventional 4-20 mA analogue signal.
Maintained by an independent organisation, the HART

Communication Foundation, the

HART

protocol is an industry standard developed to define the communications protocol

between intelligent field devices and a control system.
HART

is probably the most widely used digital communication protocol in the process industries,
and:
o
Is supported by all of the major suppliers of process field instruments.
o
Preserves existing control strategies by allowing 4-20 mA signals to co-exist with digital
communication on existing 2-wire loops.
o
Is compatible with analogue devices.
o
Provides important information for installation and maintenance, such as Tag-IDs, measured
values, range and span data, product information and diagnostics.
o
Can support cabling savings through use of multidrop networks.
o
Reduces operating costs via improved management and utilisation of smart instrument
networks.
What is PROFIBUS

?
PROFIBUS

is an open fieldbus standard for a wide range of applications in manufacturing and

process automation independent of manufacturers. Manufacture independence and transparency
are ensured by the international standards EN 50170, EN 50254 and IEC 61158.
It allows communication between devices of different manufacturers without any special
interface adjustment. PROFIBUS

can be used for both high-speed time critical applications

and complex communication tasks. PROFIBUS

offers functionally graduated communication

protocols DP and FMS. Depending on the application, the transmission technologies RS-485,
IEC 1158-2 or fibre optics can be used.
It defines the technical characteristics of a serial Fieldbus

system with which distributed digital

programmable controllers can be networked, from field level to cell level. PROFIBUS

is a
multi-master system and thus allows the joint operation of several automation, engineering or
visualization systems with their distributed peripherals on one bus.
At sensor/actuator level, signals of the binary sensors and actuators are transmitted via a sensor/
actuator bus. Data are transmitted purely cyclically.
At field level, the distributed peripherals, such as I/O modules, measuring transducers, drive
units, valves and operator terminals communicate with the automation systems via an efficient,
real-time communication system. As with data, alarms, parameters and diagnostic data can also
be transmitted cyclically if necessary.
At cell level, programmable controllers such as PLC and IPC can communicate with each other.
The information flow requires large data packets and a large number of powerful communication
functions, such as smooth integration into company-wide communication systems, such as Intranet
and Internet via TCP/IP and Ethernet.
What is Foundation Fieldbus?
Foundation Fieldbus is an all-digital, serial, two-way communications system that serves as a
Local Area Network (LAN) for factory/ plant instrumentation and control devices. The Fieldbus

environment is the base level group of the digital networks in the hierarchy of plant networks.
Foundation Fieldbus is used in both process and manufacturing automation applications and
has a built-in capability to distribute the control application across the network.
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Controllers and Sensors Module 6.7
6.7.10
Block 6 Control Hardware: Electric/ Pneumatic Actuation
Unlike proprietary network protocols, Foundation Fieldbus is neither owned by any individual
company, nor regulated by a single nation or standards body. The Foundation Fieldbus, a not-
for-profit organization consisting of more than 100 of the worlds leading controls and
instrumentation suppliers and end users, controls the technology.
While Foundation Fieldbus retains many of the desirable features of the 4-20 mA analogue
system, such as a standardized physical interface to the wire, bus-powered devices on a single
wire, and intrinsic safety options, it also offers many other benefits.
Device interoperability
Foundation Fieldbus offers interoperability; one Fieldbus

device can be replaced by a similar

device with added functionality from a different supplier on the same Fieldbus

network while
maintaining specified operations. This permits users to mix and match field devices and host
systems from various suppliers. Individual Fieldbus

devices can also transmit and receive

multivariable information, and communicate directly with each other over a common Fieldbus

,
allowing new devices to be added to the Fieldbus

without disrupting services.

Enhanced process data
With Foundation Fieldbus, multiple variables from each device can be brought into the plant
control system to analyse trends, optimise processes, and generate reports. Access to accurate,
high-resolution data enables processes to be fine-tuned for better productivity, less downtime,
and higher plant performance.
Overall view of the process
Modern Fieldbus

devices, with powerful microprocessor-based communications capabilities,

permit process errors to be recognized faster and with greater certainty. As a result, plant operators
are notified of abnormal conditions or the need for preventive maintenance, allowing personnel
to consider pro-active decisions. Lower operating efficiencies are corrected more quickly, enabling
production to rise while raw material costs and regulatory problems fall.
Improved in plant safety
Fieldbus technology helps manufacturing plants keep up with stringent safety requirements. It
can provide operators with earlier warning of potential hazardous conditions, thereby allowing
corrective action to be taken to reduce unplanned shutdowns. Enhanced plant diagnostic
capabilities also offer less frequent access to hazardous areas, thus minimizing the risks to
personnel.
Easier predictive maintenance
Enhanced device diagnostics capabilities make it possible to monitor and track insidious conditions
such as valve wear and transmitter fouling. Plant personnel are able to perform predictive
maintenance without waiting for a scheduled shutdown, thus reducing or even avoiding downtime.
Reduced wiring and maintenance costs
The use of existing wiring and multi-drop connections provides significant savings in network
installation costs. This includes reductions in intrinsic safety barriers and cabling costs, particularly
in areas where wiring is already in situ.
Additional cost savings can be achieved through the decreased time required for construction
and start-up, as well as simplified programming of control and logic functions using software
control blocks built into Fieldbus

devices.
The Steam and Condensate Loop 6.7.11
Controllers and Sensors Module 6.7 Block 6 Control Hardware: Electric /Pneumatic Actuation
Questions
1. If the temperature of a RTD sensor increases by 150C, what happens to its electrical
resistance?
a| The resistance falls
b| The resistance remains the same
c| The resistance rises
2. What main advantage does a thermistor have over a RTD sensor?
a| It is more accurate
b| It has a higher repeatability
c| It is cheaper to buy
d| It is linear over its complete range
3. What main advantage does a thermocouple have over a RTD sensor?
a| It is more accurate
b| It has a higher repeatability
c| It is cheaper to buy
d| It is linear over its complete range
1 : c , 2 : c , 3 : c
Answers
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Controllers and Sensors Module 6.7
6.7.12
Block 6 Control Hardware: Electric/ Pneumatic Actuation